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The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia

A. This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in 
the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.  In 
Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did not 
represent a vowel, but a breathing; the vowels originally were 
not represented by any symbol.  When the alphabet was adopted by 
the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds 
of their language.  The breathings which were not required in 
Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel 
sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by 
an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w. 
The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to 
the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form 
Alpha (alpsa). The earliest authority for this, as for the 
names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama 
(grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of 
Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names 
of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. 

The form of the letter has varied considerably.  In the 
earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions 
(the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest 
Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th 
or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus--@.  In 
the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles 
the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be 
distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle 
at which the cross line is set-- @, &c. From the Greeks of 
the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them 
has passed to the other nations of western Europe.  In the 
earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found 
in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a 
golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET).  
Fine letters are still identical in form with those of the 
western Greeks.  Latin develops early various forms, which 
are comparatively rare in Greek, as @, or unknown, as 
@.  Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy 
did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks 
as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the 
Etruscans.  In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions 
is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form 
@, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece 
(Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically) . 

In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short 
sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte 
a; English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding 
precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be 
ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the 
terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107).  
Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically 
unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the 
Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which 
in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as 
the original e-sound (see ALPHABET: Greek). The vowel 
sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has, 
in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are 
not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and 
also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same 
language.  Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about 
twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in 
English.  In general it may be said that the chief changes 
which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from 
(1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound 
produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther 
forward.  The rounding is often produced by combination with 
rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the 
rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into 
the formation of the vowel sound.  Rounding has also been 
produced by a following l-sound, as in the English fall, 
small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 
2nd ed., sec. sec.  906, 784).  The effect of fronting is seen in 
the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original 
name of the Medes, Madoi, with a in the first syllable 
(which survives in Cyprian Greek as Madoi), is changed 
into Medoi (Medoi), with an open e-sound instead 
of the earlier a.  In the later history of Greek this 
sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with 
i (as in English seed). The first part of the process 
has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah) 
passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation 
the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei 
except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. sec.  783). 

In English a represents unaccented forms of several 
words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and or various 
prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New 
English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol. i. p. 4. (P. GI.) 

As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions 
and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in 
music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this 
use is derived from its being the first of the litterae 
nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority. 

In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal 
affirmative proposition in the general form ``all x is y.'' 
The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular 
affirmative ``some x is y,'' the universal negative ``no x 
is y,'' and the particular negative ``some x is not y.'' 
The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels 
of the two Latin verbs AffIrmo (or AIo), ``I assert,'' and 
nEgO, ``I deny.'' The use of the symbols dates from the 13th 
century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek 
logicians.  A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). 

In Shipping, A1 is a symbol used to dennote quality of 
construction and material.  In the various shipping registers 
ships are classed and given a rating after an official 
examination, and assigned a classification mark, which 
appears in addition to other particulars in those registers 
after the name of the ship.  See SHIPBUILDING. It is 
popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence. 

AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers.  
The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to 
the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger.-ach; Scand. a, aa, 
pronounced o).  The following are the more important 
streams of this name:--Two rivers in the west of Russia, both 
falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated 
between them; a river in the north of France, falling into 
the sea below Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; 
and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and 
Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and 
Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian 
Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at 
Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others. 

AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated 
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted 
his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, 
in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion.  In 
1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of 
Copenhagen.  In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission 
for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation 
law of 1882 is mainly his work.  In 1879 he was elected a member 
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university 
that he won his reputation.  Among his numerous juridical 
works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse 
af Ejendomsret, Bemaerkinger om Rettigheder over Ting 
(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, 
Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 
1876).  Aagesen was Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law 
at the university, and in this department his researches were 
epoch-making.  All his pupils were profoundly impressed by 
his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic 
demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after 
truth.  His noble, imposing, and yet most amiable personality 
won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect. 

See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.  Brog.  Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Szmlade 
Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.) 

AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani 
names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifalia, 
plants extensively cultivated in India on account of the 
reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain.  The name 
is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name 
is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence 
of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is compounded 
from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthraquinone. 

AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop, 
and chief town of the amt (county) of its name, on the south 
bank of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the 
Cattegat.  Pop. (1901) 31,457.  The situation is typical of 
the north of Jutland.  To the west the Linifjord broadens 
into an irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many 
islands.  North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the 
mirage is seen in summer.  South-east lies the similar Lille 
Vildmose.  A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring, 
Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and 
the lines from Germany to the south.  The harbour is good 
and safe, though difficult of access.  Aalborg is a growing 
industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and 
fish.  An old castle and some picturesque houses of the 
17th century remain.  The Budolphi church dates mostly from 
the middle of the 18th century, while the Frue church was 
partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of 
the 14th century or earlier.  There are also an ancient 
hospital and a museum of art and antiquities.  On the north 
side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg 
by a pontoon and also by an iron railway bridge, one of the 
finest engineering works in the kingdom.  Aabborgt received 
town privileges in 1342 and the bishopric dates from 1554. 

AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 
pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian 
Alps, about 50 m.  E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway 
communication with Ulm and Cannstatt.  Pop. 10,000.  Woollen 
and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon 
looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the 
neighbourhood.  There are several schools and churches, and a 
statue of the poet Christian Schubart.  Aalen was a free imperial 
city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg. 

AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 145 
m.  N. by E. from Bergen.  Pop. (1900) 11,672.  It occupies 
two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and 
Norvo, which enclose the picturesque harbour.  Founded 
in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore 
district, and one of the chief stations of the herring 
fishery.  Aalesund is adjacent to the Jorund and Geiranger 
fjords, frequented by tourists.  From Oje at the head of 
Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nordfjord, and 
from Merck on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on 
the railway to Liilehammer and Christiania.  Aalesund is a 
port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle 
and Hamburg, and Trondhjem.  A little to the south of the 
town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the 
founder, in the 9th century, of the dynasty of the dukes of 
Normandy.  On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the 
scene of one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations 
to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been 
subject.  Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding 
the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the 
night at the notice of a few minutes.  Hardly any lives were 
lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that 
assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the 
German government, while the British government also offered it. 

AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born 
at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official.  
Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching 
manhood, he became successively secretary of the Embassy in 
Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid 
Pasha.  In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier, 
but after a short time retired into private life.  During the 
Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio 
of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, 
and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of 
Vienna.  Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office 
he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey 
at the congress of Paris in 1856.  In 1867 he was appointed 
regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris 
Exhibition.  Aali Pasha was one of the most zealous advocates 
of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul 
Mejid and Abdul Aziz.  A scholar and a linguist, he was a 
match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom 
he successfully defended the interests of his country.  He 
died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871. 

AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both 
rises and ends entirely within Switzerland.  Its total 
length (including all bends) from its source to its junction 
with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it 
descends 5135 ft., while its drainage area is 6804 sq. 
m.  It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of 
Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass.  It runs E. to the Grimsel 
Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, forming on the 
way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past 
Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet 
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a 
plain.  A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands 
into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable.  Near 
the west end of that lake it receives its first important 
affluent, the Lutschine (left), and then runs across the 
swampy plain of the Bodoli, between Interlaken (left) and 
Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form 
the Lake of Thun.  Near the west end of that lake it receives 
on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined 
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and 
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is 
built.  It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly 
direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) 
turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the 
Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of 
which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to 
Buren.  Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance, 
past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the 
right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right), 
Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the 
right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the 
right.  A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the 
Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth 
(right).  It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an 
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume 
when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau.  In 1900 
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly 
Protestants.  It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the 
right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range 
of the Jura.  It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 
m.  N.W. of Zurich.  It is a well-built modern town, with 
no remarkable features about it.  In the Industrial Museum 
there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good 
painted glass of the 16th century, taken from the neighbouring 
Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 
1841---the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in 
Tirol).  The cantonal library contains many works relating to 
Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian 
monasteries.  There are many industries in the town, especially 
silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, and factories for the manufacture 
of cutlery and scientific instruments.  The popular novelist 
and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of 
his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his 
memory.  Aarau is an important military centre.  The slopes 
of the Jura are covered with vineyards.  Aarau, an ancient 
fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 1415, and in 1798 became 
for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic.  Eight miles 
by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach, 
just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the 
original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see 
EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them 
is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from 
South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt.  In form 
these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout, 
with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with 
strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and 
the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The 
greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at 
the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils 
open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long 
extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the 
flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large 
individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the 
Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the 
shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of 
nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near 
ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the 
ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile 
tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the 
flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 

AARD-WOLF (earth-wolf), a South and East African carnivorous 
mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a 
small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharpe 
ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the 
neck and back.  It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and 
feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites. 

AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss 
cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.), 
whence its name.  Its total area is 541.9 sq. m., of which 
517.9 sq. m. are classed as ``productive'' (forests covering 
172 sq. m. and vineyards 8.2 sq. m.).  It is one of the least 
mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, 
to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which 
rise low hills.  The surface of the country is beautifully 
diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating 
with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its 
tributaries.  It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of 
Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rheinfelden there are 
very extensive saline springs.  Just below Brugg the Reuss 
and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined 
castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with 
fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman 
settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch].  The total population 
in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but 
numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990 
Jews.  The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while 
other important towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 
inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 
inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 
inhabitants).  Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, 
straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and 
salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries.  
As this region was, up to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg 
power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g. 
Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g. 
Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in 
1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes 
of the civil war called the ``Sonderbund War,'' in 1847 in 
Switzerland.  The cantonal constitution dates mainly from 
1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council 
of five members is made by a direct vote of the people.  The 
legislature consists of members elected in the proportion of 
one to every 1100 inhabitants.  The ``obligatory referendum'' 
exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the 
right of ``initiative'' in proposing bills or alterations 
in the cantonal constitution.  The canton sends 10 members 
to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000, 
while the two Standerate are (since 1904) elected by 
a direct vote of the people.  The canton is divided into 
eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes. 


1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss 
Confederates.  Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, 
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, 
named the Freie Amter or ``free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen, 
Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, 
were ruled as ``subject lands'' by all or certain of the 
Confederates.  In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of 
Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the remainder forming the 
canton of Baden.  In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick 
glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic) 
were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then 
admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. 

See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical 
Society), Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 
2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische 
Strohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt.  
Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d.  Kant.  Argau (fine illustrated 
work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904--1906; W. Merz and 
F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d.  Kant. Argau, 3 vols., 
Aarau, 1898--1905; J. Muller, Der Aargau, 2 vols., Zurich, 
1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthumer, Atarau, 1877; E. 
Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.) 

AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the 
east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; 
the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of 
the amt (county) of Aarhus.  Pop. (1901) 51,814.  The 
district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded.  The town 
is the junction of railways from all parts of the country.  
The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is 
exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports.  
The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively restored) is 
the largest church in Denmark.  There is a museum of art and 
antiquities.  To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a picturesque 
region extends west from the railway junction of Skanderborg, 
including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, 
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 
500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg.  The railway traverses this 
pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern 
town having one of the most attractive situations in the 
kingdom.  The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951. 

AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish 
priesthood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites 
out of Egypt (see EXODUS; MOSES) . The greater part of 
his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives, 
which carry back existing conditions and beliefs to the 
time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary 
hierarchical institutions in the events of that period.  
Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) 
to meet Moses at the ``mount of God'' (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he 
plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's 
court.  After the ``exodus'' from Egypt a striking account 
is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to 
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount 
(Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the 
side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working 
rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16).  
Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when 
Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of 
the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the 
prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at 
the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see 
CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy 
which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration 
of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut. 
ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the 
preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series 
of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. 
seq.).  Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been 
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 
seq. compared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some 
obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were 
prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.).  In 
what way they had not ``sanctified'' (an allusion in the 
Hebrew to Kadesh ``holy'') Yahweh is quite uncertain, and 
it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the 
sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3; 
cp.  Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have 
died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor; the latter is 
an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23, 
xxxiii. 37; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently 
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the 
traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). 

Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to 
have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a 
place for Aaron in certain incidents.  In the account of the 
contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), 
Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful 
whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving 
narratives.  It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice 
mentioned in Deuteronomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The 
post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of 
Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position 
by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of 
the other tribes (Num. xvii.; for parallels see Gray comm. 
ad loc., p. 217).  The latter story illustrates the growth 
of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of 
priestly ritual: the old account of Korah's revolt against the 
authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a) 
the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (b) 
the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites 
against the rest of the Levites, a development which can 
scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). 

Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality 
known after the grandson as the ``hill of Phinehas'' (Josh. 
xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of 
either.  The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) 
is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the 
priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of 
Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have 
belonged.  The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical 
names and those of clans related to Moses is very noteworthy, 
and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's 
sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 
17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In 
view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of 
interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the 
historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy.  He may 
well have been the traditional head of the priesthood, and 
R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was 
the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol.  Stud., 
1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder 
of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which 
still remains quite obscure: and unless Aaron (Aharon) is 
based upon Aron, ``ark'' (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. 
N. Land), names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, 
apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. 

For the literature and a general account of the Jewish 
priesthood, see the articles LEVTTES and PRIEST. . (S. A. C.) 

AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering 
plants (``hag taper,', ``golden rod,'' &c.).  In architecture 
the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves, 
or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the 
Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8). 

AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a 
celebrated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces.  
His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan 
van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, 
as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of 
France.  He took a considerable part in the negotiations of 
the twelve years' truce in 1606.  His conduct of affairs having 
displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by 
Oldenbarneveldt in 1616.  Such was the hatred he henceforth 
conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his 
very utmost to effect his ruin.  He was one of the packed 
court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to 
death.  For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain 
rests on the memory of Aarssens.  He afterwards became the 
confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and 
afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their 
conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic.  He was sent 
on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and 
displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu 
ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. 

AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and 
lexicographer, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, 
Norway, on the. 5th of August 1813.  His father, a small 
peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826.  He was 
brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all 
his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an 
elementary school in his native parish.  In 1833 he entered 
the household of H. C. Thoresen the husband of the eminent 
writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up 
the elements of Latin.  Gradually, and by dint of infinite 
patience and concentration, the young peasant became master 
of many languages, and began the scientific study of their 
structure.  About 1841 he had freed himself from all the 
burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with 
the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his 
first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in 
the Sondmore language (1843) . His remarkable abilities now 
attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his 
studies undisturbed.  His Grammar ofthe Norwegian Dialects 
(1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken 
to every part of the country.  Aasen's famous Dictionary 
of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in 
1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation 
of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did 
no less than construct, out of the different materials at his 
disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for 
Norway.  With certain modifications, the most important of which 
were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language 
is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in 
dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured 
to foist upon Norway as her official language in the place of 
Dano-Norwegian.  Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite 
dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, 
The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered 
as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the 
last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg.  Aasen continued 
to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary.  He 
lived very quietly in lodgings in Christiania, surrounded by 
his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into 
wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the 
peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular 
party.  Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to 
receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention 
to his philological investigations; and the Storthing--. 
conscious of the national importance of his woth---treated hm 
in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in 
years.  He continued his investigations to the last, but it 
may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, 
he added but little to his stores.  Ivar Aasen holds perhaps 
an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has 
invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language 
which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that 
they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons 
and their songs.  He died in Christiania on the 23rd of 
September 1896, and was buried with Public honours. (E. G.) 

AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the 
eleventh of the civil year of the Jews.  It approximately 
Corresponds to the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of 
August.  The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the 
Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile.  
Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab. 
On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to 
bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar 
(586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70). 

ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and Cabled 
after, Antoine d'Abbadie; (2) a rough homespun manufactured in 
Bulgariai (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs. 

ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of 
classical writers), a nomad tribe of African ``Arabs,, of Hamitic 
origin.  They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, 
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying 
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile.  They call 
themselves ``sons of the Jinns.'' With some of the clans of 
the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they 
represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location 
to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman 
times.  They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at 
last subsidized them.  In the middle ages they were known as 
Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to 
Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda.  From time immemorial 
they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian 
desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar.  To-day many of 
them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian 
desert.  They intermarried with the Nuba, and settled in small 
Colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian 
invasion (A.D. 1820-1822).  They are still great trade 
carriers, and visit very distant districts.  The Ababda of 
Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary 
``chief.'' Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no 
tribute.  Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a portion of the 
road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin 
robbers.  The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him.  
The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who 
visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since 
diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin, 
their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful 
nation.  The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with 
Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued 
contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion 
of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, 
ToBedawiet.  Those of Kosseir will not speak this before 
strangers, as they believe that to reveal the mysterious 
dialect would bring ruin on them.  Those nearest the Nile 
have much fellah blood in them.  As a tribe they claim an Arab 
origin, apparently through their sheikhs.  They have adopted 
the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen 
the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked.  They 
are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these 
latter.  They are lithe and well built, but small: the average 
height is little more than 5 ft., except in the sheikh clan, 
who are obviously of Arab origin.  Their complexion is more 
red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair 
luxuriant.  They bear the character of being treacherous and 
faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest 
in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never 
beg.  Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after 
the British occupation of Egypt.  The chief settlements are in 
Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in 
agriculture.  Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then 
hawk the salt fish in the interior.  Others are pedlars, 
while charcoal burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums 
and drugs, especially in senna leaves, occupy many.  Unlike 
the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build 
huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as 
did their ancestors in classic times.  They have few horses, 
using the camel as beast of burden or their ``mount'' in 
war.  They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter 
eaten either raw or roasted.  They are very superstitious, 
believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family 
if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes 
on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his 
home far from his wife's village.  In the Mahdist troubles 
(1882-1898) many ``friendlies'' were recruited from the tribe. 

For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, 
HADENDOA, KABBABish; and the following authorities:---Sir 
F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 
1891); Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe 
Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian 
Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by 
Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Russegger, Die 
Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.) 

ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis, 
which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.). . 

ABACUS (Gr. abax, a slab Fr. abaque, tailloir), in 
architecture, the upper member of the capital of a column.  
Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface 
for the architrave or arch it has to carry.  In the Greek Doric 
order the abacus is a plain square slab.  In the Roman and 
Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding.  In the 
Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the 
capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a 
carved ovolo moulding.  In later examples the abacus is square, 
except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly 
curved over the same.  In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic 
capital, the abacus is square with a fillet On the top of an 
ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.  In the Greek 
Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave 
and its angles canted (except in one or two exceptional Greek 
capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and the same 
shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corinthian and 
Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding 
carved.  In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with 
the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the 
same was retained in France during the medieval period; but 
in England,in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded 
abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries 
was transformed into an octagonal one.  The diminutive of 
Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers 
or squares of a tessellated pavement . ``Abacus'' is also the 
name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical 
calculations; pebbles, hits of bone or coins being used as 
counters.  Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken from an ancient 
monument.  It contains seven long and seven shorter rods 
or bars, the former having four perforated beads running 
on them and the latter one.  The bar marked 1 indicates 
units, X tens, and so on up to millions.  The beads on the 
shorter bars denote fives,--five units, five tens, &c. The 
rod O and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces; 
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. 

The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles 
the Roman abacus in its construction and use.  Computations 
are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running 
on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board, 
fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in 
teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools. 

FIG. 2.--Chinese Swan-Pan.  The name of ``abacus'' is also 
given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the ``logical 
machine,'' analogous to the mathematical abacus.  It is 
constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of 
logical terms with their negatives, and, further, the way in which 
these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes 
or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the 
solution of logical problems.  These instruments are all more 
or less elaborate developments of the ``logical slate,'' on 
which were written in vertical columns all the combinations 
of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a 
definite number of terms.  These were compared with any given 
premises, and those which were incompatible were crossed 
off.  In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a 
single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a 
key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed 
at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.  
The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S. 
Jevons (Element.  Lessons in Logic, C. xxiii.), John Venn 
(see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan 
Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp. 
303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883). 

ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning ``destruction.'' In poetry 
it comes to mean ``place of destruction,'' and so the 
underworld or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11). In Rev. 
ix. 11 Abaddon ((Abaddon) is used of hell personified, 
the prince of the underworld.  The term is here explained 
as Apollyon (q.v.), the ``destroyer.', W. Baudissin 
(Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo padie) notes that Hades and 
Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names, 
just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shamayim (``heaven''), 
and makom (``place'') among the Rabbins, are used of God. 

ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of 
Fars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile 
plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. 
from the former and 170 m. from the latter place.  Pop. 
4000.  It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district, 
which has 30 villages; it has telegraph and post offices, 
and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays, 
sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear and box trees. 

ABAE (rabai), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in 
Greece, famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, 
one of those consulted by Croesus (Herod. i. 46). It was 
rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the 
Persians, and the temple remained in a ruined state.  The 
oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans 
before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have 
been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was in a very 
dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), though 
some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, 
was undertaken by Hadrian.  The sanctity of the shrine 
ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.  
Corresp.  Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the 
Romans.  The polygonal wabs of the acropolis may still be 
seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill 
standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho; 
one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls 
below.  The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the 
town.  An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are 
a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the 
British School at Athens in 1894, but very little was found. 

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal 
of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.) 

ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in the Russian 
government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m.  S.S.W. 
of Krasnoyarsk, in lat. 54 deg. 20' N., long. 91 deg. 40' E. This is 
considered the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and 
is remarkable for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues 
of men from seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics.  
Peter the Great had a fort built here in 1707.  Pop. 2000. 

ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various 
species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a 
richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl.  This sort 
of Haliotis is also commonly called ``ear-shell,'' and in 
Guernsey ``ormer'' (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). 
The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and 
other places on the southern Californian coast, and when 
polished makes a beautiful ornament.  The mollusc itself is 
often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan. 

ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR, 
the ``rivers of Damascus'' (2 Kings v. 12), now generally 
identified with the Barada (i.e. ``cold'') and the A`waj 
(i.e. ``crooked'') respectively, though if the reference 
to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the Arabic 
version of the Old Testament, Pharpar would be the modern 
Taura.  Both streams run from west to east across the plain of 
Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose 
themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the 
borders of the great Arabian desert.  John M'Gregor, who gives 
an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the 
Jordan, affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering, 
the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana 
and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as 
one of the most complete and extensive in the world.  As the 
Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge, 
its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ``rivers'', the 
name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana. 

ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE VILLE D', 
(1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.  He was 
Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and organized 
the defence of the Tuileries for the 10th of August.  Commanded 
by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss guards, he 
refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent 
to Orleans to be tried.  At the end of August the Assembly 
ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to 
be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude 
Fournier, ``the American.'' At Versailles they learned of the 
massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners 
were murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792.  
Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime. 

ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to 
abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent 
to mettrea bandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of 
another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, 
decree, ``ban''), in law, the relinquishment of an interest, 
claim, privilege or possession.  Its signification varies 
according to the branch of the law in which it is employed, 
but the more important uses of the word are summarized below. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of proceedings 
commenced in the High Court of Justice either because the 
plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action 
or for other reasons.  Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, 
considerable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor 
might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring 
another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT); but since 1875 
this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who 
has deilvered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes 
to abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only 
on condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter. 

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the ship 
or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive 
total loss of the thing insured.  For the requisites and 
effects of abandonment in this sense See INSURANCE, MARINE. 

ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under 
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a 
young child under the age of two, which is an indictable 
misdemeanour, is dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO. 

ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE is the ceasing to reside permanently 
in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new 
domicile.  The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding 
whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be 
inferred from the facts of each individual case.  See DOMICILE. 

ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some 
accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of 
way, free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT. 

ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in England 
recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of 
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a 
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. 

ABANO, PIETRO D, (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE 
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher, 
was born at the Italian town from which he takes his name 
in 1250, or, according to others, in 1246.  After studying 
medicine and philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where 
he speedily gained a great reputation as a physician, and 
availed himself of it to gratify his avarice by refusing 
to visit patients except for an exorbitant fee.  Perhaps 
this, as well as his meddling with astrology, caused him to 
be charged with practising magic, the particular accusations 
being that he brought back into his purse, by the aid of the 
devil, all the money he paid away, and that he possessed the 
philosopher's stone.  He was twice brought to trial by the 
Inquisition; on the first occasion he was acquitted, and he 
died (1316) before the second trial was completed.  He was 
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed 
and burned; but a friend had secretly removed it, and the 
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public 
proclamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in 
effigy.  In his writings he expounds and advocates the medical 
and philosophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian 
writers.  His best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum 
quae inter philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472; 
V.enice, 1476), and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), 
of which a French translation was published at Lyons in 1593. 

ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of 
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei; it is 6 m.  S.W. 
by rail from Padua.  Pop. (1901) 4556.  Its hot springs and 
mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Ronlans 
as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the 
ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato 
dei Bagni d' Abano, Padua, 1789).  An oracle of Geryon lay 
near, and the so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L. i., 
Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and 
used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century. 

ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet 
of Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 
B.C., or two or three centuries later.  According to 
the legend, he travelled throughout the country, living 
without food and riding on a golden arrow, the gift of 
the god; he healed the sick, foretold the future, worked 
miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague (Herod. iv. 36; 
Iamblichus, De Fit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas credits him 
with several works: Scythian oracles, the visit of Apollo to 
the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose theogony. 

ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and 
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the 
surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round 
the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief. 

ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the 
Late Latin battere, to beat), a beating down or diminishing or 
doing away with; a term used especially in various legal phrases. 

ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to 
a person or public authority injured by a public nuisance 
of destroying or removing it, provided no breach of the 
peace is committed in doing so.  In the case of private 
nuisances abatement is also allowed provided there be no 
breach of the peace, and no damage be occasioned beyond 
what the removal of the nuisance requires. (See NUISANCE.) 

ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death of 
the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before 
the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of 
possession.  It differs from intrusion, which is a similar 
entry by a stranger on the death of a tenant for life, to 
the prejudice of the reversioner, or remainder man; and from 
disseisin, which is the forcible or fraudulent expulsion 
of a person seised of the freehold. (See FREEHOLD.) 

ABATEMENT OE DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable assets 
(see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to 
satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate 
proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.  Also, in 
the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which 
they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the 
legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given 
specially to any particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities 
are also subject to the same rule as general legacies. 


ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the 
defeating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of 
fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency 
of the parties suing, pleaded by the defendant.  It did not 
involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action 
subsisting.  In criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at 
one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was 
set up for the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, 
by alleging misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant.  
Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law 
Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the 
truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered 
description of the defendant unnecessary.  All pleas in abatement 
are now abolished (R.S.G.  Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING. 

ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action 
abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any 
of the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, 
and does not become defective by the assignment, creation or 
devolution of any estate or title pendente lite (R.S.C. Order 
17, r. 1). Criminal proceedings do not abate on the death of 
the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown, but 
the crown itself may bring about their termination without any 
decision on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. 

ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act 
1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has 
power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light 
which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. 

ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a 
custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on 
account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses.  The rate and 
conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the 
Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK; REBATE.) 

ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some 
kind of degradation or dishonour.  It is called also rebatement. 

ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512--1571), a celebrated 
fresco-painter of Modena, whose best works are there and at 
Bologna.  He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted 
in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552--1571).  His 
pictures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace 
and natural colouring.  Some of his easel pieces in oil are 
in different collections; one of the finest, in the Dresden 
Gallery, represents the martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul. 

ABATIS,ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning 
a heap of material thrown), a term in field fortification 
for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid 
in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and 
interlaced or tied with wire.  The abatis is used alone or 
in combination with wire-entanglements and other obstacles. 

ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often 
employed in English as an equivalent of ``slaughter-house'' 
(q.v.), the place where animals intended for food are killed. 

ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1679-1767), a learned Frenchman, was born of 
Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc.  His father died when 
he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the 
edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him 
educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother contrived his 
escape.  For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in 
the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last reached Geneva, 
where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from 
the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their 
flight.  Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in 
languages, physics and theology.  In 1698 he went to Holland, 
and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. Jurieu and J. 
Basnage.  Proceeding to England, he was introduced to Sir Isaac 
Newton, who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his 
discoveries.  Sir Isaac corrected in the second edition of 
his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when 
sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, ``You are 
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me.'' The reputation 
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in 
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring 
to return to Geneva.  There from 1715 he rendered valuable 
assistance to a society that had been formed for translating 
the New Testament into French.  He declined the offer of 
the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but 
accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the 
city of his adoption.  Here he died at a good old age, in 
1767.  Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful 
versatility.  Whatever chanced to be discussed,it used to be 
said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell of more modern 
times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular 
study.  Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his praises, 
addressed to him, in his Nouvelle Heloise, a fine panegyric; 
and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had come 
to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen 
Abauzit.  Little remains of the labours of this intellectual 
giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers 
that came into their possession, because their own religious 
opinions were different.  A few theological, archaeological 
abd astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the 
Journal Helvetique and elsewhere, and he contributed 
several papers to Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique 
(1767).  He wrote a work throwing doubt on the canonical 
authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a reply 
from Dr Leonard Twells.  He also edited and made valuable 
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la republique de Geneve. 
A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 
1770 (OEuvres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London 
in 1773 (OEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them 
were translated into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774). 

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. 
Senebier's HIstoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's 
Miscellanies, and W. Orme's Bibliotheca Biblica (1824). 

'ABAYE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (q.v.), 
born in the middle of the 3rd century.  He died in 339. 

'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of thc Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of 
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study 
of the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led 
to the compilation of the Talmud.  He is commonly known as Rab. 

ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on the 
downfall of the western caliphate.  It lasted from about 1023 
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was 
singularly active and typical of its time.  The founder of 
the house was Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 
1023.  He was the chief of an Arab family settled in the city 
from the first days of the conquest.  The Beni-abbad were not 
of ancient descent, though the poets, whom they paid largely, 
made an illustrious pedigree for them when they had become 
powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  Abd-ul-Qasim gained 
the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful 
resistance to the Berber soldiers of fortune who were grasping 
at the fragments of the caliphate.  At first he professed to 
rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles, 
but when his power became established he dispensed with this 
show of republican government, and then gave himself the 
appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor 
who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When Abd-ul-Qasim 
died in 1042 he had created a state which, though weak in 
itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about 
it.  He had made his family the recognized leaders of the 
Mahommedans of Arab and native Spanish descent against 
the Berber element, whose chief was the king of Granada.  
Abbad, surnamed El Motaddid, his son and successor, is 
one of the most remarkable figures in Spanish Mahommedan 
history.  He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes 
of the later middle ages and the early renaissance, of the 
stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  El Motaddid was a poet and 
a lover of letters, who was also a poisoner, a drinker of 
wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the utmost degree.  Though 
he waged war all through his reign he very rarely appeared in 
the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted, 
from his ``lair'' in the fortified palace, the Alcazar of 
Seville.  He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had 
rebelled against him.  On one occasion he trapped a number 
of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into visiting 
him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room 
of a bath.  It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the 
enemies he had killed--those of the meaner men to be used as 
flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special 
chests.  His reign until his death on the 28th of February 
1069 was mainly spent in extending his power at the expense 
of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief 
rival the king of Granada.  These incessant wars weakened the 
Mahommedans, to the great advantage of the rising power of 
the Christian kings of Leon and Castile, but they gave the 
kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little 
states.  After 1063 he was assailed by Fernando El Magno of 
Castile and Leon, who marched to the gates of Seville, and 
forced him to pay tribute.  His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim 
Abenebet---who reigned by the title of El Motamid--was the 
third and last of the Abbadides, He was a no less remarkable 
person than his father and much more amiable.  Like him he was 
a poet, and a favourer of poets.  El Motamid went, however, 
considerably further in patronage of literature than his father, 
for he chose as his favourite and prime minister the poet Ibn 
Ammar.  In the end the vanity and featherheadedness of Ibn 
Ammar drove his master to kill him.  El Motamid was even 
more influenced by his favourite wife, Romaica, than by his 
vizir.  He had met her paddling in the Guadalquivir, purchased 
her from her master, and made her his wife.  The caprices 
of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Motamid in his 
efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.  
In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the 
Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be 
as faithless as his father.  His wars and his extravagance 
exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by 
taxes.  In 1080 he brought down upon himself the vengeance of 
Alphonso VI. of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental 
barbarity.  He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the 
Christian king with false money.  The fraud was detected by a 
Jew, who was one of the envoys of Alphonso.  El Motamid, in 
a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned 
the Christian members of the mission.  Alphonso retaliated 
by a destructive raid.  When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, 
El Motamid called in Yusef ibn Tashfin, the Almoravide (see 
SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). During the six years 
which preceded his deposition in 1091, El Motamid behaved 
with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political 
folly.  He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusef by betraying 
the other Mahommedan princes to him, and intrigued to secure 
the alliance of Alphonso against the Almoravide.  It was 
probably during this period that he surrendered his beautiful 
daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his 
concubine, and is said by some authorities to have married 
her after she bore him a son, Sancho.  The vacillations and 
submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate 
which overtook his fellow-princes.  Their scepticism and 
extortion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef 
a ``fetva'' authorzing him to remove them in the interest of 
religion.  In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville.  El 
Motamid, who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his 
sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order 
to save his own life.  He died in prison in Africa in 1095. 

AUTHORITIES.--Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, 
Leiden, 1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum 
Arabum loci de Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. II.) 

ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON D', (1810-1897), and ARNAUD MICHEL 
D', (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their travels in 
Abyssinia during the first half of the 19th century.  They 
were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish 
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815.  The parents 
removed to France in 1818, and there the brothers received 
a careful scientific education.  In 1835 the French Academy 
sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results 
being published at a later date (1873) under the title of 
Observations relatives a! la physique du globe faites au 
Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger Abbadie spent some 
time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two brothers started for 
Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February 1838.  They visited 
various parts of Abyssinia, including the then little-known 
districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together and 
sometimes separately.  They met with many difficulties and 
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, 
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed 
in favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries.  After 
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, 
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the 
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their 
materials for publication.  The younger brother, Arnaud, paid 
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853.  The more distinguished 
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies 
relating both to his geographical results and his political 
intrigues.  He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who 
impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to 
Kana.  But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers 
have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, 
though wrong in his contention--hotly contested by Beke--that 
the Blue Nile was the main stream.  The topographical results 
of his explorations were published in Paris in 1860-1873 in 
Geodesie d'Ethiopie, full of the most valuable information and 
illustrated by ten maps.  Of the Geographie de l'Ethiopie 
(Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published.  In Un 
Catalogue raisonne de manuscrits ethiopiens (Paris, 1859) 
is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by 
Antoine.  He also compiled various vocabularies, including 
a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and 
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hermas, with the 
Latin version, in 1860.  He published numerous papers dealing 
with the geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient 
inscriptions.  Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques 
he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations 
made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red 
Sea and the Levant.  The general account of the travels of 
the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the 
title of Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie. Both brothers 
received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 
1850.  Antoine was a knight of the Legion of Honour and a 
member of the Academy of Sciences.  He died in 1897, and 
bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding 40,000 francs 
a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its 
producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million 
stars.  His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.) 

ABBADIE, JAKOB (1654?-1727), Swiss Protestant divine, 
was born at Nay in Bern.  He studied at Sedan, Saumur and 
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of 
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen.  After spending 
some years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, 
where he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied 
Marshal Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became 
minister of the French church in the Savoy, London.  His 
strong attachment to the cause of King William appears in 
his elaborate defence of the Revolution (Defense de la 
nation britannique, 1692) as well as in his history of the 
conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la grande conspiration 
d'Angleterre). The king promoted him to the deanery of Killaloe 
in Ireland.  He died in London in 1727.  Abbadie was a man 
of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but is best known 
by his religious treatises, several of which were translated 
from the original French into other languages and had a wide 
circulation throughout Europe.  The most important of these are 
Traite de la verite de la religion chretienne (1684); its 
continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ 
(1689); and L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692). 

'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.) 
who flourished c. 279-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the 
study of Greek by Jews.  He was famous as a collector of 
traditional lore, and is very often cited in the Talmud. 

ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses benJoseph), French 
rabbi, was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of 
the 13th century.  He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace 
(Heb.  Yerah, i.e. moon, lune), and he further took the 
name Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel.  The descendant 
of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself 
to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself 
acquainted with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides 
as well as with the Talmud.  In Montpellier, where he lived 
from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence 
of Aristotelian rationalism, which, through the medium of 
the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old 
Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and 
revelation.  He, therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards 
collected under the title Minhat Kenaot, i.e. ``Jealousy 
Offering'') called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Adret 
of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy.  Ben Adret, 
with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a 
letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the 
study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years 
of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal 
section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret in 
1305.  The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain 
and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study 
of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish 
rabbis.  On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip 
IV. in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he 
published the letters connected with the controversy.  His 
subsequent history is unknown.  Beside the letters, he was 
the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law. 

AUTHORITIES.--Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. 
Bislichis (Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins francais, 
pp. 647 foll.; Perles, Salomo ben Abrahann ben Adereth, 
pp. 15-54; Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v. ``Abba Mari.'' 

ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun 
Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning 
dynasty.  As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim Pasha 
(q.v.), his real or supposed uncle.  The death of Ibrahim 
in November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August 
following, on the death of Mehemet Alh--who had been deposed 
in July 1848 on account of mental weakness,--Abbas succeeded 
to the pashalik.  He has been generally described as a mere 
voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish 
gentleman of the old school.  He was without question a 
reactionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his 
time shut up in his palace.  He undid, as far as lay in his 
power, the works of his grandfather, good and bad.  Among 
other things he abolished trade monopolies, closed factories 
and schools, and reduced the strength of the army to 9000 
men.  He was inaccessible to adventurers bent on plundering 
Egypt, but at the instance of the British government 
allowed the construction of a railway from Alexandria to 
Cairo.  In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha Palace by two 
of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said Pasha. 

ABBAS II. (1874-- ), khedive of Egypt.  Abbas Hilmi Pasha, 
great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the 14th of 
July 1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive 
of Egypt on the 8th of January 1892.  When a boy he visited 
England, and he had an English tutor for some time in 
Cairo.  He then went to school in Lausanne, and from there 
passed on to the Theresianum in Vienna.  In addition to 
Turkish, his mother tongue, he acquired fluency in Arabic, 
and a good conversational knowledge of English, French and 
German.  He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden 
death of his father raised him to the Khedivate; and he was 
barely of age according to Turkish law, which fixes majority 
at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne.  For 
some time he did not co-operate very cordially with Great 
Britain.  He was young and eager to exercise his new 
power.  His throne and life had not been saved for him by the 
British, as was the case with his father.  He was surrounded 
by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for 
some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary 
as his great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt 
to understand the importance of British counsels.  He paid 
a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly 
acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt, 
and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to 
co-operate with the British officials administering Egyptian 
affairs.  The establishment of a sound system of native 
justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest 
of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous irrigation 
works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound education, 
each received his approval and all the assistance he could 
give.  He displayed more interest in agriculture than in 
statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, 
near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural 
show in England; at Montaza, near Alexandria, he created 
a similar establishment.  He married the Princess Ikbal 
Hanem and had several children.  Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, 
the heir-apparent, was born on the 20th of February 1899. 

ABBAS I. (e. 1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called 
the Great, was the son of shah Mahommed (d. 1586) . In the 
midst of general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of 
Khorasan, and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 
1586.  Determined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, 
he first directed his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs, 
who occupied and harassed Khorasan.  After a long and severe 
struggle, he regained Meshed, defeated them in a great battle 
near Herat in 1597, and drove them out of his dominions.  In 
the wars he carried on with the Turks during nearly the whole 
of his reign, his successes were numerous, and he acquired, 
or regained, a large extent of territory.  By the victory he 
gained at Bassora in 1605 he extended his empire beyond the 
Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was forced to cede Shirvan and 
Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies of the Turks and Tatars 
were completely defeated near Sultanieh in 1618, and Abbas 
made peace on very favourable terms; and on the Turks renewing 
the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a year's siege in 
1623.  In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from the Portuguese, 
by the assistance of the British, and much of its trade was 
diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was named after the 
shah.  When he died, his dominions reached from the Tigris 
to the Indus.  Abbas distinguished himself, not only by his 
successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his court and 
of the buildings which he erected, but also by his reforms in 
the administration of his kingdom.  He encouraged commerce, 
and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did much 
to facilitate it.  To foreigners, especially Christians, he 
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony 
and Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his 
confidence.  His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds 
of tyranny and cruelty.  His own family, especially, suffered 
from his fits of jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and 
the eyes of his other children were put out, by his orders. 

See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir 
Robert Sherley, &c. (London, 1823); Sir C. R. Markham, 
General Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874). 

ABBASIDS, the name generally given to the caliphs of Bagdad, 
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan 
empire.  The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim 
to the throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652), 
the eldest uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they 
regarded themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as 
opposed to the Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya.  Throughout 
the second period of the Omayyads, representatives of this 
family were among their most dangerous opponents, partly by 
the skill with which they undermined the reputation of the 
reigning princes by accusations against their orthodoxy, 
their moral character and their administration in general, 
and partly by their cunning manipulation of internecine 
jealousies among the Arabic and non-Arabic subjects of the 
empire.  In the reign of Merwan II. this opposition culminated 
in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent 
from Abbas, who, supported hy the province of Khorasan, achieved 
considerable successes, but was captured (A.D. 747) and died 
in prison (as some hold, assassinated).  The quarrel was taken 
up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu'l-Abbas 
as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on the Greater Zab 
(750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was proclaimed caliph. 

The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual 
strife and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, 
in place of the old-fashioned austerity of thought and 
manners.  Mansur, the second of the house, who transferred 
the seat of government to Bagdad, fought successfully against 
the peoples of Asia Minor, and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid 
(786--809) and Mamun (813-833) were periods of extraordinary 
splendour.  But the empire as a whole stagnated and then decayed 
rapidly.  Independent monarchs established themselves in 
Africa and Khorasan (Spain had remained Omayyad throughout), 
and in the north-west the Greeks successfully encroached.  
The ruin of the dynasty came, however, from those Turkish 
slaves who were constituted as a royal bodyguard by Moqtasim 
(833-842).  Their power steadily grew until Radi (934-941) was 
constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed 
b.  Raik.  Province after province renounced the authority 
of the caliphs, who were merely lay figures, and finally 
Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad (Feb. 28th, 1258).  
The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority, 
confined to religious matters, in Egypt under the Mamelukes, 
but the dynasty finally disappeared with Motawakkil III., who 
was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople by Selim I. 

See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a 
detailed account of the dynasty will be found. 

ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a 
younger son of the shah, Feth Ali, but on account of his 
mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed 
him.  Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he 
sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers 
to reorganize his army.  He was soon at war with Russia, and 
his aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon, 
anxious to checkmate one another in the East.  Preferring 
the friendship of France, Abbas continued the war against 
Russia, but his new ally could give him very little assistance, 
and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous 
peace.  He gained some successes during a war between Turkey 
and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked his 
army, and a treaty was signed in 1823.  His second war with 
Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of 
success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some 
territory.  When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought 
to restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was 
nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the 
task died at Meshed in 1833.  In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed 
Mirza, succeeded Feth Ali as shah.  Abbas was an intelligent 
prince, possessed some literary taste, and it noteworthy 
on account of the comparative simplicity of his life. 

ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government of 
Tiflis, 50 m.  S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 
m.  E. of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped 
valley.  It has hot sulphur baths (93 1/2 deg. -118 1/2 deg.  
Fahr.) and an astronomical observatory (4240 ft.). 

ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in 
Istria, 56 m.  S.E. of Trieste by rail.  Pop. (1900) 2343.  It 
is situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at 
the foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded 
by beautiiul woods of laurel.  The average temperature is 50 deg.  
Fahr. in winter, and 77 deg.  Fahr. in summer.  The old abbey, 
San Giacomo della Priluca, from which the place derives its 
name, has been converted into a villa.  Abbazia is frequented 
annually by about 16,000 visitors.  The whole sea-coast to 
the north and south of Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, 
and contains several smaller winter-resorts.  The largest 
of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situated 5 m. to the south. 

ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot), 
the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.  The 
mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess 
correspond generally with those of an abbot (q.v.). The 
office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the 
sisters from their own body.  The abbess is solemnly admitted 
to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the 
conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, 
though liable to be deprived for misconduct.  The council of 
Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of 
profession.  Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience 
of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending 
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the 
bishop.  As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the 
spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.  
She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate.  In 
England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that 
of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. 

By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and 
nuns.  This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France 
and Spain, and even to Rome itself.  At a later period, A.D. 
1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government 
of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (Aebtissin) 
has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the 
heads of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as 
Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home 
and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, 
called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. 
This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and 
is sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. 

ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 
m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 
18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is 
built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the 
river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The 
streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old 
structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark 
archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St 
Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The 
original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays 
and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent 
specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic 
towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an 
hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among 
the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois 
Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.  
There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal 
college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition 
to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, 
sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on; 
there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. 

Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time 
belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards 
governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county, 
it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French 
families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo, 
from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of 
England.  French and English were its masters by turns till 
1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of 
Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France, 
and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in 
the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 

ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was born at 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 1st of April 1852.  He left 
the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the 
age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing 
house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company 
with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph 
Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an 
illustrator.  In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England 
to gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert 
Herrick.  These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, 
and were followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She 
Stoops to Conquer (1887), for a volume of Old Songs 
(1889), and for the comedies (and a few of the tragedies) of 
Shakespeare.  His water-colours and pastels were no less 
successful than the earlier illustrations in pen and ink.  
Abbey now became closely identified with the art life of 
England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of Painters 
in Water-Colours in 1883.  Among his water-colours are ``The 
Evil Eye'' (1877); ``The Rose in October'' (1879); ``An Old 
Song'' (1886); ``The Visitors'' (1890), and ``The Jongleur'' 
(1892).  Possibly his best known pastels are ``Beatrice,'' 
``Phyllis,'' and ``Two Noble Kinsmen.'' In 1890 he made his 
first appearance with an oil painting, ``A May Day Morn,'' at 
the Royal Academy in London.  He exhibited ``Richard duke of 
Gloucester and the Lady Anne'' at the Royal Academy in 1896, 
and in that year was elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in 
1898.  Apart from his other paintings, special mention must 
be made of the large frescoes entitled ``The Quest of the Holy 
Grail,'' in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied 
for some years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward 
VII. to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many 
portraits elaborately grouped.  The dramatic subjects, and the 
brilliant colouring of his on pictures, gave them pronounced 
individuality among the works of contemporary painters.  
Abbey became a member not only of the Royal Academy, but also 
of the National Academy of Design of New York, and honorary 
member of the Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale 
des Beaux Arts (Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, 
etc.  He received first class gold medals at the International 
Art Exhibition of Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898, 
at the Paris Exhibitions of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 
1903; and was made a chevalier of the French Legion of Honour. 

ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a 
monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government 
of an ABBOT or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from 
an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead 
of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual 
cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the 
archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot's place, the superior 
of the monastery being termed prior.  Other priories were 
originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots 
of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the 
actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. 

The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTICISM) 
with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or 
huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode 
of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular 
asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement.  
The formation of such communities in the East does not date 
from the introduction of Christianity.  The example had been 
already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt. 

In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics 
were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, 
at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves 
by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the 
surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the 
poor.  Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, 
drove them farther and farther away from the abodes of men 
into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts.  The deserts 
of Egypt swarmed with the ``cells'' or huts of these 
anchorites.  Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid 
during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the most 
celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and 
his power as an exorcist.  His fame collected round him a 
host of followers, emulous of his sanctity.  The deeper he 
withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples 
became.  They refused to be separated from him, and built 
their ceils round that of their spiritual father.  Thus arose 
the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living 
each in his own little dwelling, united together under one 
superior.  Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, 
vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), ``without any conscious 
design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode 
of living in common, Coenobitism.'' By degrees order was 
introduced in the groups of huts.  They were arranged in 
lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a 
street.  From this arrangement these lines of single cells 
came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes." 

The real founder of coenobian koinos, common, and bios, 
life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian 
of the beginning of the 4th century.  The first community 
established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper 
Egypt.  Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000 
monks.  Within fifty years from his death his societies could 
reckon 50,000 members.  These coenobia resembled vilIages, 
peopled by a hard-working religious community, ail of one 
sex.  The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest 
character.  Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii. 
14), contained three monks.  They took their chief meal in a 
common refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually 
fasted.  They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their 
faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table 
before them.  The monks spent all the time, not devoted to 
religious services or study, in manual labour.  Palladius, 
who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 
4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of 
Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 
carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners.  Each separate 
community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject 
to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment.  
All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and 
by him shipped to Alexandria.  The money raised by the sale 
was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the 
communities, and what was over was devoted to charity.  Twice 
in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at 
the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite 
(``the chief of the fold,'' from miandra, a fold), and at 
the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the 
year.  The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian 
institution.  We learn many details concerning those in the 
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings.  The monks 
lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet 
on the mountain side.  They were subject to an abbot, and 
observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their 
common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour 
was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors,) 
Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms. 

Santa Laura, Mount Athos. 

The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of 
space and convenience of access from one part of the community 
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly 
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium.  Large 
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, 
capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which 
all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more 
open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters.  The usual 
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent 
of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the designation of a 
monastery generally, being converted into a female saint). 

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is 
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing 
an area of between 3 and 4 acres.  The longer side extends to 
a length of about 500 feet.  There is only one main entrance, 
on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron 
doors.  Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant 
feature in the monasteries of the Levant.  There is a small 
postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open 
courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister 
galleries of wood or stone.  The outer court, which is much the 
larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the 
kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory 
(G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied 
guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is 
surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells 
(II).  In the centre of this court stands the catholicon 
or conventual church, a square building with an apse of 
the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed 
narthex.  In front of the church stands a marble fountain 
(F), covered by a dome supported on columns.  Opening from 
the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in 
the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform 
building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with 
frescoes of saints.  At the upper end is a semicircular 
recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace 

                                                  A. Gateway. 
                                                  B. Chapels.
                                                  C. Guest-house.
                                                  D. Church.
                                                  E. Cloister.
                                                  F. Fountain.
                                                  G. Refectory.
                                                  H. Kitchen.
                                                  I. Cells.
                                                  K. Storehouses.
                                                  L. Postern gate.
                                                  M. Tower.
FIG. 1.---Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir). 

at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or 
abbot.  This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the 
oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. 

Vatopede 

St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vatopede 
also on Mount Athos.  This enormous establishment covers at 
least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings 
within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town.  It 
lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the hegumenos is 
described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince.  
The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of 
St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables. 

The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, 
shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and 
two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. 

Benedictine. 

Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development 
to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480).  His rule was 
diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation 
on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and 
every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far 
exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and 
splendour.  Few great towns in Italy were without their 
Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great 
centres of population in England, France and Spain.  The number 
of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is 
amazing.  Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no 
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order 
alone.  The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly 
arranged ofter one plan, modified where necessary (as at 
Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the 
steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local 
circumstances.  We have no existing examples of the earlier 
monasteries of the Benedictine order.  They have all yielded 
to the ravages of time and the violence of man.  But we 
have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the 
great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, 
which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a 
monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th 
century.  This curious and interesting plan has been made 
the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by 
Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp. 
86-117.  To the latter we are indebted for the substance of 
the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced 
from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved 

 FIG. 2.---Plan of Coptic Monastery. 
A. Narthex. B. Church.
C. Corridor, with cells on each side.
D. Staircase.

in the archives of the convent.  The general apperance 
of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with 
streets running between them.  It is evidently planned in 
compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, 
if possible, the monastery should contain within itself 
every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more 
intimately connected with the religious and social life of its 
inmates.  It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables 
and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying 
on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to 
obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. 

The general distribution of the buildings may be thus 
described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies 
the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square.  The 
buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into 
groups.  The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the 
religious life of the community.  In closest connexion with 
the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the 
monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for 
eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social 
intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary 
conference.  These essential elements of monastic life 
are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered 
arcade, affording communication sheltered ftom the elements 
between the various buildings.  The infirmary for sick monks, 
with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the 
east.  In the same group with the infirmary is the school for 
the novices.  The outer school, with its headmaster's house 
against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the 
convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, 
that he might have a constant eye over them.  The buildings 
devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one 
for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks 
visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and 
pilgrims.  The first and third are placed to the right and 
left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium 
for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the 
church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor 
on the south side next to the farm buildings.  The monks are 
lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the 
church.  The group of buildings connected with the material 
wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west 
of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic 
buildings.  The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a 
passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected 
with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther 
away.  The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to 
workshops, stables and farm-buildings.  The buildings, with some 
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but 
the church were probably erected of wood.  The whole includes 
thirty-three separate blocks.  The church (D) is cruciform, 
with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either 
extremity.  That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular 
colonnade, leaving an open ``paradise'' (E) between it and 
the wall of the church.  The whole area is divided by screens 
into various chapels.  The high altar (A) stands immediately 
to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar 
of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in 
the western apse.  A cylindrical campanile stands detached 
from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). 

The ``cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the 

 FIG. 3.--Ground-plan of St 

 
  CHURCH.                          U. House for blood-letting.
  A. High altar.                   V. School.
  B. Altar of St Paul.             W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
  C. Altar of St Peter.            X1X1. Guest-house for those
  D. Nave.                                  of superior rank
  E. Paradise.                     X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
  FF. Towers.                      Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.
  MONASTIC BUILDINGS 
  G. Cloister.                     MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
  H. Calefactory, with             Z. Factory.
     dormitory over.               a. Threshing-floor
  I. Necessary.                    b. Workshops.
  J. Abbot's house.                c, c. Mills.
  K. Refectory.                    d. Kiln.
  L. Kitchen.                      e. Stables.
  M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.      f Cow-sheds.
  N. Cellar.                       g. Goat-sheds.
  O. Parlour.               (over. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
  P1. Scriptorium with library  k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's
  P2. Sacristy and vestry.                     sleeping-chambers.
  Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;   l. Gardener's house
    2. refectory; 3. calefactory;  m,m. Hen and duck house.
    4. dormitory; 5. master's room n. Poultry-keeper's house.
    6. chambers.                   o. Garden.
  R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in   q. Bakehouse for sacramental
     the house of novices.
  S. Doctor's house.               s, s, s. Kitchens.
  T. Physic garden.                t, t, t. Baths.
 

church has on its east side the ``pisalis'' or ``calefactory', 
(H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by 
flues beneath the floor.  On this side in later monasteries 
we invariably find the chapterhouse, the absence of 
which in this plan is somewhat surprising.  It appears, 
however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the 
north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a 
chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long 
sides.  Above the calefactory is the ``dormitory'' opening 
into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks 
to attend the nocturnal services with readiness.  A passage 
at the other end leads to the ``necessarium'' (I), a portion 
of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme 
care.  The southern side is occupied by the ``refectory'' 
(K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen 
(L) is reached.  This is separated from the main buildings 
of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with 
a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and 
the sleeping-rooms of the servants.  The upper story of the 
refectory is the ``vestiarium,'' where the ordinary clothes of 
the brethren were kept.  On the western side of the cloister 
is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, 
and the larder and store-room above.  Between this building 
and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and 
by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the 
``parlour'' for interviews with visitors from the external 
world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the 
``scriptorium'' or writing-room (P1), with the library above. 

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising 
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in 
itself.  Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual 
buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or 
chapel on one side, placed back to back.  A detached building 
belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen.  One of these 
diminutive convents is appropriated to the ``oblati'' or novices 
(Q), the other to the sick monks as an ``imfirmary'' (R). 

The ``residence of the physicians'' (S) stands contiguous to the 
infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of 
the monastery.  Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, 
and a