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Facts and Useful Information, 1889, by Barkham Burroughs
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Title: Burroughs' Encyclopaedia of Astounding Facts and Useful Information, 1889
Author: Barkham Burroughs
Release Date: November 19, 2004 [EBook #14091]
Language: English
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BARKHAM
BURROUGHS' ENCYCLOPAEDIA
OF
ASTOUNDING FACTS
AND
USEFUL INFORMATION
1889
For Melba Conner
Universal Assistant and Treasure-House of Information to be Consulted
on Every Question That Arises in Everyday Life by Young and Old Alike!
Including: 521 Recipes * 236 Remedies * 150 Themes for Debate * How to
Be Handsome * Mother Shipton's Prophesy * The Cure for Baldness * How
to Distinguish Death * PLUS 20,000 Things Worth Knowing, and Much Much
More.
[Illustration: THE HIGHEST BUILDINGS IN THE WORLD.
1. An imaginary tower, 1000 feet high. 2. Cathedral at Cologne, 501
feet. 3. Pyramid of Cheops, 480 feet. 4. Strasbourg Cathedral, 468
feet. 5. St. Peter's, Rome, 457 feet. 6. Pyramid of Cephren, 454 feet.
7. St. Paul's, London, 365 feet. 8. Capitol at Washington, 287 feet.
9. Trinity Church, N.Y., 286 feet. 10. Bunker Hill Monument, 221 feet.
11. St. Marks, Philadelphia, 150 feet.]
CONTENTS
HOW POOR BOYS BECOME SUCCESSFUL MEN, 6
THE ART OF PENMANSHIP, 7
ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP, 18
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER, 19
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS, 28
DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY, 32
HOW TO ADVERTISE, 37
HOW TO BE HANDSOME, 39
MULTUM IN PARVO. (110 MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS), 41
HOUSEHOLD RECIPES, 71
HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS, 73
ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES (236 ITEMS), 75
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN, 83
LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, 93
MASTERPIECES OF ELOQUENCE, 94
SUNDRY BRIEF ITEMS OF INTEREST, 95
PHYSICIAN'S DIGESTION TABLE, 95
THEMES FOR DEBATE (150), 95
COOKERY RECIPES (521), 98
HOW TO COOK FISH, 106
HOW TO CHOOSE AND COOK GAME, 108
HOW TO MAKE ICE CREAMS, WATER ICES AND JELLIES, 109
HOW TO SELECT AND COOK MEATS, 111
HOW TO MAKE PIES, 113
HOW TO MAKE PRESERVES, 114
HOW TO BOIL, BAKE AND STEAM PUDDINGS, 116
HOW TO PUT UP PICKLES AND MAKE CATSUPS, 119
HOW TO ROAST, BROIL OR BOIL POULTRY, 121
SAUCES FOR MEATS AND FISH, 121
HOW TO MAKE SOUPS AND BROTH, 123
HOW TO COOK VEGETABLES, 125
HOW TO CALCULATE, 128
20,000 THINGS WORTH KNOWING (20,000 ITEMS), 130
* * * * *
[Illustration: How Poor Boys Become Successful Men]
HOW POOR BOYS BECOME SUCCESSFUL MEN.
You want some good advice. Rise early. Be abstemious. Be frugal.
Attend to your own business and never trust it to another. Be not
afraid to work, and diligently, too, with your own hands. Treat every
one with civility and respect. Good manners insure success. Accomplish
what you undertake. Decide, then persevere. Diligence and industry
overcome all difficulties. Never be mean--rather give than take the
odd shilling. Never postpone till to-morrow what can be done to-day.
Never anticipate wealth from any source but labor. Honesty is not only
the best policy, but the only policy. Commence at the first round and
keep climbing. Make your word as good as your bond. Seek knowledge to
plan, enterprise to execute, honesty to govern all. Never overtrade.
Never give too large credit. Time is money. Reckon the hours of
the day as so many dollars, the minutes as so many cents. Make few
promises. Keep your secrets. Live within your income. Sobriety above
all things. Luck is a word that does not apply to a successful
man. Not too much caution--slow but sure is the thing. The highest
monuments are built piece by piece. Step by step we mount the
pyramids. Be bold--be resolute when the clouds gather, difficulties
are surmounted by opposition. Self-confidence, self-reliance is your
capital. Your conscience the best monitor. Never be over-sanguine,
but do not underrate your own abilities. Don't be discouraged.
[Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'Ninty=nine'] Ninety-nine
may say no, the [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads
'hundreth'] hundredth, yes: take off your coat: roll up your
sleeves, don't be afraid of manual labor! America is large enough for
all--strike out for the west. The best letter of introduction is your
own energy. Lean on yourself when you walk. Keep good company. Keep
out of politics unless you are sure to win--you are never sure to
win, so look out.
* * * * *
THE ART OF PENMANSHIP
_How to Become a Handsome Writer._
The subject of the importance of good writing is as broad as its
use. Reaching out in every direction, and pervading every corner of
civilized society, from the humblest up to the highest employments,
it is a servant of man, second only in importance to that of speech
itself. In the world of business its value is seen, from the simplest
record or memorandum, up to the parchment which conveys a kingdom.
Without it, the wheels of commerce could not move a single hour. At
night it has recorded the transactions of the Bank of England during
the day; of London; of the whole world.
Through the art of writing, the deeds of men live after them, and
we may surround ourselves with the companionship of philosophers,
scientists, historians, discoverers and poets; and their discoveries,
and reasonings and imaginings become ours. In the amenities of social
life, through the medium of the pen, heart speaks to heart, though
ocean rolls between. Thoughts of tenderness and affection live when
we are gone, and words and deeds of kindness are not preserved by
monuments alone. What fountains of grief or joy have been opened in
the hearts of those who have read the records of the pen! The pen
has recorded the rapturous emotions of love reciprocated. The pen has
written the message of sadness which has covered life's pilgrimage
with gloom. The pen has traced the record of noble and useful lives,
spent in humanity's cause. The songs of the poet, the beautiful tints
of his imagination, the flights of the orator in the realms of fancy,
and the facts of history, would all perish as the dew of morning,
without this noble art of writing.
As a means of livelihood, there is perhaps no other department of
education which affords such universal and profitable employment, as
writing. From the mere copyist, up to the practical accountant, and
onward into that department of penmanship designated as a fine art,
the remuneration is always very ample, considering the time and effort
required in its acquisition.
Teachers, editors, farmers, doctors and all persons should possess a
practical and substantial knowledge of writing, and should be ready
with the pen. Business men must of course be ready writers, and hence,
in a treatise on business, designed for the education and advancement
of the youth of the country, it seems eminently fitting to first make
the way clear to a plain, practical handwriting. Neatness and accuracy
should characterize the hand-writing of every one. Botch-work and
bungling are inexcusable, as well in writing as in the transaction
of business. No person has a right to cause a tinge of shame to their
correspondent, by sending a letter addressed in a stupid and awkward
manner, nor to consume the time of another in deciphering the
illegible hooks and scrawls of a message. Every one should have the
ambition to _write_ respectably as well as to _appear_ respectable on
any occasion.
MATERIALS USED IN WRITING.
Having a suitable desk or table, arranged with reference to light, in
order to learn to write, it is necessary to be provided with proper
materials. Writing materials abundant and so cheap in these times that
no excuse is afforded for using an inferior or worthless quality. The
materials consist of _Pens, Ink_ and _Paper_.
PENS.
Steel pens are considered the best. Gold pens have the advantage of
always producing the same quality of writing, while steel pens, new or
old, produce finer or courser lines. Notwithstanding this advantage in
favor of the gold pen, steel pens adhere to the paper, and produce a
better line. The pen should be adapted to the hand of the writer. Some
persons require a coarse pen, and some fine. Elastic pens in the hand
of one writer may produce the best results, while a less flexible pen
may suit the hand of others best. Pens are manufactured of almost an
infinite grade and quality, in order to suit the requirements of all.
About the only rule that can be given in selecting pens, is to write a
few lines, or a page, with each of the pens on trial, and then compare
the writing. If it be shaded too heavily, select a less flexible pen,
if the hair lines are too delicate, select a coarser pen.
INK.
Black ink is always preferable. That which is free from sediment and
flows well, should be selected. Use an inkstand with broad base as
being less liable to upset. With persons in learning to write it is
perhaps best to have a quality of ink which is perfectly black when
put on the paper, in order that they may see the results of their
labor at once. Business men and accountants prefer a fluid ink,
however, which, although not black at first, continues to grow black,
and becomes a very bright and durable black, notwithstanding the
action of light and heat. Avoid the use of fancy colored inks,
especially the more gaudy, such as blue, red or green, in writing all
documents which you desire to command attention and respect.
PAPER.
There are almost as many grades of paper to be found in the stationery
stores, as there are of pens. For practicing penmanship, nothing is
more suitable than foolscap, which may be easily sewed into book-form,
with cover of some different color, and thus serves every requirement.
The paper should have a medium surface, neither rough and coarse, or
too fine and glazed. Have a few extra sheets beside the writing book,
for the purpose of practicing the movement exercises and testing the
pens. Be provided at all times with a large-sized blotter, and when
writing, keep this under the hand. Do not attempt to write with a
single sheet of paper on a bare table or desk; there should be many
sheets of paper underneath, in order to make an elastic surface.
STUDY WITH PRACTICE.
Aimless, indifferent, or careless practice, never made a good writer,
and never will. In order to succeed in this, as in other things, there
must be will and determination to succeed, and then persevering and
studious effort. Study the models until their forms are fixed in the
mind.
[Illustration: Study gives form]
No one can execute that which he does not clearly conceive. The artist
must first see the picture on the white canvas, before he can paint
it, and the sculptor must be able to see in the rough and uninviting
stone, the outlines of the beautiful image which he is to carve. In
writing, a clear idea of the formation of the different letters,
and their various proportions, must become familiar by proper study,
examination and analysis. Study precedes practice. It is, of course,
not necessary, nor even well, to undertake the mastery of all the
forms in writing, by study, until some have been executed. It is
best that each form should, as it is taken up, be first measured and
analyzed and then practiced at once.
[Illustration: Practice gives grace]
It is the act which crowns the thought. After study, careful and
earnest practice can hardly fail to make a good writer of any one.
Some persons secure a good style of penmanship with less labor than
others, and attain to the elegant, and beautiful formation. But it
is only fair to presume that no greater diversity of talent exists
in this direction than in the study of other things. All do not learn
arithmetic or history with like ease, but no one will assert that all
who will, may not learn arithmetic or history. And so, all who will
put forth the proper exertion in study and practice may learn to write
a good business style, while many of the number will attain to the
elegant. The conditions of practice in writing are, _Positions of the
Body, Position of the Hand an Pen, and Movement_.
[Illustration: Position of the Body]
POSITION of the BODY.
Sitting squarely fronting the desk, with feet placed firmly on the
floor, and both arms on the desk, is, as a rule, the best position for
practice in writing, or correspondence. The right side, may, however,
be placed to the desk, with the right arm, only, resting thereon, and
some persons prefer this position. Avoid crossing the feet, sitting
on the edge of the chair, or assuming any careless attitude. The body
should be erect, but slightly inclined forward, in order that the eye
may follow the pen closely. This position will never cause curvature
of the spine. The body should never be allowed to settle down into a
cramped and unhealthy position with the face almost on the paper.
By thus compressing the lungs and the digestive organs they are soon
injured, and if the stomach lose its tone, the eyesight is impaired,
there is such a close sympathy between these organs of the body. The
practice of writing should be, and properly is, a healthful exercise,
and injurious effects result only from improper positions of the body,
at variance with good writing as well as good health.
When wearied by sitting and the effort at writing, lay aside paper and
pen, arise from the chair, and take exercise and rest by walking about
the room or in the open air. Then come back refreshed, and vigorous,
for the practice of writing.
In general, the light should fall on the paper from the left side,
thus enabling a writer to clearly see the ruled lines, and render the
labor of writing easier and more rapid. If one writes left-handed, of
course He will sit so as to get his light from the right side, or over
the right shoulder.
SHADING.
As a beautifier of the handwriting, by causing a diversity of light
and shade among the letters, shading has its value; but in the
practical handwriting for business purposes, it should, as a rule, be
classed with flourishing, and left out. Requiring time and effort, to
bring down the shades on letters, business men, clerks and telegraph
operators find a uniform and regular style of writing, without shade,
the best, even though it may not be as artistic.
UNIFORMITY.
A most necessary element in all good penmanship is uniformity. In the
slope of the letters and words which form a written page there must be
no disagreement. With the letters leaning about in various directions,
writing is presented in its most ridiculous phase. Uniformity in the
size of letters, throughout the written page; how greatly it conduces
to neatness and beauty. All letters resting on the line, and being of
uniform hight, adds another condition towards good penmanship. This
essential element of uniformity may be watched and guarded closely and
cultivated by any learner in his own practice.
SLANT OF WRITING.
As said before, it matters not so much what angle of slant is adopted
in writing, provided it is made uniform, and all letters are required
to conform exactly to the same slant. Writing which is nearest
perpendicular is most legible, and hence is preferable for business
purposes. The printed page of perpendicular type; how legible it is.
But for ease in execution, writing should slant. It follows then that
writing should be made as perpendicular as is consistent with ease of
execution. The slant of writing should not be less than sixty degrees
from the horizontal.
[Illustration: Position of Body While Standing]
POSITION of the BODY WHILE STANDING.
The practical book-keeper finds it advantageous to do his writing
while standing; in fact, where large books are in use, and entries are
to be transferred from one to another, the work of the book-keeper
can hardly be performed otherwise than in a standing position, free to
move about his office. Cumbrous books necessitate a different position
at the desk, from that of the correspondent, or the learner. Since
large books must lie squarely on the desk, the writer, in order to
have the proper position thereto, must place his left side to the
desk. The body thus has the same relative position, as if squarely
fronting the desk with the paper or book placed diagonally. In other
words, the writer, while engaged in writing in large, heavy books,
must adjust himself to the position of the books. Should the
correspondent or bill clerk perform his work while standing, he would
assume the same as the sitting position--squarely fronting the desk.
LEGIBILITY.
Children, in learning to write, are apt to sacrifice all other
good qualities of beauty, regularity and grace, for the quality of
legibility, or plainness. With some older persons this legibility is
considered of very little consequence, and is obscured by all manner
of meaningless flourishes, in which the writer takes pride. In the
estimation of the business man, writing is injured by shades and
flourishes. The demand of this practical time is a plain, regular
style that can be written rapidly, and read at a glance.
[Illustration]
FINISH.
By a careless habit, which many persons allow themselves to fall into,
they omit to attend to the little things in writing. Good penmanship
consists in attention to small details, each letter and word correctly
formed, makes the beautiful page. By inattention to the finish of one
letter, or part of a letter of a word, oftentimes the word is mistaken
for another, and the entire meaning changed. Particular attention
should be devoted to the finish of some of the small letters, such as
the dotting of the i, or crossing of the t. Blending the lines which
form a loop, often causes the letter to become a stem, similar to the
t or d, or an e to become an i. In many of the capital letters, the
want of attention to the finish of the letter converts it into another
or destroys its identity, such, for instance, as the small cross on
the capital F, which, if left off, makes the letter a T. The W often
becomes an M, or _vice versa_, and the I a J. Mistakes in this regard
are more the result of carelessness and inattention than anything
else. By careful practice a person will acquire a settled habit of
giving a perfection to each letter and word, and then it is no longer
a task, but is performed naturally and almost involuntarily, while
the difference in the appearance of the written page, as well as the
exactness and certainty of the meaning conveyed, may be incalculably
great.
While practicing penmanship, or while endeavoring to correct a
careless habit in writing, the mind must be upon the work in hand,
and not be allowed to wander into fields of thought or imagination;
by thus confining the attention, any defect or imperfection in the
formation of letters may be soon mastered or corrected.
[Illustration: Position of the Hand and Pen.]
POSITION OF THE HAND AND PEN
The right arm should rest on the muscles just below the elbow, and
wrist should be elevated so as to move free from paper and desk. Turn
the hand so that the wrist will be level, or so that the back of
the hand will face the ceiling. The third and fourth fingers turned
slightly underneath the hand will form its support, and the pen, these
fingers and the muscles of the arm near the elbow form the only points
of rest or contact on desk or paper. The pen should point over the
shoulder, and should be so held that it may pass the root of the nail
on the second finger, and about opposite the knuckle of the hand. An
unnatural or cramped position of the hand, like such a position of the
body, is opposed to good writing, and after many years of observation
and study, all teachers concur in the one position above described,
as being the most natural, easy and graceful for the writer, and as
affording the most freedom and strength of movement.
Avoid getting the hand in an awkward or tiresome position, rolling it
over to one side, or drawing the fore finger up into a crooked shape.
Hold the pen firmly but lightly, not with a grip as if it were about
to escape from service. Do not say, "I can't" hold the pen correctly.
Habits are strong, but will may be stronger, and if you hold the pen
correctly in spite of old habits, for a few lessons, all will then
be easy, and the pen will take its position at each writing exercise,
with no effort whatever. Everything being in readiness, and the proper
position assumed, the writer must now obtain complete control of hand
and pen, by practice in movement.
[Illustration]
RAPIDITY.
One of the essentials of a practical business style of writing must be
rapidity of execution, in order to be of any avail in the necessities
and press of a business position. The demand of the merchant is, that
his clerk shall not only write well, but with rapidity, and the
volume of letters to be answered, bills to be made out, or items to be
entered on the books of account, compel the clerk to move the pen
with dexterity and rapidity, as well as skill. While there is great
diversity among persons as to the rapidity as well as quality of their
penmanship, some being naturally more alert and active than others,
yet by securing the proper position of the hand, arm and body,
favorable to ease and freedom of execution, then following this with
careful practice in movement, until all the varied motions necessary
in writing are thoroughly mastered, the person may, with suitable
effort, acquire the quality of rapidity in writing, gradually
increasing the speed until the desired rate is accomplished.
BEAUTY.
In the handwriting, as in other things, beauty is largely a matter
of taste and education. To the man of business, the most beautiful
handwriting is that which is written with ease, and expresses plainly
and neatly the thought of the writer. To the professional or artistic
taste, while such a hand may be regarded as "a good business hand," it
would not be considered as beautiful, because it conforms to no rule
as to proportion, shade, and spacing. In the practical art of writing,
it is not very unfair to measure its beauty largely by its utility.
[Illustration: Movement]
MOVEMENT.
Finger movement, or writing by the use of the fingers as the motive
power, is entirely inadequate to the requirements of business. The
fingers soon become tired, the hand becomes cramped, the writing shows
a labored effort, and lacks freedom and ease so essential to good
business penmanship. In the office or counting-room, where the clerk
or correspondent must write from morning till night, the finger
movement of course cannot be used.
What is designated by writing teachers as the Whole Arm, or Free Arm
Movement, in which the arm is lifted free from the desk and completes
the letter with a dash or a swoop, is necessary in ornamental
penmanship and flourishing, but has no place in a practical style of
business writing. The man of business would hardly stop, in the midst
of his writing, to raise the arm, and execute an "off-hand capital,"
while customers are waiting.
But adapted to the practical purposes of business is the _muscular
movement_, in which the arm moves freely on the muscles below the
elbow, and in cases of precise writing, or in the more extended
letters, such as f, is assisted by a slight movement of the fingers.
The third and fourth fingers may remain stationary on the paper,
and be moved from time to time, or between words, where careful and
accurate writing is desired, but in more rapid, free and flowing
penmanship, the fingers should slide over the paper.
MOVEMENT EXERCISES.
Having everything in readiness, the student may begin his practice on
movement exercises, the object of which is to obtain control of the
pen and train the muscles. Circular motion, as in the capital O,
reversed as in the capital W, vertical movement as in f, long s and
capital J, and the lateral motion as in small letters, must each be
practiced in order to be able to move the pen in any direction, up,
down, or sidewise.
The simplest exercise in movement. Try to follow around in the same
line as nearly as possible. Do not shade.
[Illustration: O O 8]
The same exercise, only with ovals drawn out and and slight shade
added to each down stroke.
[Illustration: (coils)]
Sides of ovals should be even, forming as nearly a straight line as
possible. Reverse the movement as in third form.
[Illustration: (coils)]
The following three exercises embrace the essential elements in capital
letters, and should at first be made large for purposes of movement:
Capital O, down strokes parallel.
[Illustration: O Q O Q O O Q O Q O]
Capital stem. Down stroke a compound curve. Shade low. Finish with a
dash.
[Illustration: d d d d d d d d d]
Capital loop. Curves parallel. First curve highest.
[Illustration: O O O O (double overlapping loops)]
Having succeeded to some extent with these exercises, the learner may
next undertake the vertical movement. In order to obtain the lateral
movement, which enables one to write long words without lifting the
pen, and move easily and gracefully across the page, exercises like
the following should be practiced:
Down strokes straight. Even and resting on line.
[Illustration: uuuuuuuuuuu]
In all movement exercises the third and fourth fingers should slide
on the paper, and the finger movement should be carefully avoided. The
different movements having been practiced, they may now be combined in
various forms.
[Illustration: u u u u u n n n n n]
Lateral and rolling movement combined. Vertical movement and rolling
movement combined.
[Illustration: t t t]
Do not shade the circles. Lines should be parallel.
Movement exercises may be multiplied almost indefinitely by studying
the forms used in writing and their combinations. Repeating many of
the small letters, such as m, u, e, r, s, a, d, h and c, also capitals
D, J, P, etc., forms an excellent exercise for the learner.
PRINCIPLES IN WRITING.
In order to enable the learner to examine, analyze and criticise
his writing, the following principles are given as his standards of
measurements and form. By combining them in various ways the essential
part of all letters in the alphabet may be formed.
[Illustration: (eight common strokes)]
The principles must be first carefully studied, and separated into the
primary lines which compose them and the form of each principle well
understood. The student may then form a scale like the one following, by
dividing the distance between the blue lines on the paper into four
equal spaces, with a lightly ruled line. The letters of the small
alphabet should then be placed in the scale and the [Transcriber's Note:
The original text reads 'hight'] height of each letter fixed in the
mind.
[Illustration: (lowercase cursive alphabet)]
Notice that the contracted letters, or those which occupy only one
space, as a, m, n, o, s, v, w and e, and that part of d, g, h, q and
y, found in the first space, are all well rounded and developed.
These letters and parts of letters, found in the first space, form the
essential part of all writing, and therefore deserve especial care.
Also notice that the loop letters, above the line, such as b, f, h, k
and l, extend two and one-half spaces above the blue line, while
the loop below the line, such as g, f, j, q, y and z, extend one and
one-half spaces below the blue line, thus two and one-half and one and
one-half making the four spaces of the scale, and the upper loops on
one line will just meet the lower loops of the line above, but never
conflict, to the destruction of neat body writing. Notice the type
of the printer. The extensions above the shorter letters are quite
insignificant, and are only used to save the letter from resembling
some other letter of the alphabet. They never conflict, and how
legible they are.
[Illustration: The Types. A Resemblance. An Absurdity.]
Besides, to make long loops, requires more time, and more power with
the pen, while shorter loops are in every way easier to acquire,
quicker, and better. Telegraph operators, some of whom are among our
best business penmen, make all extended letters very short, while
accountants, and business men, favor the style of short loops, well
developed letters, and small capitals.
Apply the principles. Observe regularity. Muscular movement.
[Illustration: (v and u strokes)]
Down strokes straight. Up strokes curved.
[Illustration: (n and m strokes)]
Principle No. 1. Well formed loop.
[Illustration: (e and c strokes)]
These exercises should be practiced with the muscular movement, until
they can be made with regularity and ease.
4th principle. Let 3d and 4th fingers slide. Notice the top.
[Illustration: (s and r strokes)]
O closed at top. No retracing.
[Illustration: (o and a strokes)]
Two spaces high. Down stroke straight.
[Illustration: (l and d strokes)]
A rule in writing may be laid down, that all small letters should
commence on the blue line, and end one space high.
Discover the principles. Avoid retracing.
[Illustration: (g and q strokes)]
Notice form. In w, last part narrow. Make without raising the pen.
[Illustration: (v, w, and x strokes)]
Extend two spaces above the line, and one below.
[Illustration: p p pppppp pump paper prepared pen]
Retracing is an error. The only exception to this is in d, t, p and x,
where it becomes [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'neccessary']
necessary.
[Illustration: b b b blending blooming k k kick kicking hurt hint hand
heart head hundred hhh f find fund fame flame flowers fumigate]
Upper loops have their crossing at the hight of one space, while lower
loops cross at the blue line.
[Illustration: y your youth y j journey joining rejoicing fs effs
efffs afsure z zone zone zenith zzzzzz tune time tanner drum dime
tttdddd]
Place the capital letters on the scale, analyze them according to
principles 6, 7, and 8, and notice their relative proportions.
[Illustration: (uppercase cursive alphabet)]
In order to practice capital letters to advantage, as well as to study
them, collect in a group or family all those letters which have
some one form or principle as an essential part. Take first the 6th
principle, or oval, and we group the letters as follows:
[Illustration: O. D. C. E. P. Q. R.]
The excellence of an oval depends largely on its fullness and
roundness. No corners or flat sides.
Down strokes parallel.
Capital D is a Capital O with a knot on the lower corner.
[Illustration: O Olean Orleans Ohio Delia David Dahlia]
[Illustration: C Church Currency E Elucidate Economy]
[Illustration: P Prince Prayer P R Regan R Raymond R]
The letters in which the capital stem, or 7th principle, forms a
leading part, may be grouped as follows:
[Illustration: H. K. F. T. S. S. G.]
In the H and K, the capital stem is almost straight on the down
stroke, in the F and T it is little more of a wave line, and in S and
L the line is much of a compound or double curve.
[Illustration: H Hand Hunter Hinder K Kingdom Ky.]
[Illustration: F Famine Fremont T Tenement Troy]
[Illustration: S Sumpter St. S Sarimore G Grammar]
The capital I, and also the J, which is a modified I, are sometimes
classed among the capital stem letters, from the resemblance of the I
to this principle in all but the top.
[Illustration: Independence Jamestown Inkerman Judgment]
The capital loop, or 8th principle, is found as an essential element
in:
[Illustration: M. N. X. W. Q. Z. V. U. Y.]
In the capital loop, or 8th principle, another oval may be made within
the large turn at the top, but for practical purposes the letter is
perhaps better without it, and may be simplified even more, as in the
N below.
[Illustration: M Monumental N Nathaniel X Xenophon]
[Illustration: W Writing Q Quay Quack J J Jones J J]
[Illustration: V Value Valuable U Union Y Youthful]
FIGURES.
Make figures small, neat, and of form exact. Each figure must show for
itself, and cannot be known by those which precede or follow it, as
is the case with letters. The common tendency is to make figures too
large and coarse. Mind the ovals in figures and have them full and
round. The chief excellence of the zero lies in its roundness; the
3, 5, 6 or 9, without care in making the ovals, may degenerate into a
straight line, or simply a meaningless hook, which it would hardly
be safe to use in expressing sums of money, ordering goods, or the
transaction of other business.
[Illustration: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 $ c # % a/c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0]
[Illustration: COPIES FOR PRACTICE.]
COPIES FOR PRACTICE
Having proceeded thus far in the study and practice of writing, and
having obtained the proper control of the pen through the movement
exercises, all that is necessary now in order to secure a good
handwriting, is continued and well-directed practice.
[Illustration:
$1100.00 Chicago, Jan. 10./80.
Due Henry Harrington, on order, Eleven
Hundred Dollars in Merchandise, value rec'd
No. 43. Newton P. Kelley, Sr.]
* * * * *
[Illustration: Ornamental Penmanship.]
ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP
Charming and fascinating are the graceful and harmonious curves
produced, when, wielded by some trained and skillful hand, the pen
becomes an instrument of beauty. As by the power of speech, men may
pass from the common tone of conversation up to the melodious strains
of music, or may soar in flights of oratory into the sublime, until
the multitude is entranced; so the capabilities of the pen are not
limited to the common uses of life, but may take on forms of beauty in
elegant outlines of bird, or landscape, or graceful swan or bounding
stag.
Ornamental writing is not a practical art, and has no connection
whatever with the practical business of life. It is in the realm
of poetry. The imagery of graceful outlines must first be seen by a
poetic imagination. While the great masses may acquire a good style
of plain, practical penmanship, few have the necessary conception
of mind, combined with the skill and dexterity of hand to become
successful ornamental penmen.
The ornamental pages which follow are given, not as models for
imitation or practice by the learner, but merely to show the
possibilities of the pen in the hand of a master, and as a fitting
closing to this, our chapter on penmanship.
To any one who may have an artistic quality of mind, and delights
in beautiful lines and harmonious curves, these pages of ornamental
penmanship will serve as models for practice and imitation, and every
attempt at such an exercise as the one on this, or the following
pages, will give greater strength and freedom of movement, and better
command of the pen, so that it will conduce to an easy, flowing
and elegant style of plain business writing, while affording a most
pleasant and profitable employment in the cultivation of the taste.
Various beautiful designs or pictures may be made with the pen, in the
hands of one that possesses the skill of a penman and the eye of an
artist.
[Illustration]
* * * * *
[Illustration: HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER.]
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER
Considering the vast amount of business transacted by correspondence
between the parties, Letter Writing seems only second in importance to
bookkeeping. The merchant of the smaller cities or towns, perhaps
in the far west, desires to order articles of merchandise from the
wholesale house in New York or Boston. Possibly a remittance is to
be sent. It may be that an error has occurred and needs correction.
Credit is to be asked, references given, and a multitude of other
matters call for adjustment through correspondence. To write every
conceivable variety and shade of meaning, expressing the proper
thought in the most fitting and appropriate language, is indeed a rare
and valuable accomplishment. And when the proper language takes on
the graceful and businesslike air of the well written letter, with its
several parts harmoniously arranged, it is a combination of brain and
skill which can hardly be overestimated.
[Illustration]
This subject, therefore, naturally divides itself into two parts: _The
Mechanical Structure_, and the _Literature of a Letter_. The former of
these being the less difficult will be first considered.
THE STRUCTURE OF A BUSINESS LETTER.
Consists in the arrangement of its several parts, with a view to the
most harmonious effect. Excellent penmanship is very desirable, but
not absolutely essential. The penmanship may indeed be poor, but the
arrangement of the several parts of the letter, the neatness, and
finish, may be such as to give it an attractive appearance, while
on the other hand, the letter may be clothed in the most elegant
penmanship, and yet the construction be such as to stamp its author as
a careless and indifferent person, devoid of precision and order.
No one great thing, but many little things carefully watched, and
attentively practiced, make up the structure and dress of a business
letter, and give it a businesslike air. The penmanship should be a
neat, strong hand, very plain and legible, and devoid of all flourish.
PAPER AND ENVELOPE.
The paper and envelopes used in business correspondence should be of
a good, durable quality, and a white color is preferable. Cheap
materials are not only unsatisfactory to the writer, but may give
the reader an unfavorable impression, which would be an injury far
exceeding the cost of the best stationery for a life time. Persons
form impressions from very little things sometimes.
The size of a letter sheet in business correspondence should be about
8x10 inches. This sheet affords a sufficient space for a communication
of ordinary length to be written on one side only, which is essential
in case the letter is copied in a letter press. A sheet of paper, note
size, (5x8) is oftentimes used for brief communications of no special
importance, and not designed to be filed for future reference. Among
professional men the commercial note sheet is more extensively used,
but with business men the letter size is considered preferable.
The envelope should correspond in size to that of the letter sheet,
and should be a trifle longer than one-half the length of the sheet.
Thus in a sheet eight by ten inches, one-half the length of the sheet
is five inches, and this requires the length of the envelope to be
about five and a quarter inches. Its width is usually about three
inches. Avoid the use of fancy colored and fancy shaped paper and
envelopes. These may not be objectionable in social correspondence
among ladies, but the gravity of business affairs does not admit of
such display.
THE HEADING.
With most firms engaged in business it has become a custom to have the
business advertisement placed at the head of the letter page, together
with street, number and city. Thus leaving only the date to be
inserted to complete the heading.
In case the heading of the letter is to be entirely written, it should
be placed so as to occupy the right hand half of the first two lines
at the top of the page. If, however, the letter is to be a very brief
one, occupying only three or four lines, the heading may then be
placed lower down on the sheet, so as to bring the body of the letter
about the center of the sheet.
Writing from a large city the heading should contain the street and
number. Your correspondent, in directing his answer will rely on the
address given in the heading of your letter. Never be guilty of the
blunder committed by ignorant persons of placing a part of the heading
under the signature.
[Illustration:
765 Market Street,
Philadelphia, June 10, 1882.]
[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OF A LETTER.]
The second line of the heading should begin a little farther to the
right than the first line, as seen above.
If the writer has a box at the Post Office and wishes his mail
delivered there, he may head his letter, as on the following page:
[Illustration:
P.O. Box 3657,
New York, May 16, 1882.]
[Illustration:
Chas. A Roberts Wm. J. Dennis
Office of
ROBERT & DENNIS
DEALERS IN FANCY AND STAPLE GROCERIES,
320 Jefferson Street,
Burlington, Va.,______________ 18____]
Writing from the principal cities of the United States it is not
necessary to make the name of the state a part of the heading, as that
is supposed to be known and understood, but with smaller cities the
name of the state also, should be given. Thus, there is a Quincy
in Illinois, and also in Massachusetts, and unless the state were
mentioned a person answering a letter from Quincy, would not know
which state to direct his reply to. In writing from an obscure town or
village, not only the state should be given, but the county as well.
[Illustration:
Ottawa, La Salle County, Ill.,
December 20, 1882.]
The punctuation of the heading and other parts of the letter, is
of great importance in the estimation of cultivated persons, and
something which can be learned by a little attention on the part of
anyone, in examining the forms here given.
MARGIN.
A margin three-quarters of an inch in width should be left, on the
side of the letter, as shown in the diagram. This is convenient for
any mark or memorandum which your correspondent may desire to make
concerning anything contained in the letter, but its greater value
lies in the open, airy, and cheerful dress which it imparts to the
letter. A margin too narrow conveys the idea of stinginess, as if to
economize paper, while an irregular or zigzag margin conveys the idea
of carelessness or want of precision. On a sheet of note paper the
margin may be only one-half inch in width, thus making its width
proportionate to the size of the sheet.
ADDRESS.
On the next line below the heading, that is the third line from the
top of the sheet, and beginning at the left margin, should be placed
the _Address_, which consists of the name of the person to whom the
letter is written, together with his titles, if any, and his place of
residence or business. The letter is not complete without all this, in
the estimation of the business man. It does not fully explain itself,
if the place of residence is not down as well as the name, and in
preserving a letter press copy, this is quite essential for future
reference.
[Illustration:
Messrs. Samuel Bliss Co.
Reading, Pa.
Gentlemen:]
Or if the letter is written to a person living or doing business in a
large city, thus:
[Illustration:
Mr. James M. Cummings
645 Broadway, new York.
Sir:]
The names and residence should not be allowed to extend further to the
right than about the center of the sheet, thus leaving an open space
between this and the heading of your letter. In case the names or
place of residence should be so long as to require it, they may be
placed thus:
[Illustration:
Messrs. Richards, Shaw, Fitch
& Winslow, Chicago.
Gentlemen:]
The words _Dear Sir_ or _Gentlemen_ are sometimes placed farther to
the left, as in the above example, but most business men in their
correspondence place this complimentary address with reference to
the words above them, about three-quarters of an inch farther to the
right, as shown below.
[Illustration:
William D. Nelsen, Esq.,
177 Erie St., Boston,
Dear Sir:]
The custom of placing the address beneath the body instead of at the
beginning of the letter, is not much in vogue in business circles
in this country, most business men preferring to place the name and
address at the head of the sheet, and then write at it as if they were
talking to the person himself. When, however, the address is placed
below the letter it should occupy the same position as to the margin,
etc., as if placed at the beginning. The custom is borrowed from the
English, and its use is confined mostly to government officials and
professional men.
BODY OF THE LETTER.
This constitutes the written message. It should begin on the same line
with the words _Dear Sir_, or _Gentlemen_ leaving after these words a
small space. In case the place of residence or business is not written
in the address, then the complimentary address of _Dear Sir_ or
_Gentlemen_ will be placed on the next line under the name, or fourth
line from the top of the sheet, and the letter will begin on the fifth
line from the top, thus:
[Illustration:
Mr. Henry L. Dunham,
Dear Sir:
In answer to your esteemed favor]
Sometimes for the sake of convenience, and the saving of time and
labor, the letter head has printed in the left corner, above the
address, a blank form of memorandum as follows:
[Illustration:
Referring to
yours of...
OR,
In reply to
your favor of...,]
and after this introduction the writer is able speedily to get at the
marrow of his letter, without acknowledging the receipt of a former
communication.
The body of the letter should be divided into as many paragraphs as
there are distinct subjects in the letter, or a new paragraph should
be commenced at every change of the subject. The habit which some
persons have of tacking one subject to the end of another, and thus
making a letter one continuous paragraph of mixed up information,
instructions and requests, is extremely objectionable. It destroys the
force of what is said, instead of fixing each thought clearly on the
mind of the reader; it leaves him confused, and he reads a second time
and tries to get his ideas fixed and systematized, or he throws aside
the letter until he has more time in which to study it and get the
meaning clear.
If the letter is long and is really concerning only one subject, then
it may properly be divided into paragraphs by separating the different
divisions of the subject, and giving a paragraph to each. These should
be arranged in their logical order. Wherever the letter is to contain
numerous paragraphs to avoid omitting any of the items, it is best to
jot them down on a slip of paper, then embody them in the letter in
their natural order.
The first word of each paragraph should be indented, or moved in from
the margin, usually about the width of the margin. Thus if the margin
is three-fourths of an inch in width, the paragraph should begin
three-fourths of an inch from the margin. Some writers, however,
prefer to commence the first word of the paragraph an inch from the
margin, and it is really not so essential what the distance is, as
that it should be uniform, and all the paragraphs begin alike. A
little attention is necessary here. In ordering goods make each
article a separate paragraph.
COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING AND SIGNATURE.
The complimentary closing consists of such words as _Yours truly_,
_Respectfully_, etc., and should be placed on the next line beneath
the last one occupied by the body of the letter, commencing a little
to the right of the middle. The signature should be placed underneath
the words of respect, and begin still a little farther to the right.
Thus the conclusion of the letter will correspond in position and
arrangement with the heading.
[Illustration:
Yours truly,
John Maynard.]
The language of the complimentary closing should be governed by
the relation between the parties, and should correspond with the
complimentary address. The first letter between strangers should
commence with _Sir_ and end with the word _Respectfully_. After the
exchange of a few letters and a sort of business acquaintance may be
said to exist between the correspondents, then _Dear Sir_, and _Yours
truly_, may properly be introduced. A little more cordial would be
such a conclusion as the following:
[Illustration:
Yours very truly,
Rinold, Constable & Co.]
The man of business is apt, however, to have one stereotyped beginning
and ending to all his letters, and seldom stops to discriminate
between strangers and old customers in this respect. Often the
conclusion may be connected to the closing paragraph with perfect
grace and ease thus:
[Illustration:
Hoping to receive the goods without delay,
I remain,
Respectfully,
Henry P. Bowen.]
In the signature of a letter, especial care should be exercised.
Bear in mind that names of persons are not governed by the rules of
spelling, and words which precede or follow, proper names will not aid
us in deciphering them if they are poorly written.
[Illustration: A MODEL BUSINESS LETTER.
146 S. Tenth Street,
Cincinnati, March 11, 1884,
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co.,
Broadway & 19th Sts, New York.
Gentlemen: Inclosed please find
New York Exchange in settlement of your
Invoice of the 1st inst. less Cash discount.
Amount of Invoice, $325.80
Cash discount 5% 16.29
------
Draft inclosed $309.51
The goods have been received, and are
very satisfactory in both quality and price.
You may expect another order soon.
Yours truly,
James Z. Wilson Co.]
The young person who would learn to write a good business letter,
should, with pen, ink and suitable paper, sit down and practice
faithfully after the above model. Write and re-write it a dozen times
or more, until your letter resembles it closely. Then take any of the
models for letters given near the close of this chapter, and with this
matter, write a letter which will conform with the foregoing model in
appearance and dress. Write the same matter over again, and improve
it in its defects. Criticise each line and word. See that no words
or letters are omitted, and that the punctuation is according to
the models in this book. Eliminate all ungainly letters, shorten the
loops, see that each letter rests on the line, and that, withal your
page is clean and regular.
The person who will thus devote a little earnest study and practice,
may early acquire the valuable accomplishment of writing a pleasing
business letter, so far as the mechanical structure goes.
ADDRESSING THE ENVELOPE.
After the letter is finished, and while it yet lies open before you,
the Envelope should be addressed. As before stated, the directions
on the envelope must conform to the address at the beginning of the
letter, hence the necessity for addressing the envelope before the
letter is folded.
The first line of the address of the envelope should consist of the name
of the person or firm to whom the letter is written, together with any
appropriate titles, and should be written across or a little below the
middle of the envelope, but never above it, beginning near the left
edge. The space between this first line and the bottom of the envelope
should be about equally divided among the other lines, each of which
begins still farther to the right than the one above, thus:
[Illustration:
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co.,
Cor. Broadway & 19th Sts.,
New York City.]
When writing to a person in a large city the number and street should
be a part of the address, and may be placed as in the above form, or
in the left hand lower corner as follows:
[Illustration:
Lewis H. Taylor, Esq.,
Chicago,
118 Wabash Ave. Ill.]
In case the letter is addressed in care of any one this should be
placed in the lower left corner. If a letter of introduction, the
words _Introducing Mr. John Smith,_ or similar words, should be placed
in this corner.
Letters addressed to small towns or villages should bear the name of
the county as follows:
[Illustration:
Mr. Henry D. Chambers,
Washington,
Porter County,
Ala.]
Or the name of the county may be placed in the lower left corner. The
Post Office box number is usually placed in the lower left corner.
FOLDING A LETTER.
Having written an excellent letter, and faultlessly addressed the
envelope, all may be easily stamped as unbusiness-like, and spoiled,
by improperly performing so simple a part as the folding. Remember
that excellent rule that, whatever is worth doing should be well done.
With the letter sheet lying before you, turn the bottom edge up
so that it lies along with the top edge, thus making a fold in the
middle, which press down with the thumb nail or with a paper folder.
Then fold the right edge over so that it falls two-thirds the distance
across the sheet, and press down the edge. Next fold the left edge of
the sheet over to the right, breaking the fold at the edge of the part
folded over just before.
In case a check, note, draft, bill or currency is to be sent by
letter, it should be placed on the upper half of the sheet as it lies
open, and then the letter should be folded the same as if it were not
there. This will fold the paper or document in the letter so that it
will be difficult to extract it while being transmitted in the mails,
and so that it will not be dropped or lost in opening the letter.
The letter is now folded so that it will be of equal thickness in
every part of the envelope. Insert the last broken or folded edge in
the envelope first, with original edges of the sheet at the end of
the envelope which the stamp is on; when taken from the envelope the
letter will then be proper side up.
THE LITERATURE OF A LETTER.
To be able to compose a letter requires more ability than to give it
the proper arrangement and mechanical dress. A mind well stored with
useful knowledge as well as command of language, is necessary in
writing a letter on general subjects. The strictly business letter
requires a thorough understanding of the facts concerning which
the letter is written, and these facts to be set forth in plain and
unmistakable language. All display of rhetoric or flourish of words is
entirely out of place in the sober, practical letter of business. The
proper use of capital letters, punctuation, and correct spelling
are essential to the well written letter, and with a little care and
striving may be easily acquired.
ARRANGEMENT OF ITEMS.
As stated before, each item or subject in a letter should be embraced
in a separate paragraph. These should be arranged in the order in
which they would naturally come, either in point of time, importance,
or as regards policy. Never begin a letter abruptly with a complaint,
but rather bring in all unpleasant subjects toward the close. If
an answer to a letter of inquiry, take up the questions as they are
asked, indicate first what the question is, and then state clearly
the answer. The first paragraph should acknowledge the receipt of
the communication now to be answered, giving date and indicating its
nature and contents, thus:
[Illustration: Your letter of the 10th instant concerning damaged
goods is received, etc.]
The closing paragraph usually begins with such words as _Hoping,
Trusting, Awaiting, Thanking_, or similar expressions, and is
complimentary in its tone and designed as a courtesy.
BREVITY.
Business letters should be brief and to the point. The best letter
states clearly all the facts in the fewest words. Brevity is not
inconsistent with a long letter, as so much may need to be said as
to require a long letter, but all repetitions, lengthy statements and
multiplication of words should be avoided. Use short sentences, and
make every word mean something. Short sentences are more forcible, and
more easily understood or remembered, than long drawn out utterances.
STYLE.
Style refers to the tone, air, or manner of expression. Dignity and
strength should characterize the style of the business letter. No
ornament of expression or eloquence of language is necessary or
appropriate in a correspondence between business men. Come to your
meaning at once. State the facts. Let every sentence bristle with
points.
The successful business man must possess energy, decision, and force,
and these qualities should be conspicuous in his correspondence in
order to command respect. Never use loose or slang expressions.
The business man should be a _gentleman_. Indulge in no display
of superior knowledge or education, but temper each paragraph with
respect and deference to others. The learner who would aspire to write
a good letter, should, after having finished his attempt, go over
each sentence carefully and wherever the pronoun I occurs, modify the
expression so as to leave this out.
ORDERING GOODS.
In ordering goods of any kind, care should be used to state very
explicitly the color, size, quality, and quantity of the articles
desired. If manufactured goods, the name of the manufacturer, or his
trade mark or brand should be given. Also state when you desire the
goods shipped and in what way. If by freight or express, state what
Freight line or Express Company.
SENDING MONEY BY LETTER.
Paper currency should seldom be trusted to pass through the mails, as
the liability to loss is too great. Better send draft or P. O. money
order, and in every case the amount of the remittance should be stated
in the letter, and also whether by draft or otherwise sent. The letter
may become important evidence in regard to payment at some future
time.
INSTRUCTIONS.
In giving instructions to agents, manufacturers and others, let each
order occupy a separate paragraph. State in unmistakable language the
instructions desired to be conveyed. If possible a diagram or plan
should be enclosed in the letter. Cautions and complaints, if any,
should be clearly set forth in paragraphs near the close of the
letter.
A DUNNING LETTER.
State when the debt was contracted, its amount, the fact of it having
been long past due, the necessity for immediate payment, and any other
facts depending on the peculiarities of the case, which it may seem best
to make use of, such as promises to pay, which have not been met;
the inconvenience as well as injury and distrust caused by such
irregularities, etc.
LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.
Be just and truthful, avoiding any stereotyped form in letters of
introduction. Never give a letter of introduction unless you have
entire confidence in the person to whom it is given; it may reflect
on your character or be used against you. Be very guarded that no
expressions may be construed into a letter of credit, thus making the
writer liable for payment. Use no unfounded statements or assertions,
over-estimating your friend, as these may prove untrue.
Willing to extend a favor to a friend by giving a letter of
introduction, do not be guilty of introducing him to any one in whom
he may not place confidence, as he might be a loser by such.
FORM OF A LETTER ORDERING GOODS.
128 Jackson Street,
RICHMOND, VA., May 24, 18--.
Messrs. JONES & SMITH,
867 Market St., Philadelphia.
_Gentlemen:_ Please ship me by Fast Freight as soon
as possible the following goods:
3 hhds. N. O. Molasses.
1 bbl. Granulated Sugar.
5 chests English Breakfast Tea.
2 sacks Mocha Coffee, wanted not ground.
5 boxes Colgate's Toilet Soap.
I will remit the amount of the invoice immediately
upon the receipt of the goods.
Yours respectfully,
JAMES C. ADAMS.
* * * * *
ORDERING GOODS AND ENCLOSING PRICE.
RICHMOND, IND., Dec. 29, 18--.
Messrs. MARSHALL FIELD & Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
_Gentlemen:_ Please forward me by American Express at once
1 Lancaster Spread, $3.50
12 yds. Gingham, small check. (15c.) 1.80
3 doz. Napkins ($3.00), 9.00
-----
$14.30
For which I inclose P.O. Money order.
Hoping to receive the goods without delay, I am,
Respectfully,
WILLIAM L. MILLER.
* * * * *
DESIRING TO OPEN AN ACCOUNT.
DAYTON, OHIO, Oct. 12, 18--.
Messrs. HOLMES & WILSON,
Detroit, Mich.
_Gentlemen:_ Having recently established myself in the retail
Hardware trade in this city, with fair prospects of success,
and being in need of new goods from time to time, would like
to open an account with your highly respectable house.
My capital is small, but I have the satisfaction of knowing
that what little I possess is the fruit of my own industry and
saving. I can refer you to the well known firm of Smith, Day &
Co., of this city, as to my character and standing.
Should my reference prove satisfactory, please forward me at
once by U.S. Express,
2 Butchers' Bow Saws
1/2 doz. Mortise Locks, with Porcelain Knobs.
2 kegs 8d Nails,
and charge to my account.
Hoping that my order may receive your usual prompt attention,
I am,
Yours respectfully,
HENRY M. BARROWS.
* * * * *
LETTER OF CREDIT.
LEXINGTON, KY., June 25, 18--.
Messrs. DODGE, MANOR & DEVOE,
New York City.
_Gentlemen:_ Please allow the bearer of this, Mr. James
Curtis, a credit for such goods as he may select, not
exceeding One Thousand dollars, and if he does not pay for
them, I will.
Please notify me in case he buys, of the amount, and when due,
and if the account is not settled promptly according to
agreement, write me at once.
Yours truly,
HIRAM DUNCAN.
* * * * *
INCLOSING AN INVOICE.
125 Lake Street,
CHICAGO, Nov. 15, 18--.
SAMUEL D. PRENTICE, Esq.,
Vevay, Ind.
_Dear Sir:_ Inclosed please find invoice of goods amounting to
$218.60, shipped you this day by the B. & O. Express, as per
your order of the 11th inst.
Hoping that the goods may prove satisfactory, and that we may
be favored with further orders, we remain,
Yours truly,
SIBLEY, DUDLEY & CO.
* * * * *
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.
168 Olive Street,
ST. LOUIS, June 4, 18--.
HENRY M. BLISS, Esq.,
Boston.
_Dear Sir_: This will introduce to you the bearer, Mr. William
P. Hainline, of this city who visits Boston, for the purpose
of engaging in the Hat, Cap and Fur trade.
He is a young man of energy and ability, and withal, a
gentlemen in every sense.
Any assistance you may render him by way of introduction to
your leading merchants or otherwise, in establishing his new
enterprise will be duly appreciated by both himself and
Yours truly,
JAMES W. BROOKING.
* * * * *
INCLOSING REMITTANCE.
MILWAUKEE, WIS., Feb. 18, 18--.
Messrs. ARNOLD, CONSTABLE & Co.,
New York.
_Gentlemen:_ The goods ordered of you on the 3d inst. have
been received and are entirely satisfactory in both reality
and price.
Enclosed please find New York exchange for $816.23, the amount
of your bill.
Thanking you for your promptness in filling my order, I am,
Yours respectfully,
HENRY GOODFELLOW.
* * * * *
INCLOSING DRAFT FOR ACCEPTANCE.
NEW YORK, Aug. 8, 18--.
Messrs. WEBSTER & DUNN,
Cairo, Ill.
_Gentlemen:_ Inclosed we hand you Draft at 30 days for
acceptance for $928.15, the amount of balance due from you to
us to the present date. We shall feel obliged by your
accepting the same, and returning it by due course of mail.
Awaiting further favors, we are,
Very truly yours,
DODGE, HOLMES & CO.
* * * * *
INCLOSING A STATEMENT OF ACCOUNT.
CHICAGO, March 1, 18--.
Messrs. CHASE & HOWARD,
South Bend, Ind.
_Gentlemen_: Inclosed please find a statement of your account
for the past three months, which we believe you will find
correct.
We shall feel obliged by your examining the same at your
earliest convenience, and shall be happy to receive your check
for the amount or instructions to draw on you in the ordinary
course.
We are, gentlemen,
Yours truly,
J.V. FARWELL & CO.
* * * * *
A DUNNING LETTER.
DENVER, COL., June 30, 18--.
JAMES C. ADAMS, Esq.,
Great Bend, Kansas.
_Dear Sir_: Allow me to remind you that your account with me
has been standing for several months unsettled.
I should not even now have called your attention to it, were
it not that in a few days I must meet a heavy bill, and must
rely in part on your account to furnish me the means.
I would, therefore, esteem it a great favor if you would let
me have either the whole, or at least the greater part of your
account in the course of a week or ten days.
Thanking you for past favors, I remain, Sir,
Yours truly,
A.R. MORGAN.
* * * * *
AN APPLICATION FOR A SITUATION IN BUSINESS.
_Paste the Advertisement at the head of the sheet, and write as
follows_:
124 Fayette Street,
SYRACUSE, N. Y., Sept. 17, 18--
JOURNAL OFFICE,
City.
_Dear Sir_: In reply to the above advertisement I would
respectfully offer my services.
I am 19 years of age, have a good education, and have had some
experience in business, having assisted my father in his
grocery store. I am not afraid of work, and never allow myself
to be idle when there is work to be done. I can refer you as
to my character, to Mr. J.H. Trout, president of the Gas
Company, who has known me all my life.
In reference to salary, I leave that with you, but feel
certain that I could earn five dollars per week for you.
Hoping to have the pleasure of an interview, I remain,
Respectfully,
HENRY OTIS.
* * * * *
ASKING PERMISSION TO REFER TO A PERSON.
SYRACUSE, N. Y., Sept. 17, 18--.
J.H. TROUT, Esq.,
_Dear Sir_:
I beg to inform you that in applying for a situation this
morning, advertised in the _Journal_, I took the liberty of
using your name as a reference. The length of time I have been
honored with your acquaintance, and the words of encouragement
which you have given me heretofore, lead me to hope you would
speak favorably in this instance, adding this to the numerous
obligations already conferred upon
Your obedient servant,
HENRY OTIS.
* * * * *
INQUIRING AS TO BUSINESS PROSPECTS.
NEWARK, OHIO, June 15, 18--.
Mr. J.D. SHAYLOR,
Denver, Col.
_My Dear Sir_: As I told you a year ago, I have been thinking
seriously of disposing of my small business here and locating
in some live and promising city out west, where I can grow up
with the country as you are doing.
Will you have the kindness to sit down and write me at your
convenience, full information in regard to the prospects of
business, price of rents, cost of living, etc., in your city,
and any other information, especially in regard to the
hardware trade.
If you will thus kindly give me the facts on which I can base
a calculation, and all is favorable, I will probably visit
Denver this fall, and eventually become your neighbor.
Yours very truly,
J.O. GOODRICH.
* * * * *
LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION.
GRAND HAVEN, Mich., May 17, 18--.
To WHOM IT MAY CONCERN:
Mr. Henry McPherson, who is now leaving our employ, has been
in our office for the past two years, during which time he has
faithfully attended to his duties, proving himself to be
industrious and thoroughly reliable. He is a good penman,
correct accountant, and acquainted with correspondence.
We shall at any time cheerfully respond to all applications we
may have regarding his character and abilities, and wish him
every success.
Yours truly,
WOOD & HILL.
* * * * *
NOTICE OF DISSOLUTION OF A PARTNERSHIP.
DAVENPORT, IA., Dec. 10, 18--.
JAS. L. BINGHAM & CO.,
Cedar Rapids, Ia.
_Gentlemen_: On the 1st of January next the partnership for
the past ten years existing between Geo. H. Clark and Henry
Webster, wholesale grocers in this City, will expire by
limitation of the contract.
The firm takes this opportunity to thank its customers and
friends for their generous patronage and support, whereby the
business of the house grew to such large proportions.
After the first of January the business will be carried on at
the old stand, Nos. 76 and 78 Main St., by Henry Webster and
Cyrus D. Bradford, under the firm name of Webster & Bradford.
We are, gentlemen,
Your obedient servants,
CLARK & WEBSTER.
* * * * *
RECOMMENDING A SUCCESSOR IN BUSINESS.
CINCINNATI, OHIO, Dec. 15, 18--.
TO THE PUBLIC:
It is with some feeling of regret that we announce our
retirement from the business on the beginning of the new year.
Our stock and premises will then be transferred to Messrs.
Franklin and Warren, whom we cheerfully present to your
notice, and feel it our duty to recommend them for a
continuance of that liberal confidence and patronage which you
have bestowed on us during the past twenty years.
Both these young gentlemen have been clerks of ours for
several years past, and are in every way efficient and capable
to continue the business.
We are
Respectfully,
JOHNSON & FOX
* * * * *
[Illustration: ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS.]
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS
In order to succeed in business life, it is necessary to cultivate and
develop certain qualities and traits of character. These are a portion
of the capital of the successful man, and a more essential portion
than money or goods.
HONESTY.
"Sharp practice" may bring a temporary gain but in the long run of life
that man will be far ahead who deals squarely and honestly at all times.
A thoroughly honest clerk will command a higher salary than one of
equivocal habits, while the merchant who has a reputation for honesty
and truthfulness in regard to the quality and value of his goods, will
on this account he favored with a considerable custom. The business man
whose "word is as good as his bond" can in any emergency, control large
amounts of capital, the use of which brings him a rich return, while the
man who sells his neighbor's good opinion for a temporary gain, will
find that he has discounted his future success, but taking an advantage
at the cost of ten tines its value.
INDUSTRY.
No other quality can take the place of this, and no talents of mind,
however excellent, will bring success without labor; persistent
systematic labor. The young man who expects to find some royal road
to success with little or no effort, or who imagines that his mental
abilities will compensate for a lack of application, cheats and ruins
himself. Horace Greeley probably never said a grander thing than this:
"The saddest hour in any man's career is that wherein he, for the
first time, fancies there is an easier was of gaining a dollar than
by squarely earning it." and Horace Greeley was himself an example of
success through industry.
[Image: COUNSEL AND ADVICE.]
It is not genius, but the great mass of average people, who _work_,
that make the successes in life. Some toil with the brain, and others
toil with the hand, but all must toil. Industry applies to hours in
business and out of business. It means not only to perform all
required work promptly, but to occupy spare moments usefully, not to
idle evenings, and to rise early in the morning.
An [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'employe'] employee
should not confine himself to his mere obligatory duties. He should
be ready to work sometimes over hours or in other departments if it is
desired of him. Willingness to _work_ is one of the finest qualities
in a character, and will compensate for many other deficiencies.
MEMORY.
This faculty, always so useful, is pre-eminently so to the business
man. It must be both retentive and quick. By proper training this
faculty may be so cultivated that names, dates and events to a
surprising number may be readily recalled. The ability to greet a
customer by calling him by name is considered very valuable in any
class of business. It makes a very agreeable impression when a man who
has not seen us but once or twice, and who is not expecting us, meets
us promptly as we enter his store, with, "Why, Mr. ----, how do you
do? Glad to see you. When did you leave Newark?" We feel as if we had
occupied that man's thoughts since we saw him before. He appreciates
us, and we feel like patronizing him. Whereas, on the other hand to
meet a customer with a blank, inquiring expression, and greet him with,
"Your face is familiar, but I can't recall your name." is unpleasant
and tends to drive away custom. Every hotel keeper knows the value
of this greeting of customers. Facts, figures and dates are very
necessary to remember in business, and these often form the basis of
a business transaction or venture by which large profits are made.
Superior ability in remembering prices and their fluctuations has been
the secret of more than one brilliant success.
Desultory reading injures the memory, while close application to a
subject, recalling the various points therein, tends greatly to improve
this faculty. The clerk or employee [Transcriber's Note: The original
text reads 'employe'] in receiving instructions from his principal should
endeavor to impress every point clearly on his mind, and retain them
there until they are carried out in action. Carelessness and
forgetfulness often causes the discharge of otherwise worthy and
competent young persons, as employers do not like to repeat their orders.
PROMPTNESS.
A very essential element in the character of the business man is
promptness. Filling all engagements at exactly the appointed time,
answering letters or forwarding goods with promptness, the man of
business finds that much more can be accomplished and with far greater
accuracy, than by a loose system of putting off till tomorrow, or
according to convenience. Not only so, but competition in business is
such that the merchant or tradesman who does not deal with promptness
can hardly expect to hold his custom. Young men starting out in the
world should form the resolution of doing everything on time. Better
to be ahead in the performance of duties than behind. This promptness
then acts as a stimulant in itself, and is oftentimes the means of
winning success in an enterprise.
A thing that is worth the doing, ought to be done quickly when the
time is ripe for it. A prompt man or woman is valued, as he respects
his word and has due regard for the convenience of others.
EXECUTIVE ABILITY.
Wavering, timid and uncertain, the man without executive ability never
achieves distinction in active life. Intelligence to decide on any
measure, firmness in adhering to the decision, and force of will in
carrying it out, constitute executive ability, and are as essential to
the business man as his stock in trade.
The timid man never makes up his mind until after the opportunity is
past, or decides, then recalls his decision, and feels incapable
of promptly estimating all the facts in the case. This weakness is
oftentimes natural, but more frequently it is a bad habit which should
be broken up.
Rashness is to decide and act without taking the trouble to weigh
intelligently the facts in the case. This is inexcusable folly, and
always brings serious trouble sooner or later.
Through executive ability the labor or services of one man may be made
to produce largely, or without proper direction such services may be
almost worthless; and in the case of many employees [Transcriber's Note:
The original text reads 'employes'] under one executive head, the results
of this combined labor may be great success, or where executive ability
is wanting, a great failure.
The successful farmer, merchant, manufacturer, banker, and professional
man must have this combination of ability, firmness, and will power.
PERSEVERANCE.
Those who put their minds on their work, whatever kind that may be,
and persist in its thorough execution; who get interested in something
for their own advancement, that they may become more capable as men
and women of sense and tact; such persons have a lively appreciation
of the fact that success is never more certain to be gained by any
other course.
These people have a just pride in learning the best methods of giving
expression to the faculties and powers they possess, and which they
desire to make the most of. It is incumbent that they do all in their
power for their own and other people's good. Feeling this, an ever
present incentive keeps them employed, and they are never idle.
[Illustration]
If one does not succeed from persisting in doing the best he knows
how, he may conclude that the ministry of failure is better for him
than any worldly success would be.
CIVILITY.
Good behavior is an essential element of our civilization. It should
be displayed every day through courteous acts and becoming manners.
Politeness is said to be the poetry of conduct; and like poetry, it
has many qualities. Let not your politeness he too florid, but of that
gentle kind which indicates a refined nature.
In his relations with others, one should never forget his good
breeding. It is a general regard for the feelings of others that
springs from the absence of all selfishness. No one should behave
in the presence of others as though his own wishes were bound to be
gratified or his will to control.
[Illustration]
In the more active sphere of business, as in the larger localities
where there is close competition, the small merchant frequently
outstrips his more powerful rival by one element of success, which
may be added to any stock without cost, but cannot be withheld without
loss. That element is civility. A kind and obliging manner carries
with it an indescribable charm. It must not be a manner that indicates
a mean, groveling, timeserving spirit, but a plain, open, and
agreeable demeanor that seems to desire to oblige for the pleasure of
doing so, and not for the sake of squeezing an extra penny out of a
customer's purse.
INTEGRITY.
The sole reliance of a business man should be in the integrity of his
transactions, and in the civility of his demeanor. He should make it
the interest and the pleasure of a customer to come to his office or
store. If he does this, he will form the very best "connections,"
and so long as he continues this system of business, they will never
desert him.
No real business man will take advantage of a customer's ignorance,
nor equivocate nor misrepresent. If he sells goods, he will have
but one price and a small profit. He will ere long find all the most
profitable customers--the cash ones--or they will find him.
If such a man is ever deceived in business transactions, he will never
attempt to save himself by putting the deception upon others; but
submit to the loss, and be more cautious in future. In his business
relations, he will stick to those whom he finds strictly just in their
transactions, and shun all others even at a temporary disadvantage.
The word of a business man should be worth all that it expresses and
promises, and all engagements should be met with punctilious concern.
An indifferent or false policy in business is a serious mistake. It
is fatal to grasp an advantage at ten times its cost; and there is
nothing to compensate for the loss of a neighbor's confidence or good
will.
The long-established customs and forms of business, which in these
times are assumed to be legitimate, already have within them enough of
the elements of peculiarity, commonly termed "tricks of trade," or, in
the sense of any particular business, "tricks of the trade." Therefore
it does not behoove any active man to make gratuitous additions of a
peculiar nature to the law of business. On the contrary, all should
strive to render business transactions less peculiar than they are.
ECONOMY.
One may rest in the assurance that industry and economy will be sure
to tell in the end. If in early life these habits become confirmed,
no doubt can exist as to the ultimate triumph of the merchant in
attaining a competency.
There should be no antagonism between economy and a generous business
policy. Narrow selfishness is to be avoided in the use of money or
means. In buying goods, one should not take advantage of another's
necessities to beat him down to a figure which leaves him little or no
profit, perhaps a loss, because he must have money. This is against
manhood and is a ruinous policy, because it tends to picayunishness and
chicanery. A sacred regard for the principles of justice forms the basis
of every transaction, and regulates the conduct of the upright man of
business.
[Illustration]
If economy is wealth, it is not so because of a niggardly and
parsimonious policy. Perhaps the simplest, fewest and best rules for
economical business are these, by observance of which a noted
merchant amassed a large fortune: 1. Obtain the earliest and fullest
information possible in regard to the matter in hand. 2. Act rapidly
and promptly upon it. 3. Keep your intentions and means secret.
4. Secure the best [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads
'employes'] employees you can obtain, and reward them liberally.
Proprietors of institutions will early discover that order, and
neatness, are necessary as economical agents in prosecuting a
successful business. And the youth who would grow up to become
well-to-do, to gain complete success, to be a valuable member and
assume a position in society, should take pains to acquire habits of
cleanliness, of order, and of business.
To this effect each one may early learn the simple rules of health
and good order by paying reasonable attention to those so-called minor
details, which pertain to the well-being of the person, and which must
be faithfully observed in order to avoid failure and win success.
A person, young or old, in or out of business, may keep a
memorandum-book in his pocket, in which he notes every particular
relative to appointments, addresses, and petty cash matters. An
accurate account of personal expenses should be kept, which should be
balanced each week. By this means each individual will be more careful
and economical in his expenditures, and generally live within his
income. He must be reasonable in spending, or his memorandum or
record-book, if it be honestly kept, will stand to his discredit.
A well-kept memorandum-book is often very useful, as it is very
convenient, and sometimes serves to settle a troublesome query,
arising in other minds, by which the possessor is absolved from the
prejudice of doubt. Young people who expect to labor with their
hands for what they have of this world's goods, or rise by their own
efforts, should by all means acquire habits of economy, learn to save,
form correct habits, and no time will be required overcoming these. So
surely as they do this, so surely will they be in a situation to ask
no special favors. Every man wants to learn to look out for himself
and rely upon himself. Every man needs to feel that he is the peer
of every other man, and he cannot do it if he is penniless. Money
is power, and those who have it exert a wider influence than the
destitute. Hence it should be the ambition of all young men to acquire
it, as well as to store their minds with useful knowledge.
GETTING A SITUATION.
In seeking a situation, it is always best to appear in person if
practicable. A business man who requires the services of a salesman or
clerk, a bookkeeper, stenographer, or some one to remain in his employ
a considerable time, usually prefers to see an applicant and have a
few words with him about the work that is to be done.
If an application has to be made by letter, it should be done in the
handwriting of the applicant. It may be brief, and should include
references.
It is best for a young man to learn a trade. In this country
the trades offer more stable means of subsistence than do other
departments of active life. His knowledge of a trade will form no
bar to any effort he may afterward make to rise to a higher or more
congenial calling.
When a position has been obtained by an applicant, he should at once
proceed to render himself indispensable to his employer by following
up the details of his work in a conscientious and agreeable manner.
Thus he will gain confidence and grow in favor with men who are quick
to recognize merit, and who respond to that which contributes to the
success of a meritorious man.
[Illustration]
There is always room in every business for an honest, hard-worker. It
will not do to presume otherwise; nor should one sit down to grumble
or concoct mischief. The most perilous hour of one's life is when he
is tempted to despond. He who loses, his courage loses all. There are
men in the world who would rather work than be idle at the same price.
Imitate them. Success is not far off. An honorable and happy life is
before you. Lay hold of it.
* * * * *
[Illustration: DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY.]
DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY
The desire to accumulate property is one of the noblest that nature
has implanted in man, and it is through the successful results of
this desire, we are enabled to point with unerring certainty to
the disembarking line, which so surely characterizes the advanced
educated, refined and civilized man from that of the wild savage,
whose highest desire is to slay and rob his fellow men, and proudly
exhibit their scalps, or the plunder he has acquired, as evidence of
his cunning or courage.
It is through this inborn desire to accumulate that man is willing to
labor, toil, suffer, and forego present gratifications for the hope
of future greater satisfactions; that has resulted in the building and
equiping the mighty ships of commerce, whose white, spreading canvas
dots every sea where commerce may be known, or where the interests of
God's creatures may best be served. It is through this desire, coupled
with unremitting toil, that we owe everything of permanent enjoyment,
of enlightenment and of prosperity. The millions of dollars of paper
money which is handled every day as the natural fruit of toil and
saving through the many and diversified transactions in the vast,
illimitable and ever rapidly developing field of commerce, is but the
representative of ownership of property.
If this representative is what it purports on its face to be, each
and every one who receives it in exchange for services or commodities,
owns not merely a piece of paper, with designs, words and promises
printed or engraved thereon, but an interest or an undivided whole in
a farm, a block of buildings or a store well stocked with merchandise,
which, in his estimation, at least, is more desirable to him than the
labor or commodity for which he has voluntarily made the exchange;
but, if on the contrary, it is other than what it purports on its face
to be, he finds that he is the owner of a piece of paper whose value
is _nil_.
There is, at the present writing, 1884, nearly eight hundred million
dollars of paper currency in the United States, consisting of
greenbacks and national currency, a great portion of which is in
actual circulation, and it has been estimated by eminent authorities,
who occupy positions of trust in the various departments through
which the financial machinery of this vast sea of paper money is daily
circulated, that there is in circulation nearly one-fifth of this
amount in counterfeit money, or about one hundred and sixty million
dollars; and not one dollar of this counterfeit money owes its
circulation to any excellence of the work in its manufacture, but
wholly to the general ignorance of those who handle it, as to what
is required to constitute a genuine bill. The time will come when the
United States will redeem all of its issue of paper money, when those
who are holding any of this counterfeit money will have to stand the
loss to the extent of the sum in their possession. To all of those who
are willing to take a small portion of their time each day for a few
weeks in learning just what it takes to constitute a genuine bill,
there need be no necessity of ever losing anything by counterfeiters,
as it is impossible for them to make bills which will in any way
approach the beauty and exactness of the genuine ones. There is not at
the present time, nor has there ever been in the past, nor will there
ever be in the future, a counterfeit bill made that cannot be detected
at sight; and the positive knowledge of how to know at all times when
a bill is genuine and when not is within the reach of all those
who may have the privilege of reading the following information
or infallible rules with a genuine desire to be benefited thereby.
DEVICES AND FRAUDS.
Various devices are resorted to by a numerous gang or body of persons,
to get on in the world without turning their attention to legitimate
and useful employments. This class includes many that are not engaged
in the practice of counterfeiting and putting forth bad money, but who
make themselves felt in various ways through vain tricks and schemes,
which are, to all intents and purposes, frauds.
Business men are generally apt at detecting and turning off petty
schemes, but they find it best to have the means with which they
may deal successfully as against regular swindlers, forgers and
counterfeiters.
COUNTERFEIT AND GENUINE WORK.
[Illustration: DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY]
As indicated above, counterfeit notes are issued and put into the
channels of circulation in abundance every year by those engaged
in the practice of counterfeiting. These notes are often such good
imitations of the genuine that it is quite difficult to discern the
difference.
That he may protect himself, each business man should have some
definite knowledge of a genuine bank-note.
The engraving of a genuine bank note, in most all of its parts, is
done by machinery, and it is more exact and perfect. On the contrary,
most all parts of counterfeit notes are done by hand.
Counterfeiters cannot afford to purchase machinery, such as is used
for the production of genuine notes. The cost of such machinery is
between $100,000, and $150,000, and if it were in wrong hands it would
be always liable to seizure and confiscation.
In order to prevent the forgery of bank-notes, a great deal of
ingenuity and art has been expended on their production. The principal
features of the manufacture are described as a peculiar kind of paper
and water mark; an elaborate design, printed with a peculiar kind of
ink, and certain private marks, known only by the bank officials.
The work of counterfeiters can never equal that of the makers of
genuine notes, whose skill and facilities for producing the highest
grade of work known to the art, are the best that the world affords.
Unless one is somewhat learned as to the quality of engraving, that he
may be able to distinguish a fine specimen of the art when he sees it,
he is likely to become a victim of the counterfeiter's operations.
LATHE WORK.
When the genuineness of a bank-note is doubted, the Lathe Work on
the note should first be closely scrutinized. The several letters
of denomination, circles, ovals, and shadings between and around the
letters in the words, etc., are composed of numberless extremely fine
lines--inclusive of lines straight, curved and network. These are all
regular and unbroken, never running into each other, and may be traced
throughout with a magnifying glass.
Without the skill or machinery, by which the genuine is produced, the
same quality of work cannot be done. Therefore, in a counterfeit, the
lines are imperfect, giving the paper a dull or hazy aspect, that may
be all the better appreciated by comparing it with the genuine. The
lines in the counterfeit will be found now and then irregular in size,
and broken: not uniform in course, sometimes heavy, sometimes light:
no two stamps or dies on the same note being exactly alike.
The fine, uniform, shade-lines, with which the letters on the genuine
are embellished, are wrought by a machine that cannot be reproduced
by counterfeiters, nor used for other than legitimate purposes, by
authority.
GEOMETRICAL LATHE.
The fine line is the characteristic of the various and beautiful
figures which are seen on a genuine note. This line is produced
by what is called the Geometrical Lathe. The patterns made by the
geometrical lathe are of every variety of form. They are not engraved
directly upon the bank-note plate, but on pieces of soft steel plate,
which are afterwards hardened. The impressions are then transferred
to a soft steel roller, which, in its turn, is also hardened, and the
impressions remain there, in relief. This roller is then capable of
transferring the same designs to the bank-note plate by means of the
transfer press.
In counterfeit engraving, the design is made directly upon the plate,
and not by transfer, as in the production of plates for genuine notes.
The essential difference between the two methods of production is, the
counterfeit is made by hand, and is inexact and imperfect, while the
genuine is made on geometrical principles, and is therefore exact,
artistic and beautiful.
In all the government issues the geometric lathe work is liberally
used. This should be studied carefully, as it constitutes the chief
test of genuineness.
Fine lines, of unerring exactness, never broken, are seen on the
genuine medallion heads, or shields, upon which the designation of
the note is sometimes stamped. This nicety cannot be given by hand, or
with the use of imperfect machinery. By close scrutiny the lines will
be found to break off in the pattern, or appear forked, irregular in
size, and not well defined throughout.
[Illustration]
On most counterfeits the vignettes are not well engraved, and the
portraits have a dull appearance; the letters are usually wanting in
clearness; the printing is sometimes faulty, by which some features of
the note are obscured.
RULING ENGINE WORK.
In Ruling Engine Work, as it is called, the fine line is present,
also. The engraving is produced and transferred in the same way as the
geometrical lathe work. In this they are parallel and not in circles.
Those which constitute the shading of letters are so fine that they
form a perfectly even gray shade. They may be printed so that the
shading will appear darker, but the aspect will be uniform. The spaces
between lines are exact, whether the lines be horizontal or diagonal.
The lines are also made crooked or wave-like, not absolutely parallel.
Ruling engine work is generally used for shading of names of banks,
and also for the names of town, state, etc.
VIGNETTES.
While lathe work and that of the ruling engine are invariably
machine work, and therefore cannot be successfully reproduced by
counterfeiters, the Vignettes are chiefly the work of the hands. In
all genuine work they are made by first class artists, who are well
paid for their services, and who therefore have no incentive to
exercise their skill for illegitimate purposes.
Sometimes water and sky are done with the ruling engine, and when they
are, no counterfeiter can successfully imitate them. Fine vignettes
are seldom seen on counterfeit notes. If the lathe and ruling engine
work be genuine, an ordinary vignette cannot make a note counterfeit,
and if that be counterfeit, no vignette can make the note genuine.
The vignettes on genuine notes are executed by men at the head of
their vocation, and are very life-like and beautiful. Counterfeit
vignettes usually have a sunken and lifeless appearance. Genuine
vignettes, as seen upon government issues, consist of out-door scenes,
portraits, historical pictures, and allegorical figures. They are all
exceedingly beautiful, and it is not likely that such work will ever
be successfully imitated.
SOLID PRINT.
The lettering, or solid print, in genuine work is done by a
first-class artist, who makes that kind of work his exclusive concern.
The name of the engraving company is always engraved with great pains
and is very accurate. It will be seen on the upper and lower margin
of the note. This, in counterfeits, is not quite uniform or even.
The words "one dollar," as on the one dollar greenbacks, are to be
considered as a sample of solid print.
BANK-NOTE PAPER.
Bank-notes are printed upon paper composed of linen, the qualify of
which is not always the same, and it varies in thickness. Therefore,
the paper is not always a sure test, but it is important. The
manufacture of this paper is a profound secret, as carefully kept as
the combinations to the great vaults where the government's millions
lie awaiting further river and harbor bills. It is made only at
the Dalton mill, which dates back almost to colonial days. What its
combinations are nobody knows except those intimately connected with
its manufacture. The secret of the paper-making is jealously guarded,
as is also the paper itself. From the moment it is made until it gets
into the treasury vaults it is carefully guarded. It goes there in
small iron safes, the sheets carefully counted, and all precautions
against its loss being taken both by the government officials and by
the express companies which carry it.
COUNTERFEIT SIGNATURES.
Sometimes genuine notes are stolen before they are signed; then the
only thing about them made counterfeit is the signatures. Those who
are familiar with the signatures of the officers of the bank where
notes are purloined, may not be lead into error, as such signatures
usually appear more or less cramped or unsteady; but there is no sure
protection against a counterfeit of this kind for those who do not
have special knowledge of the signatures.
[Illustration: UNITED STATES TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D.C.]
ALTERED BANK-NOTES.
Bank-notes are altered in two ways, namely: raising the denomination,
and changing the name of a broken to that of a responsible bank.
First, in altering a note, it is scraped until thin: then figures of
larger denomination are pasted over. A pasted note may be detected by
holding it up to the light, when the pasted parts will appear darker,
as they are thicker.
Second, the denomination of a note is raised by taking out a low one
with an acid, and printing in a higher one with a counterfeit stamp.
The ink used in genuine bank-note printing is a peculiar kind, and
not easily to be obtained by counterfeiters: therefore, their printing
will not appear as clear and bright as that of the government, which
is done with ink of the finest quality. If the ink is black, it gives
a clear and glossy impression, without any of that smutty appearance,
as is sometimes seen in counterfeit bank-notes. It is almost
impossible to imitate the green ink that is used by the government,
and it is nearly as difficult to imitate the red and other colors.
Counterfeit inks look dull and muddy, while genuine inks have a glossy
appearance.
In the case of a note altered by the use of acid, it may be
noticed that the acid, by spreading more than was intended by the
counterfeiter, has injured parts of other letters, and the paper will
appear more or less stained by the acid.
COMPARING AND EXAMINING NOTES.
A counterfeit should be compared with one that is genuine, in order
to familiarize one's self with the distinguishing features which have
already been indicated.
It is best to acquire the habit of giving each note as received a
searching glance, turning it over to see the back, and if there be
any defect, it will probably catch the eye. If there be the least
suspicion, a critical examination of all its parts should be made.
In case of doubt, the lathe work should be carefully examined, and it
may be compared with a perfectly good bill; then examine the shading
around the letters, and search for any sign of alteration in the
title or denomination of the note. If there are any medallion heads or
shields, notice the lines; if there is any red letter work, designed
to appear on both sides, look at the character of the work on the
face, then turn the note and examine the back. If the printing is
not exactly alike on both sides, but varies in any part the note is
counterfeit. Then observe the vignettes and portraits, to see whether
their style and perfection compare well with the work on genuine
notes. Then examine the solid print and engravers' names, as well as
the printing, ink, and paper. By such thorough examination, one can
hardly be at a loss to determine the status of the note.
Good magnifying glasses are necessary, in most instances, to bring out
the fine lines on bank-notes. Sometimes a microscope of great power is
required to discern the genuine line.
PIECING, ETC.
Counterfeiters sometimes make ten bills of nine by what is termed
piecing. Thus, a counterfeit note is cut into ten pieces by the
counterfeiter, and these pieces are used in piecing nine genuine
bills, from each of which a piece has been cut. The nine genuine
pieces, thus obtained, are then pasted together, and with the tenth
counterfeit piece added, make a tenth bill, which is the gain.
Piecing bank-bills is not a very successful practice. One who
possesses such information as here given, can readily detect the
difference between the counterfeit and the genuine. This difference
is, however, made less apparent by the counterfeiter, who defaces
the counterfeit part, so as to give the note a worn appearance.
Counterfeiting is rendered very difficult in consequence of the
remarkable excellence of the work on the government and national
currency, as also from the difficulty of imitating the green. But this
currency, if successfully imitated by counterfeiters, will repay large
outlay and care, as the greenbacks pass anywhere in the nation, and a
counterfeit may be carried to other states or sections as it becomes
known in any particular locality. National bank currency may be
counterfeited by preparing a plate, and then with simple change in the
name of the bank the counterfeit can be adapted to the various towns
where banks are located. This much is written, not to lessen the value
of or confidence in the issues of the government, but to admonish the
public against the dangers of a false security.
[Illustration]
* * * * *
[Illustration: HOW TO ADVERTISE]
HOW TO ADVERTISE
EMBRACING RULES, SUGGESTIONS, AND PRACTICAL HINTS ON THIS IMPORTANT
SUBJECT.
[Illustration]
Volumes might be written on the necessity of, and the various methods
employed for, advertising. Many prosperous men owe their success
in life to judicious and liberal advertising. In this age of strong
competition in the various avenues of trade, he who does not advertise
his wares will probably be outdone by a more ambitious dealer, with
perhaps a poorer article, who advertises liberally. People go where
they are invited, and the merchant who advertises freely, places his
store and windows in attractive order, and leaves the door open, will
do far more business than he who does not cater to the public, is
indifferent about appearances, gruff, and complaining of hard times.
Horace Greeley laid it down as a rule that a merchant should
advertise equal to his rent. This, like all good rules, ought to have
exceptions. An old and well established business would not require
so much, while a new enterprise would require more than this amount
expended judiciously in advertising. The merchant should decide at the
beginning of the year about, what amount he may expend in advertising
during the year, and then endeavor to place that amount in the best
possible manner before the public.
An advertiser should not be discouraged too soon. Returns are often
slow and inadequate. Time is required to familiarize the public with a
new article or new name. Some men have given up in despair, when just
on the eve of reaping a harvest of success by this means. Many of the
most prosperous and wealthy business men in this country have at times
been driven hard to meet their advertising bills, but they knew that
this was their most productive outlay, and by persistently continuing
it they weathered the storm.
NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING.
Select the newspaper which circulates among the class of persons
desired to reach. Do not advertise a special article or business
designed for a limited class of customers, in a general newspaper.
Almost all trades and occupations in these latter days have their
special journals, and these afford the best means of reaching that
class of persons. The purpose of the advertiser then should be to
discover, first, the character of a paper's circulation, and second,
the extent of its circulation. On these two essentials may then be
based an estimate of its value as an advertising medium. The character
of a paper's circulation is easily determined by the quality of the
reading matter which the paper contains, and the general tone imparted
to it by its conductors. The extent of a paper's circulation bears
chiefly on the rates of advertising, which, other things being equal,
should have a direct ratio to it. The extent of circulation is a
matter of almost constant misrepresentation on the part of publishers
or their agents.
As a rule, the most prominent and costly part of the paper is the
best. In country weeklies the "local items," or next to them, is
preferable. In city journals containing a large amount of reading
matter, a well displayed advertisement on the outside pages is perhaps
the best for most classes of business.
Place the advertisement before the public at the proper time, just when
people are beginning to feel the need of such as the article advertised,
as furs, when winter sets in. An advertisement may, however, profitably
be kept before the public constantly, and increased or diminished as
occasion requires.
CIRCULARS.
There are many well established firms who will not advertise in the
newspapers at all. They believe that the same amount of money spent
in circulars, catalogues, etc., sent direct to the persons whom they
desire to reach, pays better than newspaper advertising. This is more
direct, and affords the advertiser the opportunity of setting forth
his claims more fully. Circulars, cards, catalogues, etc., also afford
a means for the display of taste in their typographical arrangement
and appearance, and often times this has as much to do in making
an impression on the person who receives it, as the reading matter
contained therein. The printed circular goes out to the public as the
representative of the house; it should, therefore, in order to command
attention and respect, have about it, an air of appropriateness and
attraction. Such a circular will perhaps be carefully preserved for
years, while another which was of not enough importance, apparently,
to the proprietor or firm issuing it, to command their taste and
skill, will soon be thrown aside as of no importance to the person
receiving it.
Several circulars must often be sent in order to command the attention
and secure the custom of a person. Where circulars referring to the
same article are repeatedly sent out, the attention of the person who
receives them is likely to be arrested at last, and his response may
be made in the form of an order.
Perhaps thereafter he becomes a constant customer, buying himself, and
recommending his friends to do likewise.
CHARTS, CALENDARS, ETC.
An important idea in advertising is to enlist the services of others,
by making it to their interest to advertise your business. This is
often done by sending out charts, calendars, etc., containing useful
information, together with the advertisement. These, when properly
arranged and prepared in an attractive manner, will be placed in
a conspicuous place in the store, office, or home of the person
receiving them. Railway, insurance, and other corporations have vied
with each other in the elegance and attractiveness of their charts,
etc., until they have gone into the fine arts, and spared no expense
to captivate the public.
LETTERS.
More effectual than circulars, and nearest a personal interview, is a
personal letter. As an advertisement the letter impresses itself upon
the mind of the person receiving it, in an unusual way. A prominent
firm employed clerks, and had written several thousand letters, at
many times the cost of printed circulars, which they mailed throughout
the country, calling especial attention to their line of goods. Even
the two cent postage stamp, and the envelope being sealed, impresses
the person receiving it with the thought that it is of importance,
and one of the largest dry goods houses in Chicago, when issuing any
circular which they regard as special, seal the envelope and place a
two cent stamp thereon. They consider that this gives their circulars
a preference over ordinary printed matter. Certain it is, that the
public accept advertisements largely at the value and importance
attached to them by their owners.
DRUMMERS AND AGENTS.
Personal effort exceeds all other means of advertising, and
competition in many branches of business has become so strong in these
times, and the facilities for travel so excellent, that large numbers
of solicitors and agents traverse the country. Good personal address,
a thorough understanding of the business, a knowledge of human nature,
together with social qualities, constitute a good drummer.
HOW TO WRITE AN ADVERTISEMENT.
Before writing an advertisement, one should always place before his
mind what is the most important thing to impress upon the public. If
he is advertising an article of established trade, it is the name and
location of the house selling it which must be the more prominent, or
at least equally so with any other part; but if he be introducing some
new article, or seeking to extend the sale of something little known
or rare, these items are of far less importance, and the name of the
article itself should be more prominent. The advertisement should be
so constructed as to claim the attention of the reader, and retain
that attention until he has read it through. "Excite but never
satisfy," is the principle pursued by many successful advertisers.
The advertisement should never contain anything repugnant to refined
taste, and nothing grotesque or ridiculous. The most meaning should be
condensed into the fewest possible words. The wording should often be
changed, and an attractive typography should be used. It is well to
choose an attractive heading, followed by fairly spaced paragraphs,
with appropriate sub-heads.
* * * * *
[Illustration: HOW TO BE HANDSOME.]
HOW TO BE HANDSOME
Where is the woman who would not be beautiful? If such there be--but
no, she does not exist. From that memorable day when the Queen of
Sheba made a formal call on the late lamented King Solomon until the
recent advent of the Jersey Lily, the power of beauty has controlled
the fate of dynasties and the lives of men. How to be beautiful, and
consequently powerful, is a question of far greater importance to the
feminine mind than predestination or any other abstract subject.
If women are to govern, control, manage, influence and retain the
adoration of husbands, fathers, brothers, lovers or even cousins, they
must look their prettiest at all times.
All women cannot have good features, but they can look well, and it
is possible to a great extent to correct deformity and develop much of
the figure. The first step to good looks is good health, and the
first element of health is cleanliness. Keep clean--wash freely, bathe
regularly. All the skin wants is leave to act, and it takes care of
itself. In the matter of baths we do not strongly advocate a plunge
in ice-cold water; it takes a woman with clear grit and a strong
constitution to endure it. If a hot bath be used, let it come before
retiring, as there is less danger of taking cold afterwards; and,
besides, the body is weakened by the ablution and needs immediate
rest. It is well to use a flesh-brush, and afterwards rinse off the
soap-suds by briskly rubbing the body with a pair of coarse toilet
gloves. The most important part of a bath is the drying. Every part of
the body should be rubbed to a glowing redness, using a coarse crash
towel at the finish. If sufficient friction can not be given, a small
amount of bay rum applied with the palm of the hand will be found
efficacious. Ladies who have ample leisure and who lead methodical
lives, take a plunge or sponge bath three times a week, and a vapor
or sun bath every day. To facilitate this very beneficial practice, a
south or east apartment is desirable. The lady denudes herself, takes
a seat near the window, and takes in the warm rays of the sun. The
effect is both beneficial and delightful. If, however, she be of
a restless disposition, she may dance, instead of basking, in the
sunlight. Or, if she be not fond of dancing, she may improve the
shining hours by taking down her hair and brushing it, using sulphur
water, pulverized borax dissolved in alcohol, or some similar
dressing. It would be surprising to many ladies to see her carefully
wiping the separate locks on a clean, white towel until the dust
of the previous day is entirely removed. With such care it is not
necessary to wash the head, and the hair under this treatment is
invariably good.
One of the most useful articles of the toilet is a bottle of ammonia,
and any lady who has once learned its value will never be without it.
A few drops in the water takes the place of the usual amount of soap,
and cleans out the pores of the skin as well as a bleach will do.
Wash the face with a flesh-brush, and rub the lips well to tone their
color. It is well to bathe the eyes before putting in the spirits, and
if it is desirable to increase their brightness, this may be done by
dashing soapsuds into them. Always rub the eyes, in washing, toward
the nose. If the eyebrows are inclined to spread irregularly, pinch
the hairs together where thickest. If they show a tendency to meet,
this contact may be avoided by pulling out the hairs every morning
before the toilet.
The dash of Orientalism in costume and lace now turns a lady's
attention to her eyelashes, which are worthless if not long and
drooping. Indeed, so prevalent is the desire for this beautiful
feature that hair-dressers and ladies' artists have scores of
customers under treatment for invigorating their stunted eyelashes and
eyebrows. To obtain these fringed curtains, anoint the roots with a
balsam made of two drachms of nitric oxid of mercury mixed with one
of leaf lard. After an application wash the roots with a camel's hair
brush dipped in warm milk. Tiny scissors are used, with which the
lashes are carefully but slightly trimmed every other day. When
obtained, refrain from rubbing or even touching the lids with the
finger-nails. There is more beauty in a pair of well-kept eyebrows
and full, sweeping eyelashes than people are aware of, and a very
inattractive and lusterless eye assumes new beauty when it looks out
from beneath elongated fringes. Many ladies have a habit of rubbing
the corners of their eyes to remove the dust that will frequently
accumulate there. Unless this operation is done with little friction
it will be found that the growth of hair is very spare, and in that
case it will become necessary to pencil the barren corners. Instead
of putting cologne water on the handkerchief, which has come to be
considered a vulgarism among ladies of correct tastes, the perfume is
spent on the eyebrows and lobes of the ears.
If commenced in youth, thick lips may be reduced by compression, and
thin linear ones are easily modified by suction. This draws the blood
to the surfaces, and produces at first a temporary and, later, a
permanent inflation. It is a mistaken belief that biting the lips
reddens them. The skin of the lips is very thin, rendering them
extremely susceptible to organic derangement, and if the atmosphere
does not cause chaps or parchment, the result of such harsh treatment
will develop into swelling or the formation of scars. Above all
things, keep a sweet breath.
Everybody can not have beautiful hands, but there is no plausible
reason for their being ill kept. Red hands may be overcome by soaking
the feet in hot water as often as possible. If the skin is hard and
dry, use tar or oat-meal soap, saturate them with glycerine, and wear
gloves in bed. Never bathe them in hot water, and wash no oftener than
is necessary. There are dozens of women with soft, white hands who do
not put them in water once a month. Rubber gloves are worn in making
the toilet, and they are cared for by an ointment of glycerine and
rubbed dry with chamois-skin or cotton flannel. The same treatment is
not unfrequently applied to the face with the most successful results.
If such methods are used, it would be just as well to keep the
knowledge of it from the gentlemen. We know of one beautiful lady who
has not washed her face for three years, yet it is always clean, rosy,
sweet and kissable. With some of her other secrets she gave it to her
lover for safe keeping. Unfortunately, it proved to be her last gift
to that gentleman, who declared in a subsequent note that "I can not
reconcile my heart and my manhood to a woman who can get along without
washing her face."
SOME OF THE SECRETS OF BEAUTY.
There is as much a "fashion" in complexion as there is in bonnets
or boots. Sometimes nature is the mode, sometimes art. Just now the
latter is in the ascendant, though, as a rule, only in that inferior
phase which has not reached the "concealment of art"--the point
where extremes meet and the perfection of artifice presents all the
appearance of artlessness. No one of an observant turn of mind, who
is accustomed to the sight of English maids and matrons, can deny
that making-up, as at present practiced, partakes of the amateurish
element. Impossible reds and whites grow still more impossibly red
and white from week to week under the unskilled hands of the wearer of
"false colors," who does not like to ask for advice on so delicate a
subject, for, even were she willing to confess to the practice, the
imputation of experience conveyed in the asking for counsel might be
badly received, and would scarcely be in good taste.
The prevalent and increasing short-sightedness of our times is,
perhaps, partly the cause of the excessive use of rouge and powder.
The wielder of the powder puff sees herself afar off, as it were. She
knows that she cannot judge of the effect of her complexion with her
face almost touching its reflection in the glass, and, standing about
a yard off, she naturally accentuates her roses and lilies in a way
that looks very pleasing to her, but is rather startling to any one
with longer sight. Nor can she tone down her rouge with the powdered
hair that softened the artificial coloring of her grandmother when she
had her day. Powder is only occasionally worn with evening dress,
and it is by daylight that those dreadful bluish reds and whites look
their worst.
On the other hand, there are some women so clever at making up their
faces that one feels almost inclined to condone the practice in
admiration of the result. These are the small minority, and are likely
to remain so, for their secret is of a kind unlikely to be shared. The
closest inspection of these cleverly managed complexions reveals no
trace of art.
Notwithstanding the reticence of these skilled artists, an occasional
burst of confidence has revealed a few of their means of accomplishing
the great end of looking pretty. "Do you often do that?" said one of
those clever ones, a matron of 37, who looked like a girl of 19, to a
friend who was vigorously rubbing her cheeks with a course towel after
a plentiful application of cold water.
"Yes, every time I come in from a walk, ride or drive. Why?"
"Well, no wonder you look older than you are. You are simply wearing
your face out!"
"But I must wash?"
"Certainly, but not like that. Take a leaf out of my book; never
wash you face just before going out into the fresh air, or just after
coming in. Nothing is more injurious to the skin. Come to the glass.
Do you notice a drawn look about your eyes and a general streakiness
in the cheeks? That is the result of your violent assault upon your
complexion just now. You look at this moment ten years older than you
did twenty minutes ago in the park."
"Well, I really do. I look old enough to be your mother; but then, you
are wonderful. You always look so young and fresh!"
"Because I never treat my poor face so badly as you do yours. I use
rain-water, and if I cannot get that, I have the water filtered. When
I dress for dinner I always wash my face with milk, adding just enough
hot water to make it pleasant to use. A very soft sponge and very fine
towel take the place of your terrible huckaback arrangement."
Two or three years ago a lady of Oriental parentage on her father's
side spent a season in London society. Her complexion was brown,
relieved by yellow, her features large and irregular, but redeemed
by a pair of lovely and expressive eyes. So perfect was her taste in
dress that she always attracted admiration wherever she went. Dressed
in rich dark brown or dullest crimsons or russets, so that no one
ever noticed much what she wore, she so managed that suggestions
and hints--no more--of brilliant amber or [Transcriber's Note: The
original text reads 'promegranate'] pomegranate scarlet should appear
just where they imparted brilliancy to her deep coloring, and abstract
the yellow from her skin. A knot of old gold satin under the rim of
her bonnet, another at her throat, and others in among the lace at her
wrists, brightened up the otherwise subdued tinting of her costume, so
that it always looked as though it had been designed expressly for her
by some great colorist. Here rouge was unnecessary. The surroundings
were arranged to suit the complexion, instead of the complexion to
suit the surroundings. There can be no doubt as to which is the method
which best becomes the gentlewoman.
In addition to the disagreeable sensation of making-up, it must
be remembered that the use of some of the white powders eventually
destroys the texture of the skin, rendering it rough and coarse.
Rimmel, the celebrated perfumer, in his "Book of Perfumes," says that
rouge, being composed of cochineal and saffron, is harmless, but that
white cosmetics consist occasionally of deleterious substances which
may injure the health. He advises actors and actresses to choose
cosmetics, especially the white, with the greatest care, and women of
the world, who wish to preserve the freshness of their complexion, to
observe the following recipe: Open air, rest, exercise and cold water.
In another part of this pleasant book the author says that _schonada_,
a cosmetic used among the Arabs, is quite innocuous and at the same
time effectual. "This cream, which consists of sublimated benzoin,
acts upon the skin as a slight stimulant, and imparts perfectly
natural colors during some hours without occasioning the
inconveniences with which European cosmetics may justly be
reproached." It is a well-known fact that bismuth, a white powder
containing sugar of lead, injures the nerve-centers when constantly
employed, and occasionally causes paralysis itself.
In getting up the eyes, nothing is injurious that is not dropped into
them. Tho use of _kohl_ or _kohol_ is quite harmless, and, it must be
confessed, very effective when applied--as the famous recipe for salad
dressing enjoins with regard to the vinegar--by the hand of a miser.
Modern Egyptian ladies make their _kohol_ of the smoke produced by
burning almonds. A small bag holding the bottle of _kohol_, and a pin,
with a rounded point with which to apply it, form part of the toilet
paraphernalia of all the beauties of Cairo, who make the immense
mistake of getting up their eyes in an exactly similar manner, thus
trying to reduce the endless variety of nature to one common pattern,
a mistake that may be accounted for by the fact that the Arabs believe
_kohol_ to be a sovereign specific against ophthalmia. Their English
sisters often make the same mistake without the same excuse. A hairpin
steeped in lampblack is the usual method of darkening the eyes in
England, retribution following sooner or later in the shape of a total
loss of the eyelashes. Eau de Cologne is occasionally dropped into
the eyes, with the effect of making them brighter. The operation is
painful, and it is said that half a dozen drops of whisky and the
same quantity of Eau de Cologne, eaten on a lump of sugar, is quite as
effective.
HIGH-HEELED BOOTS.
A lady looks infinitely taller and slimmer in a long dress than she
does in a short costume, and there is always a way of showing the
feet, if desired, by making the front quite short, which gives,
indeed, a more youthful appearance to a train dress. The greatest
attention must, of course, be paid to the feet with these short
dresses, and I may here at once state that high heels are absolutely
forbidden by fashion. Doctors, are you content? Only on cheap shoes
and boots are they now made, and are only worn by common people. A
good bootmaker will not make high heels now, even if paid double price
to do so. Ladies--that is, real ladies--now wear flat-soled shoes and
boots, _a la_ Cinderella. For morning walking, boots or high Moliere
shoes are worn.
If you wear boots you may wear any stockings you like, for no one
sees them. But if you wear shoes you must adapt your stockings to your
dress. Floss silk, Scotch thread, and even cotton stockings are worn
for walking, silk stockings have returned into exclusively evening
wear. Day stockings should be of the same color as the dress, but
they may be shaded, or stripped, or dotted, just as you please. White
stockings are absolutely forbidden for day wear--no one wears them--no
one dares wear them under fashion's interdiction.
HOW TO APPEAR GRACEFUL IN WALKING.
The whole secret of standing and walking erect consists in keeping
the chin well away from the breast. This throws the head upward and
backward, and the shoulders will naturally settle backward and
in their true position. Those who stoop in walking generally look
downward. The proper way is to look straight ahead, upon the same
level with your eyes, or if you are inclined to stoop, until that
tendency is overcome, look rather above than below the level.
Mountaineers are said to be as "straight as an arrow," and the reason
is because they are obliged to look upward so much. It is simply
impossible to stoop in walking if you will heed and practice this
rule. You will notice that all round-shouldered persons carry the chin
near the breast and pointed downward. Take warning in time, and heed
grandmother's advice, for a bad habit is more easily prevented than
cured. The habit of stooping when one walks or stands is a bad habit
and especially hard to cure.
* * * * *
[Illustration: MULTUM IN PARVO.]
MULTUM IN PARVO
HISTORY OF THE BIBLES OF THE WORLD.
The Bibles of the world are the koran of the Mohammedans, the
tripitaka of the Buddhists, the five kings of the Chinese, the three
vedas of the Hindoos, the zendavesta of the Parsees and the scriptures
of the Christians. The koran, says the Chicago Times, is the most
recent, dating from the seventh century after Christ. It is a compound
of quotations from both the Old and the New Testaments and from the
talmud. The tripitaka contain sublime morals and pure aspirations.
Their author lived and died in the sixth century before Christ.
The sacred writings of the Chinese are called the five kings, the word
"king" meaning web of cloth. From this it is presumed that they were
originally written on five rolls of cloth. They contain wise sayings
from the sages on the duties of life, but they can not be traced
further back than the eleventh century before our era. The vedas are
the most ancient books in the language of the Hindoos, but they do
not, according to late commentators, antedate the twelfth before the
Christian era. The zendaveata of the Parsees, next to our Bible, is
reckoned among scholars as being the greatest and most learned of
the sacred writings. Zoroaster, whose sayings it contains, lived and
worked in the twelfth century before Christ. Moses lived and wrote
the pentateuch 1,500 years before the birth of Jesus, therefore that
portion of our Bible is at least 300 years older than the most
ancient of other sacred writings. The eddas, a semi-sacred work of the
Scandinavians, was first given to the world in the fourteen century
A.D.
PRECIOUS STONES.
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO COLOR AND IN ORDER OF HARDINESS.
_Limpid_.--Diamond, Sapphire, Topaz, Rock-Crystal.
_Blue_.--Sapphire, Topaz, Indicolite, Turquoise, Spinel, Aquamarine,
Kaynite.
_Green_.--Oriental Emerald, Chrysoberyl, Amazon Stone, Malachite,
Emerald, Chrysoprase, Chrysolite.
_Yellow_.--Diamond, Topaz, Fire-Opal.
_Red_.--Sapphire-Ruby, Spinel-Ruby, Rubellite, Garnet,
Brazilian-Topaz, Hyacinth, Carnelian.
_Violet_.--Oriental-Amethyst, Amethyst.
_Black and Brown_.--Diamond, Tourmaline, Hyacinth, Garnet.
HOW TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB.
Rule: 1st. Measure the length, breadth and height of the crib inside
the rail; multiply them together and divide by two, the result is the
number of bushels of shelled corn.
2d. Level the corn so that it is of equal depth throughout, multiply
the length, breath and depth together, and this product by four,
and cut off one figure to the right of the product; the other will
represent the number of bushels of shelled corn.
3d. Multiply length by height, and then by width, add two ciphers to
the result and divide by 124; this gives the number of bushels of ear
corn.
HOME DRESSMAKING.
The art of dressmaking in America has been of late years so simplified
that almost anyone with a reasonable degree of executive ability can
manufacture a fashionable costume by using an approved pattern and
following the directions printed upon it, selecting a new pattern for
each distinct style; while in Europe many ladies adhere to the old
plan of cutting one model and using it for everything, trusting to
personal skill or luck to gain the desired formation. However, some
useful hints are given which are well worth offering after the paper
pattern has been chosen.
The best dressmakers here and abroad use silk for lining, but nothing
is so durable or preserves the material as well as a firm slate twill.
This is sold double width and should be laid out thus folded: place
the pattern upon it with the upper part towards the cut end, the
selvedge for the fronts. The side pieces for the back will most
probably be got out of the width, while the top of the back will fit
in the intersect of the front. A yard of good stuff may be often saved
by laying the pattern out and well considering how one part cuts into
another. Prick the outline on to the lining; these marks serve as a
guide for the tacking.
In forming the front side plaits be careful and do not allow a fold
or crease to be apparent on the bodice beyond where the stitching
commences. To avoid this, before beginning stick a pin through what
is to be the top of the plait. The head will be on the right side, and
holding the point, one can begin pinning the seam without touching the
upper part of the bodice. To ascertain the size of the buttonholes put
a piece of card beneath the button to be used and cut it an eighth of
an inch on either side beyond. Having turned down the piece in front
on the buttonhole side run a thread a sixteenth of an inch from the
extreme edge, and again another the width of the card. Begin to cut
the first buttonhole at the bottom of the bodice; and continue at
equal distances. The other side of the bodice is left wide enough to
come well under the buttonholes. The buttonholes must be laid upon it
and a pin put through the center of each to mark where the button
is to be placed. In sewing on the buttons put the stiches in
horizontally; if perpendicularly they are likely to pucker that side
of the bodice so much that it will be quite drawn up, and the buttons
will not match the buttonholes.
A WOMAN'S SKIRTS.
Observe the extra fatigue which is insured to every woman in merely
carrying a tray upstairs, from the skirts of the dress. Ask any young
women who are studying to pass examinations whether they do not find
loose clothes a _sine qua non_ while poring over their books, and then
realize the harm we are doing ourselves and the race by habitually
lowering our powers of life and energy in such a manner. As a matter
of fact it is doubtful whether any persons have ever been found
who would say that their stays were at all tight; and, indeed, by a
muscular contraction they can apparently prove that they are not so by
moving them about on themselves, and thus probably believe what
they say. That they are in error all the same they can easily assure
themselves by first measuring round the waist outside the stays; then
take them off, let them measure while they take a deep breath, with
the tape merely laid on the body as if measuring for the quantity of
braid to go round a dress, and mark the result. The injury done by
stays is so entirely internal that it is not strange that the maladies
caused by wearing them should be attributed to every reason under
the sun except the true one, which is, briefly, that all the internal
organs, being by them displaced, are doing their work imperfectly and
under the least advantageous conditions: and are, therefore, exactly
in the state most favorable to the development of disease, whether
hereditary or otherwise.--_Macmillan's Magazine._
TO MAKE THE SLEEVES.
As to sleeves. Measure from the shoulder to the elbow and again from
elbow to the wrist. Lay these measurements on any sleeve patterns you
may have, and lengthen and shorten accordingly. The sleeve is cut in
two pieces, the top of the arm and the under part, which is about an
inch narrower than the outside. In joining the two together, if the
sleeve is at all tight, the upper part is slightly fulled to the lower
at the elbow. The sleeve is sewn to the armhole with no cordings now,
and the front seam should be about two inches in front of the bodice.
Bodices are now worn very tight-fitting, and the French stretch the
material well on the cross before beginning to cut out, and in cutting
allow the lining to be slightly pulled, so that when on, the outside
stretches to it and insures a better fit. An experienced eye can tell
a French-cut bodice at once, the front side pieces being always on the
cross. In dress cutting and fitting, as in everything else, there
are failures and discouragements, but practice overrules these little
matters, and "trying again" brings a sure reward in success.
A sensible suggestion is made in regard to the finish in necks of
dresses for morning wear. Plain colors have rather a stiff appearance,
tulle or crepe lisse frilling are expensive and frail, so it is a good
idea to purchase a few yards of really good washing lace, about an
inch and a half in depth; quill or plait and cut into suitable lengths
to tack around the necks of dresses. This can be easily removed
and cleaned when soiled. A piece of soft black Spanish lace, folded
loosely around the throat close to the frillings, but below it, looks
very pretty; or you may get three yards of scarf lace, trim the ends
with frillings, place it around the neck, leaving nearly all the
length in the right hand, the end lying upon the left shoulder being
about half a yard long. Wind the larger piece twice around the throat,
in loose, soft folds, and festoon the other yard and a half, and
fasten with brooch or flower at the side.--_Philadelphia Times._
DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA.
It was on the 19th day of January, 1848, that James W. Marshall, while
engaged in digging a race for a saw-mill at Coloma, about thirty-five
miles eastward from Sutter's Fort, found some pieces of yellow metal,
which he and the half-dozen men working with him at the mill supposed to
be gold. He felt confident that he had made a discovery of great
importance, but he knew nothing of either chemistry or gold-mining, so
he could not prove the nature of the metal nor tell how to obtain it in
paying quantities. Every morning he went down to the race to look for
the bits of metal; but the other men at the mill thought Marshall was
very wild in his ideas, and they continued their labors in building the
mill, and in sowing wheat and planting vegetables. The swift current of
the mill-race washed away a considerable body of earthy matter, leaving
the coarse particles of gold behind; so Marshall's collection of
specimens continued to accumulate, and his associates began to think
there might be something in his gold mines after all. About the middle
of February, a Mr. Bennett, one of the party employed at the mill, went
to San Francisco for the purpose of learning whether this metal was
precious, and there he was introduced to Isaac Humphrey, who had washed
for gold in Georgia. The experienced miner saw at a glance that he
had the true stuff before him, and, after a few inquiries, he was
satisfied that the diggings must be rich. He made immediate preparation
to visit the mill, and tried to persuade some of his friends to go with
him; but they thought it would be only a waste of time and money, so he
went with Bennett for his sole companion.
He arrived at Coloma on the 7th of March, and found the work at the
mill going on as if no gold existed in the neighborhood. The next day
he took a pan and spade, and washed some of the dirt in the bottom of
the mill-race in places where Marshall had found his specimens, and,
in a few hours, Humphrey declared that these mines were far richer
than any in Georgia. He now made a rocker and went to work washing
gold industriously, and every day yielded to him an ounce or two of
metal. The men at the mill made rockers for themselves, and all
were soon busy in search of the yellow metal. Everything else was
abandoned; the rumor of the discovery spread slowly. In the middle of
March Pearson B. Reading, the owner of a large ranch at the head of
the Sacramento valley, happened to visit Sutter's Fort, and hearing
of the mining at Coloma, he went thither to see it. He said that if
similarity of formation could be taken as a proof, there must be gold
mines near his ranch; so, after observing the method of washing, he
posted off, and in a few weeks he was at work on the bars of Clear
Creek, nearly two hundred miles northwestward from Coloma. A few
days after Reading had left, John Bidwell, now representative of the
northern district of the State in the lower House of Congress, came to
Coloma, and the result of his visit was that, in less than a month,
he had a party of Indians from his ranch washing gold on the bars of
Feather River, twenty-five miles northwestward from Coloma. Thus the
mines were opened at far distant points.
The first printed notice of the discovery of gold was given in the
California newspaper published in San Francisco on the 10th of March.
On the 29th of May the same paper, announcing that its publication
would be suspended, says: "The whole country, from San Francisco to
Los Angeles, and from the seashore to the base of the Sierra Nevada,
resound the sordid cry of _gold! gold! gold!_ while the field is left
half planted, the house half built and everything neglected but the
manufacture of pick and shovels, and the means of transportation to
the spot where one man obtained one hundred and twenty-eight dollars'
worth of the real stuff in one day's washing; and the average for all
concerned, is twenty dollars per diem. The first to commence quartz
mining in California were Capt. Win. Jackson and Mr. Eliason, both
Virginians, and the first machine used was a Chilian mill.
The Reid Mine, in North Carolina, was the first gold mine discovered
and worked in the United States, and the only one in North America
from which, up to 1825, gold was sent to the Mint.
HOW TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL GOLD.
The following oroid or imitation gold is sometimes sold for the
genuine article which it closely resembles. Pure copper, 100 parts by
weight, is melted in a crucible, and then 6 parts of magnesia, 3.6 of
sal-ammoniac, 1.8 of quicklime and 9. of tartar are added separately
and gradually in the form of powder. The whole is then stirred for
about half an hour, and 17 parts of zinc or tin in small grains are
thrown in and thoroughly mixed. The [Transcriber's Note: The original
text reads 'cruicible'] crucible is now covered and the mixture kept
melted for half an hour longer, when it is skimmed and poured out.
Any imitation of gold may be detected by its weight, which is not
one-half of what it should be, and by its dissolving in nitric acid
while pure gold is untouched.
HOW TO TELL ANY PERSON'S AGE.
There is a good deal of amusement in the following magical table of
figures. It will enable you to tell how old the young ladies are. Just
hand this table to a young lady, and request her to tell you in which
column or columns her age is contained, and add together the figures
at the top of the columns in which her age is found, and you have
the great secret. Thus, suppose her age to be 17, you will find that
number in the first and fifth columns; add the first figures of these
two columns.
Here is the magic table:
1 2 4 8 16 32
3 3 5 9 17 33
5 6 6 10 18 34
7 7 7 11 19 35
9 10 12 12 20 36
11 11 13 13 21 37
13 14 14 14 22 38
15 15 15 15 23 39
17 18 20 24 24 40
19 19 21 25 25 41
21 22 22 26 26 42
23 23 23 27 27 43
25 26 28 28 28 44
27 27 29 29 29 45
29 30 30 30 30 46
31 31 31 31 31 47
33 34 36 40 48 48
35 35 37 41 49 49
37 38 38 42 50 50
39 39 39 43 51 51
41 42 44 44 52 52
43 43 45 45 53 53
45 46 46 46 54 54
47 47 47 47 55 55
49 50 52 56 56 56
51 51 53 57 57 57
53 54 54 58 58 58
55 55 55 59 59 59
57 58 60 60 60 60
59 59 61 61 61 61
61 62 62 62 62 62
63 63 63 63 63 63
WHAT THE WHITE HOUSE COSTS.
Salary of President, $50,000; additional appropriations are about
$75,000. A total of $125,000. The President has the following corps
of assistants: Private Secretary, $3,250; Assistant Private Secretary,
$2,250; Stenographer, $1,800; five Messengers, $1,200 each, $6,000;
Steward--; two Doorkeepers, $1,200 each, $2,400; two Ushers, $1,200,
$1,400, $2,600; Night Usher, $1,200; Watchman, $900, and a few other
minor clerks and telegraph operators.
SUNDRIES.--Incidental expenses, $8,000; White House repairs--carpets
and refurnishing, $12,500; fuel, $2,500; green-house, $4,000; gas,
matches and stable, $15,000.
These amounts, with others of minor importance, consume the entire
appropriations.
BUSINESS LAW.
Ignorance of the law excuses no one. It is a fraud to conceal a fraud.
The law compels no one to do impossibilities. An agreement without
consideration is void. Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in
law. A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. The acts of one
partner bind all the others. Contracts made on Sunday cannot be
enforced. A contract made with a minor is void. A contract made with a
lunatic is void. Principals are responsible for the acts of their
agents. Agents are responsible to their principals for errors. Each
individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole amount of the
debts of the firm. A note given by a minor is void. Notes bear interest
only when so stated. It is legally necessary to say on a note "for value
received." A note drawn on Sunday is void. A note obtained by fraud, or
from a person in a state of intoxication, cannot be collected. If a note
be lost or stolen, it does not release the maker; he must pay it. An
endorser of a note is exempt from liability if not served with notice of
its dishonor within twenty-four hours of its non-payment.
ITEMS WORTH REMEMBERING.
A sun bath is of more worth than much warming by the fire.
Books exposed to the atmosphere keep in better condition than if
confined in a book-case. Pictures are both for use and ornament. They
serve to recall pleasant memories and scenes; they harmonize with the
furnishing of the rooms. If they serve neither of these purposes they
are worse than useless; they only help fill space which would look
better empty, or gather dust and make work to keep them clean.
A room filled with quantities of trifling ornaments has the look of
a bazaar and displays neither good taste nor good sense. Artistic
excellence aims to have all the furnishings of a high order of
workmanship combined with simplicity, while good sense understands the
folly of dusting a lot of rubbish.
A poor book had best be burned to give place to a better, or even to
an empty shelf, for the fire destroys its poison, and puts it out of
the way of doing harm.
Better economize in the purchasing of furniture or carpets than scrimp
in buying good books or papers.
Our sitting-rooms need never be empty of guests or our libraries of
society if the company of good books is admitted to them.
REMARKABLE CALCULATIONS REGARDING THE SUN.
The sun's average distance from the earth is about 91,500,000 miles.
Since the orbit of the earth is elliptical, and the sun is situated at
one of its foci, the earth is nearly 3,000,000 miles further from
the sun in aphelion than in perihelion. As we attempt to locate the
heavenly bodies in space, we are immediately startled by the enormous
figures employed. The first number, 91,500,000 miles, is far beyond
our grasp. Let us try to comprehend it. If there were air to convey a
sound from the sun to the earth, and a noise could be made loud enough
to pass that distance it would require over fourteen years for it to
come to us. Suppose a railroad could be built to the sun. An express
train traveling day and night at the rate of thirty miles an hour,
would require 341 years to reach its destination. Ten generations
would be born and would die; the young men would become gray haired,
and their great-grandchildren would forget the story of the beginning
of that wonderful journey, and could find it only in history, as we
now read of Queen Elizabeth or of Shakespeare; the eleventh generation
would see the solar depot at the end of the route. Yet this enormous
distance of 91,500,000 miles is used as the unit for expressing
celestial distances--as the foot-rule for measuring space; and
astronomers speak of so many times the sun's distance as we speak of
so many feet or inches.
SIGNS OF STORMS APPROACHING.--A ring around the sun or moon stands for
an approaching storm, its near or distant approach being indicated by
its larger or smaller circumference. When the sun rises brightly and
immediately afterward becomes veiled with clouds, the farmer distrusts
the day. Rains which begin early in the morning often stop by nine
in place of "eleven," the hour specified in the old saw, "If it rains
before seven."
On a still, quiet day, with scarcely the least wind afloat, the
ranchman or farmer can tell the direction of impending storm by cattle
sniffing the air in the direction whence it is coming. Lack of dew in
summer is a rain sign. Sharp white frosts in autumn and winter precede
damp weather, and we will stake our reputation as a prophet that three
successive white frosts are an infallible sign of rain. Spiders do not
spin their webs out of doors before rain. Previous to rain flies sting
sharper, bees remain in their hives or fly but short distances, and
almost all animals appear uneasy.
HOW TO DISTINGUISH GOOD MEAT FROM BAD MEAT.
1st. It is neither of a pale pink color nor of a deep purple tint,
for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates that the
animal has not been slaughtered, but has died with the blood in it, or
has suffered from acute fever.
2d. It has a marked appearance from the ramifications of little veins
of fat among the muscles.
3d. It should be firm and elastic to the touch and should scarcely
moisten the fingers--bad meat being wet and sodden and flabby with the
fat looking like jelly or wet parchment.
4th. It should have little or no odor, and the odor should not be
disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and
sometimes a smell of physic. This is very discoverable when the meat
is chopped up and drenched with warm water.
5th. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking.
6th. It should not run to water or become very wet on standing for a
day or two, but should, on the contrary, dry upon the surface.
7th. When dried at a temperature of 212 deg., or thereabouts, it
should not lose more than from 70 to 74 per cent. of its weight,
whereas bad meat will often lose as much as 80 per cent. The juice of
the flesh is alkaline or neutral to test paper.
RAILROADS IN FINLAND.
People who think of Finland as a sub-arctic country of bleak and
forbidding aspect maybe surprised to hear that several railroads have
already made a large part of the region accessible. A new line, 160
miles long, has just been opened to the heart of the country in the
midst of great forests and perhaps the most wonderful lake region in
the world. Sportsmen are now within less than a day's journey from St.
Petersburg of central Finland, where there is the best of hunting and
fishing and twenty hours of sunlight every summer day. The most unique
of railroads, however, is still the little line in Norway, north of
the arctic circle, carrying the product of far northern mines to the
sea, and famous as the only railroad that has yet invaded the polar
regions.
COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE ARK AND THE GREAT EASTERN.
The following comparison between the size of Noah's ark and the Great
Eastern, both being considered in point of tonnage, after the old law
for calculating the tonnage of a vessel, exhibits a remarkable
similarity. The cubit of the Bible, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is
20-1/2 inches, or, to be exact, 20.625 inches. Bishop Wilkins makes the
cubit 20.88 inches. According to Newton the dimensions of the ark were:
Length between perpendiculars, 515.62 feet; breadth, 84.94 feet; depth,
51.56 feet; keel, or length for tonnage, 464.08 feet. Tonnage, according
to old law, 18,231 58-94. The measurements of the ark, according to
Wilkins' calculations were: Length, 54700 feet; breadth, 91.16 feet;
depth, 54.70 feet; keel, 492.31 feet. Tonnage, 21,761. Notice how
surprisingly near the Great Eastern came to being constructed after the
same plan: Length, 680 feet; breadth, 83 feet; depth, 60 feet; keel, 630
feet. Tonnage, 23,092.
FINGER NAILS AS AN INDICATION OF CHARACTER.
A white mark on the nail bespeaks misfortune.
Pale or lead-colored nails indicate melancholy people.
Broad nails indicate a gentle, timid, and bashful nature.
Lovers of knowledge and liberal sentiments have round nails.
People with narrow nails are ambitious and quarrelsome.
Small nails indicate littleness of mind, obstinacy and conceit.
Choleric, martial men, delighting in war, have red and spotted nails.
Nails growing into the flesh at the points or sides indicate luxurious
tastes.
People with very pale nails are subject to much infirmity of the flesh
and persecution by neighbors and friends.
DANGERS OF CELLULOID.
A curious accident, which happened recently in Paris, points out a
possible danger in the wearing of combs and bracelets of celluloid. A
little girl sat down before the fire to prepare her lessons. Her hair
was kept back by a semi-circle comb of celluloid. As her head was bent
forward to the fire this became warm, and suddenly burst into flames.
The child's hair was partly burned off, and the skin of the head was
so injured that several months after, though the burn was healed, the
cicatrix formed a white patch on which no hair would grow. The burning
point of celluloid is about 180 degrees, and the comb worn by the girl
had attained that heat as it was held before the fire.
ODD FACTS ABOUT SHOES.
Grecian shoes were peculiar in reaching to the middle of the legs.
The present fashion of shoes was introduced into England in 1633.
In the ninth and tenth centuries the greatest princes of Europe wore
wooden shoes.
Slippers were in use before Shakespeare's time, and were originally
made "rights" and "lefts."
Shoes among the Jews were made of leather, linen, rush or wood;
soldiers' shoes were sometimes made of brass or iron.
In the reign of William Rufus of England, in the eleventh century,
a great beau, "Robert, the Horned," used shoes with sharp points,
stuffed with tow, and twisted like rams' horns.
The Romans made use of two kinds of shoes--the solea, or sandal, which
covered the sole of the foot, and was worn at home and in company, and
the calceus, which covered the whole foot and was always worn with the
toga when a person went abroad.
In the reign of Richard II., shoes were of such absurd length as
to require to be supported by being tied to the knees with chains,
sometimes of gold and silver. In 1463 the English parliament took the
matter in hand and passed an act forbidding shoes with spikes more
than two inches in length being worn and manufactured.
TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE VELOCITIES OF VARIOUS BODIES.
A man walks 3 miles per hour or 4 feet per second.
A horse trots 7 miles per hour or 10 feet per second.
A horse runs 20 miles per hour or 29 feet per second.
Steamboat runs 20 miles per hour or 26 feet per second.
Sailing vessel runs 10 miles per hour or 14 feet per second.
Rapid rivers flow 3 miles per hour or 4 feet per second.
A moderate wind blows 7 miles per hour or 10 feet per second.
A storm moves 36 miles per hour or 52 feet per second.
A hurricane moves 80 miles per hour or 117 feet per second.
A rifle ball 1000 miles per hour or 1466 feet per second.
Sound 743 miles per hour or 1142 feet per second.
Light, 192,000 miles per second.
Electricity, 288,000 miles per second.
QUANTITY OF OIL REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT COLORS.
Heath & Miligan quote the following figures. They are color
manufacturers:
100 parts (weight) White Lead require 12 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Zinc White require 14 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Green Chrome require 15 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Chrome Yellow require 19 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Vermilion require 25 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Light Red require 31 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Madder Lake require 62 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Yellow Ochre require 66 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Light Ochre require 72 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Camels Brown require 75 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Brown Manganese require 87 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Terre Verte require 100 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Parisian Blue require 106 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Burnt Terreverte require 112 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Berlin Blue require 112 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Ivory Black require 112 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Cobalt require 125 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Florentine Brown require 150 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Burnt Terra Sienna require 181 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Raw Terra Sienna require 140 parts of oil.
According to this table, a hundred parts of the quick drying white lead
are ground with 12 parts of oil, and on the other hand slow drying ivory
black requires 112 parts of oil.
PAINTING.
1 gallon Priming Color will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon White Zinc will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon White Paint will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Lead Color will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon Black Paint will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon Stone Color will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Yellow Paint will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Blue Color will cover 45 superficial yards.
1 gallon Green Paint will cover 45 superficial yards.
1 gallon Bright Emerald Green will cover 25 superficial yards.
1 gallon Bronze Green will cover 45 superficial yards.
One pound of paint will cover about four superficial yards the first
coat, and about six yards each additional coat.
RAPID PROCESS OF MARKING GOODS AT ANY DESIRED PER CENT. PROFIT.
Retail merchants, in buying goods by wholesale, buy a great many
articles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, hats and caps, and
notions of various kinds; now the merchant, in buying, for instance,
a dozen hats, knows exactly what one of these hats will retail for in
the market where he deals; and unless he is a good accountant, it
will often take him some time to determine whether he can afford to
purchase the dozen hats and make a living profit by selling them by
the single hat; and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant
often does, he has not time to make the calculation before the goods
are bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making good bargains by
being afraid to bid at random, or if he bids, and the goods are cried
off, he may have made a poor bargain by bidding thus at a venture.
It then becomes a useful and practical problem to determine instantly
what per cent. he would gain if he retailed the hat at a certain
price, to tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of
20 per cent.
_Rule.--Divide what the articles cost per dozen by 10. which is done
by removing the decimal point one place to the left._
For instance, if hats cost $17.50 per dozen, remove the decimal point
one place to the left, making $1.75, what they should be sold for
apiece to gain 20 per cent, on the cost. If they cost $31.00 per
dozen, they should be sold at $3.10 apiece, etc.
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.
Pyramids of Egypt.
Tower, Walls and Terrace Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Statue of Jupiter Olympus, on the Capitoline Hill, at Rome.
Temple of Diana, at Ephesus.
Pharos, or watch-tower, at Alexandria, Egypt.
Colossus of Rhodes, a statue 105 feet high; overthrown by an
earthquake 224 B.C.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a Grecian-Persian city in Asia Minor.
HEAT AND COLD.
Degrees of heat above zero at which substances melt:--Wrought iron,
3,980 degrees; cast iron, 3,479; platinum, 3,080; gold, 2,590; copper,
2,548; steel, 2,500; glass, 2,377; brass, 1,900; silver, 1,250;
antimony, 951; zinc, 740; lead, 594; tin, 421; arsenic, 365; sulphur,
226; beeswax, 151; gutta percha, 145; tallow, 97; lard, 95; pitch, 91;
ice, 33. Degrees of heat above zero at which substances boil:--Ether,
98 degrees; alcohol, 173; water, 212; petroleum, 306; linseed oil,
640; blood heat, 98; eggs hatch, 104.
QUANTITY OF SEED TO AN ACRE.
Wheat, 1-1/2 to 2 bu.; rye, 1-1/2 to 2 bu.; oats, 3 bu.; barley, 2
bu.; buckwheat, 1/2 bu.; corn, broadcast, 4 bu.; corn, in drills, 2 to
3 bu.; corn, in hills, 4 to 8 qts.; broom corn, 1/2 bu.; potatoes,
10 to 15 bu.; rutabagas, 3/4 lbs.; millet, 1/4 bu.; clover, white, 4
qts.; clover, red, 8 qts.; timothy, 6 qts.; orchard grass, 2 qts.;
red top, 1 to 2 pks.: blue grass, 2 bu,; mixed lawn grass, 1/2 bu.;
tobacco, 2 ozs.
SOLUBLE GLASS FOR FLOORS.
Instead of the old-fashioned method of using wax for polishing floors,
etc., soluble glass is now employed to great advantage. For this
purpose the floor is first well cleaned, and then the cracks well
filled up with a cement of water-glass and powdered chalk or gypsum.
Afterward, a water-glass of 60 to 65 , of the thickness of syrup, is
applied by means of a stiff brush. Any desired color may be imparted
to the floor in a second coat of the water-glass, and additional coats
are to be given until the requisite polish is obtained. A still higher
finish may be given by pummicing off the last layer, and then putting
on a coating of oil.
DURABILITY OF A HORSE.
A horse will travel 400 yards in 4-1/2 minutes at a walk, 400 yards
in 2 minutes at a trot, and 400 yards in minute at a gallop. The usual
work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs. raised 1 foot per minute, for
8 hours per day. A horse will carry 250 lbs. 25 miles per day of 8
hours. An average draught-horse will draw 1600 lbs. 23 miles per day
on a level road, weight of wagon included. The average weight of a
horse is 1000 lbs.; his strength is equal to that of 5 men. In a horse
mill moving at 3 feet per second, track 25 feet diameter, he exerts
with the machine the power of 4-1/2 horses. The greatest amount a
horse can pull in a horizontal line is 900 lbs.; but he can only do
this momentarily, in continued exertion, probably half of this is
the limit. He attains his growth in 5 years, will live 25, average 16
years. A horse will live 25 days on water, without solid food, 17 days
without eating or drinking, but only 5 days on solid food, without
drinking.
A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road will travel 1.1 miles
per hour of trip. A 4-horse team will haul from 25 to 30 cubic feet
of lime stone at each load. The time expended in loading, unloading,
etc., including delavs, averages 35 minutes per trip. The cost of
loading and unloading a cart, using a horse cram at the quarry, and
unloading by hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a horse 75 cents,
is 25 cents per perch--24.75 cubic feet. The work done by an animal is
greatest when the velocity with which he moves is 1/8 of the greatest
with which he can move when not impeded, and the force then exerted
.45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a dead pull.
COMPARATIVE COST OF FREIGHT BY WATER AND RAIL.
It has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat can transport
at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 29,000 tons of coal, loaded
in barges. Estimating in this way the boat and its tow, worked by a
few men, carries as much freight to its destination as 3,000 cars and
100 locomotives, manned by 600 men, could transport.
HINTS TO YOUNG HOUSEWIVES.
Glycerine does not agree with a dry skin.
If you use powder always wash it off before going to bed.
When you give your cellar its spring cleaning, add a little copperas
water and salt to the whitewash.
A little ammonia and borax in the water when washing blankets keeps
them soft and prevents shrinkage.
Sprinkling salt on the top and at the bottom of garden walls is said
to keep snails from climbing up or down.
For relief from heartburn or dyspepsia, drink a little cold water in
which has been dissolved a teaspoonful of salt.
For hoarseness, beat a fresh egg and thicken it with fine white sugar.
Eat of it freely and the hoarseness will soon be relieved.
If quilts are folded or rolled tightly after washing, then beaten with
a rolling pin or potato masher, it lightens up the cotton and makes
them seem soft and new.
Chemists say that it takes more than twice as much sugar to sweeten
preserves, sauce, etc., if put in when they begin to cook as it does
to sweeten after the fruit is cooked.
Tar may be removed from the hands by rubbing with the outside of
fresh, orange or lemon peel and drying immediately. The volatile oils
dissolve the tar so that it can be rubbed off.
Moths or any summer flying insects may be enticed to destruction by a
bright tin pan half filled with kerosene set in a dark corner of the
room. Attracted by the bright pan, the moth will meet his death in the
kerosene.
It may be worth knowing that water in which three or four onions have
been boiled, applied with a gilding brush to the frames of pictures
and chimney glasses, will prevent flies from lighting on them and will
not injure the frames.
SUPERSTITIONS REGARDING BABIES.
It is believed by many that if a child cries at its birth and lifts up
only one hand, it is born to command. It is thought very unlucky not
to weigh the baby before it is dressed. When first dressed the clothes
should not be put on over the head, but drawn on over the feet, for
luck. When first taken from the room in which it was born it must
be carried up stairs before going down, so that it will rise in the
world. In any case it must be carried up stairs or up the street,
the first time it is taken out. It is also considered in England and
Scotland unlucky to cut the baby's nails or hair before it is twelve
months old. The saying:
Born on Monday, fair in the face;
Born on Tuesday, full of God's grace;
Born on Wednesday, the best to be had;
Born on Thursday, merry and glad;
Born on Friday, worthily given;
Born on Saturday, work hard for a living;
Born on Sunday, shall never know want,
is known with various changes all over the Christian world; one
deviation from the original makes Friday's child "free in giving."
Thursday has one very lucky hour just before sunrise.
The child that is born on the Sabbath day
Is bonny and good and gay,
While
He who is born on New Year's morn
Will have his own way as sure as you're born.
And
He who is born on Easter morn
Shall never know care, or want, or harm.
SECRET ART OF CATCHING FISH.
Put the oil of rhodium on the bait, when fishing with a hook, and you
will always succeed.
TO CATCH FISH.
Take the juice of smallage or lovage, and mix with any kind of bait.
As long as there remain any kind of fish within yards of your hook,
you will find yourself busy pulling them out.
CERTAIN CURE FOR DRUNKENNESS.
Take of sulphate of iron 5 grains, magnesia 10 grains, peppermint
water 11 drachms, spirits of nutmeg 1 drachm. Administer this twice
a day. It acts as a tonic and stimulant and so partially supplies the
place of the accustomed liquor, and prevents that absolute physical
and moral prostration that follows a sudden breaking off from the use
of stimulating drinks.
LADIES' STAMPING POWDER.
For use in stamping any desired pattern upon goods for needle work,
embroidery, etc. Draw pattern upon heavy paper, and perforate with
small holes all the lines with some sharp instrument, dust the powder
through, remove the pattern and pass a warm iron over the fabric, when
the pattern will become fixed. Any desired color can be used, such as
Prussian blue, chrome green, yellow, vermilion, etc. Fine white rosin,
2 ounces; gum sandarach, 4 ounces; color, 2 ounces. Powder very fine,
mix, and pass through a sieve.
SALARIES OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS, PER ANNUM.
President, Vice-President and Cabinet.--President, $50,000;
Vice-President, $8,000; Cabinet Officers, $8,000 each.
United States Senators.--$5,000, with mileage.
Congress.--Members of Congress, $5,000, with mileage.
Supreme Court.--Chief Justice, $10,500; Associate Justices, $10,000.
Circuit Courts.--Justices of Circuit Courts, $6,000.
Heads of Departments.--Supt. of Bureau of Engraving and Printing,
$4,500; Public Printer, $4,500; Supt. of Census, $5,000; Supt. of
Naval Observatory, $5,000; Supt. of the Signal Service, $4,000;
Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000; Director of the Mint, $4,500;
Commissioner of General Land Office, $4,000; Commissioner of Pensions,
$3,600; Commissioner of Agriculture, $3,000; Commissioner of Indian
Affairs, $3,000; Commissioner of Education $3,000; Commander of Marine
Corps, $3,500; Supt. of Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000.
United States Treasury.--Treasurer, $6,000; Register of Treasury,
$4,000; Commissioner of Customs, $4,000.
Internal Revenue Agencies.--Supervising Agents, $12 per day; 34 other
agents, per day, $6 to $8.
Postoffice Department, Washington.--Three Assistant
Postmaster-Generals, $3,500; Chief Clerk, $2,200.
Postmasters.--Postmasters are divided into four classes. First class,
$3,000 to $4,000 (excepting New York City, which is $8,000); second
class, $2,000 to $3,000; third class, $1,000 to $2,000; fourth
class, less than $1,000. The first three classes are appointed by
the President, and confirmed by the Senate; those of fourth class are
appointed by the Postmaster-General.
Diplomatic appointments.--Ministers to Germany, Great Britain, France
and Russia, $17,500; Ministers to Brazil, China, Austria-Hungary,
Italy, Mexico, Japan and Spain, $12,000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and
Central Amer., $10,000; Ministers to Argentine Confederation, Hawaiian
Islands, Belgium, Hayti, Columbia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and
Venezuela, $7,500; Ministers to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguay,
Bolivia and Portugal, $5,000; Minister to Liberia, $4,000.
Army Officers.--General, $13,500; Lieut.-General, $11,000;
Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500; Colonel, $3,500;
Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000; Major, $2,500; Captain, mounted, $2,000;
Captain, not mounted, $1,800; Regimental Adjutant, $1,800; Regimental
Quartermaster, $1,800; 1st Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; 1st
Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,500; 2d Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; 2d
Lieutenant, not mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, $1,500.
Navy Officers.--Admiral, $13,000; Vice-Admiral, $9,000; Rear-Admirals,
$6,000; Commodores, $5,000; Captains, $45,000; Commanders, $3,500;
Lieut.-Commanders, $2,800; Lieutenants, $2,400; Masters, $1,800;
Ensigns, $1,200; Midshipmen, $1,000; Cadet Midshipmen, $500; Mates,
$900; Medical and Pay Directors and Medical and Pay Inspectors and
Chief Engineers, $4,400; Fleet Surgeons, Fleet Paymasters and Fleet
Engineers, $4,400; Surgeons and Paymasters, $2,800; Chaplains, $2,500.
CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS.
BEFORE CHRIST.
The Deluge: 2348
Babylon built: 2247
Birth of Abraham: 1993
Death of Joseph: 1635
Moses born: 1571
Athens founded: 1556
The Pyramids built: 1250
Solomon's Temple finished: 1004
Rome founded: 753
Jerusalem destroyed: 587
Babylon taken by Jews: 538
Death of Socrates: 400
Rome taken by the Gauls: 835
Paper invented in China: 170
Carthage destroyed: 146
Caesar landed in Britain: 55
Caesar killed: 44
Birth of Christ: 0
AFTER CHRIST.
Death of Augustus: 14
Pilate, governor of Judea: 27
Jesus Christ crucified: 33
Claudius visited Britain: 43
St. Paul put to death: 67
Death of Josephus: 93
Jerusalem rebuilt: 131
The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews and banished the rest
from Judea: 135
The Bible in Gothic: 373
Horseshoes made of iron: 481
Latin tongue ceased to be spoken: 580
Pens made of quills: 635
Organs used: 660
Glass in England: 663
Bank of Venice established: 1157
Glass windows first used for lights: 1180
Mariner's compass used: 1200
Coal dug for fuel: 1234
Chimneys first put to houses: 1236
Spectacles invented by an Italian: 1240
The first English House of Commons: 1258
Tallow candles for lights: 1200
Paper made from linen: 1302
Gunpowder invented: 1340
Woolen cloth made in England: 1341
Printing invented: 1436
The first almanac: 1470
America discovered: 1492
First book printed in England: 1507
Luther began to preach: 1517
Interest fixed at ten per cent. in England: 1547
Telescopes invented: 1549
First coach made in England: 1564
Clocks first made in England: 1568
Bank of England incorporated: 1594
Shakespeare died: 1616
Circulation of the blood discovered: 1619
Barometer invented: 1623
First newspaper: 1629
Death of Galileo: 1643
Steam engine invented: 1649
Great fire in London: 1666
Cotton planted in the United States: 1759
Commencement of the American war: 1775
Declaration of American Independence: 1776
Recognition of American Independence: 1782
Bank of England suspended cash payment: 1791
Napoleon I. crowned emperor: 1804
Death of Napoleon: 1820
Telegraph invented by Morse: 1832
First daguerreotype in France: 1839
Beginning of the American civil war: 1861
End of the American civil war: 1865
Abraham Lincoln died: 1865
Great Chicago Fire: 1871
Jas. A. Garfield died: 1881
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT OUR BODIES.
The weight of the male infant at birth is 7 lbs. avoirdupois; that of
the female is not quite 6-1/2 lbs. The maximum weight (140-1/2 lbs.)
of the male is attained at the age of 40; that of the female (nearly
124 lbs.) is not attained until 50; from which ages they decline
afterward, the male to 127-1/4 lbs., the female to 100 lbs., nearly a
stone. The full-grown adult is 20 times as heavy as a new-born
infant. In the first year he triples his weight, afterwards the growth
proceeds in geometrical progression, so that if 50 infants in their
first year weigh 1,000 lbs., they will in the second weigh 1,210 lbs.;
in the third 1,331: in the fourth 1464 lbs.; the term remaining very
constant up to the ages of 11-12 in females, and 12-13 in males, where
it must be nearly doubled; afterwards it may be continued, and will be
found very nearly correct up to the age of 18 or 19, when the growth
proceeds very slowly. At an equality of age the male is generally
heavier than the female. Towards the age of 12 years only an
individual of each sex has the same weight. The male attains the
maximum weight at about the age of 40, and he begins to lose it very
sensibly toward 60. At 80 he loses about 13.2328 lbs., and the stature
is diminished 2.756 inches. Females attain their maximum weight at
about 50. The mean weight of a mature man is 104 lbs., and of an
average woman 94 lbs. In old age they lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men
weigh most at 40, women at 50, and begin to lose weight at 60. The
mean weight of both sexes in old age is that which they had at 19.
When the male and female have assumed their complete development they
weigh almost exactly 20 times as much as at birth, while the stature
is about 3-1/2 times greater. Children lose weight during the first
three days after birth; at the age of a week they sensibly increase;
after one year they triple their weight; then they require six years
to double their weight, and 13 to quadruple it.
It has been computed that nearly two years' sickness is experienced by
every person before he is 70 years old, and therefore that 10 days per
annum is the average sickness of human life. Till 40 it is but half,
and after 50 it rapidly increases. The mixed and fanciful diet of man
is considered the cause of numerous diseases from which animals are
exempt. Many diseases have abated with changes of diet, and others are
virulent in particular countries, arising from peculiarities.
Human Longevity.--Of 100,000 male and female children, in the first
month they are reduced to 90,396, or nearly a tenth. In the second,
to 87,936. In the third, to 86,175. In the fourth, to 84,720. In the
fifth, to 83,571. In the sixth, to 82,526, and at the end of the first
year to 77,528, the deaths being 2 to 9. The next four years reduce
the 77,528 to 62,448, indicating 37,552 deaths before the completion
of the fifth year.
At 25 years the 100,000 are half, or 49,995; at 52, one-third. At
58-1/2, a fourth, or 25,000; at 67, a fifth; at 76, a tenth; at 81, a
twentieth, or 5,000; and ten attain 100. Children die in large
proportions because their diseases cannot be explained, and because the
organs are not habituated to the functions of life. The mean of life
varies in different countries from 40 to 45. A generation from father to
son is about 30 years; of men in general five-sixths die before 70, and
fifteen-sixteenths before 80. After 80 it is rather endurance than
enjoyment. The nerves are blunted, the senses fail, the muscles are
rigid, the softer tubes become hard, the memory fails, the brain
ossifies, the affections are buried, and hope ceases. The remaining
one-sixteenth die at 80; except a one-thirty-third, at 90. The remainder
die from inability to live, at or before 100.
About the age of 36 the lean man usually becomes fatter and the fat
man leaner. Again, between the years of 43 and 50 his appetite fails,
his complexion fades, and his tongue is apt to be furred on the least
exertion of body or mind. At this period his muscles become flabby,
his joints weak; his spirits droop, and his sleep is imperfect and
unrefreshing. After suffering under these complaints a year, or
perhaps two, he starts afresh with renewed vigor, and goes on to 61 or
62, when a similar change takes place, but with aggravated symptoms.
When these grand periods have been successively passed, the gravity of
incumbent years is more strongly marked, and he begins to boast of his
age.
In Russia, much more than in any other country, instances of longevity
are numerous, if true. In the report of the Holy Synod, in 1827,
during the year 1825, and only among the Greek religion, 848 men had
reached upward of 100 years of age; 32 had passed their 120th year, 4
from 130 to 135. Out of 606,818 men who died in 1826, 2,765 were above
90; 1,432 above 95, and 848 above 100 years of age. Among this last
number 88 were above 115; 24 more than 120; 7 above 125, and one 130.
Riley asserts that Arabs in the Desert live 200 years.
On the average, men have their first-born at 30 and women at 28.
The greatest number of deliveries take place between 25 and 35. The
greatest number of deliveries take place in the winter months, and in
February, and the smallest in July, i.e., to February, as 4 to 5 in
towns and 3 to 4 in the country. The night births are to the day as 5
to 4.
Human Strength.--In Schulze's experiments on human strength, he found
that men of five feet, weighing 126 lbs., could lift vertically 156
lbs. 8 inches; 217 lbs. 1.2 inches. Others, 6.1 feet, weighing 183
lbs., 156 lbs. 13 inches, and 217 lbs. 6 inches; others 6 feet 3
inches, weighing 158 lbs., 156 lbs. 16 inches, and 217 lbs. 9 inches.
By a great variety of experiments he determined the mean human
strength at 30 lbs., with a velocity of 2.5 feet per second; or it is
equal to the raising half a hogshead 10 feet in a minute.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
Words ending in _e_ drop that letter before the termination _able_,
as in move, movable; unless ending in _ce_ or _ge_, when it is
retained, as in change, changeable, etc.
Words of one syllable, ending in a consonant, with a single vowel
before it, double the consonants in derivatives; as, ship, shipping,
etc. But if ending in a consonant with a double vowel before it, they
do not double the consonant in derivatives; as, troop, trooper, etc.
Words of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant preceded by a
single vowel, and accented on the last syllable, double that consonant
in derivatives; as, commit, committed; but except chagrin, chagrined.
All words of one syllable ending in _l_, with a single vowel before
it, have _ll_ at the close; as mill, sell. All words of one syllable
ending in _l_, with a double vowel before it, have only one _l_ at the
close; as mail, sail.
The words foretell, distill, instill and fulfill, retain the _ll_
of their primitives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will and full also
retain the _ll_ when the accent falls on these words; as dullness,
skillfull, willfull, fullness.
Words of more than one syllable ending in _l_ have only one _l_ at the
close; as delightful, faithful; unless the accent falls on the last
syllable; as befall, etc.
Words ending in _l_, double the letter in the termination _ly_.
Participles ending in _ing_, from verbs ending in _e_, lose the final
_e_; as have, having; make, making, etc; but verbs ending in _ee_
retain both; as see, seeing. The word dye, to color, however, must
retain the _e_ before _ing_. All verbs ending in _ly_, and nouns
ending in _ment_, retain the _e_ final of the primitives; as brave,
bravely; refine, refinement; except words ending in _dge_; as,
acknowledge, acknowledgment.
Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a vowel, form their plural by adding
_s_; as money, moneys; but if _y_ is preceded by a consonant, it is
changed to _ies_ in the plural; as bounty, bounties.
Compound words whose primitives end in _y_, change the _y_ into _i_;
as beauty, beautiful.
THE USE OF CAPITALS.
Every entire sentence should begin with a capital.
Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should begin with a
capital.
All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital. Official
and honorary titles should begin with a capital.
Every line of poetry should begin with a capital.
Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and divisions are
printed in capitals.
The pronoun I and the exclamation O are always capitals.
The days of the week and the months of the year begin with capitals.
Every quotation should begin with a capital letter.
Names of religious denominations begin with capitals.
In preparing accounts each item should begin with a capital.
Any word of very special importance may begin with a capital.
TWENTY CHOICE COURSE DINNER MENUS.
1. Rice Soup, Baked Pike, Mashed Potatoes, Roast of Beef, Stewed Corn,
Chicken Fricassee, Celery Salad, Compote of Oranges, Plain Custard,
Cheese, Wafers, Coffee.
2. Mutton Soup, Fried Oysters, Stewed Potatoes, Boiled Corn Beef,
Cabbage, Turnips, Roast Pheasants, Onion Salad, Apple Pie, White
Custard, Bent's Water Crackers, Cheese, Coffee.
3. Oyster Soup, Roast Mutton, Baked Potatoes, Breaded Veal Cutlets,
Tomato Sauce, Baked Celery, Cabbage Salad, Apple Custard, Sponge Cake,
Cheese, Coffee.
4. Macaroni Soup, Boiled Chicken, with Oysters, Mutton Chops, Creamed
Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, Pickled Beets, Peaches and Rice, Plain
Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
5. Tapioca Soup, Boiled Halibut, Duchesse Potatoes, Roast Beef Tongue,
Canned Peas, Baked Macaroni, with Gravy, Fried Sweet Potatoes, Beet
Salad, Cornstarch Pudding, Jelly Tarts, Cheese, Wafers, Coffee.
6. Vegetable Soup, Boiled Trout, Oyster Sauce, Roast Veal, with
Dressing, Boiled Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, Corn, Egg Salad, Snow
Cream, Peach Pie, Sultana Biscuit, Cheese, Coffee.
7. Potato Soup, Oyster Patties, Whipped Potatoes, Roast Mutton, with
Spinach, Beets, Fried Parsnips, Egg Sauce, Celery Salad, Boiled Custard,
Lemon Tarts, White Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
8. Veal Soup, Boiled Shad, Caper Sauce, Porterhouse Steak, with
Mushrooms, Pigeon Pie, Mashed Potatoes, Pickles, Rice Sponge Cakes,
Cheese, Canned Apricots with Cream, Coffee.
9. Giblet Soup, Scalloped Clams, Potato Cakes, Lamb Chops, Canned
Beans, Tomatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Salmon Salad, Charlotte Rasse,
Apricot Tarts, Cheese, Coffee.
10. Vermicelli Soup, Fried Small Fish, Mashed Potatoes, Roast Beef,
Minced Cabbage, Chicken Croquettes, Beet Salad, Stewed Pears, Plain
Sponge Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
11. Oxtail Soup, Fricasseed Chicken with Oysters, Breaded Mutton
Chops, Turnips, Duchesse Potatoes, Chow-chow Salad, Chocolate Pudding,
Nut Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
12. Barley Soup, Boiled Trout, Creamed Potatoes, Roast Loin of Veal,
Stewed Mushrooms, Broiled Chicken, Lettuce Salad, Fig Pudding, Wafers,
Cheese, Coffee.
13. Noodle Soup, Salmon, with Oyster Sauce, Fried Potatoes, Glazed
Beef, Boiled Spinach, Parsnips, with Cream Sauce, Celery, Plain Rice
Pudding, with Custard Sauce, Current Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
14. Lobster Soup, Baked Ribs of Beef, with Browned Potatoes, Boiled
Duck, with Onion Sauce, Turnips, Stewed Tomatoes, Lettuce, Delmonico
Pudding, Cheese, Sliced Oranges, Wafers, Coffee.
15. Chicken Broth, Baked Whitefish, Boiled Potatoes, Canned Peas,
Mutton Chops, Tomatoes, Beets, Celery Salad, Apple Trifle, Lady
Fingers, Cheese. Coffee.
10. Sago Soup, Boiled Leg of Mutton, Caper Sauce, Stewed Potatoes,
Canned Corn, Scalloped Oysters, with Cream Sauce, Celery and Lettuce
Salad, Marmalade Fritters, Apple Custard, Cheese Cakes, Coffee.
17. Vegetable Soup, Broiled Shad, Lyonnaise Potatoes, Pork Chops,
with Sage Dressing, Parsnip Fritters, Macaroni and Gravy, Cauliflower
Salad, Rhubarb Tarts, Silver Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
18. Chicken Soup, with Rice, Codfish, Boiled, with Cream Sauce, Roast
Veal, Tomatoes, Oyster Salad, Boiled Potatoes, Asparagus, Orange
Jelly, White Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
19. Macaroni Soup, Fried Shad, Tomato Sauce, Roast Mutton, Mashed
Potatoes, Boiled Tongue, with Mayonnaise Dressing, Fried Parsnips,
Canned Beans, Lemon Puffs, Cheese Cakes, Fruit, Coffee.
20. Scotch Broth, Baked Halibut, Boiled Potatoes, Breaded Mutton
Chops, Tomato Sauce, Spinach, Bean Salad, Asparagus and Eggs, Peach
Batter Pudding, with Sauce, Wafers, Cheese, Coffee.
TERMS USED IN MEDICINE.
Anthelmintics are medicines which have the power of destroying or
expelling worms from the intestinal canal.
Antiscorbutics are medicines which prevent or cure the scurvy.
Antispasmodics are medicines given to relieve spasm, or irregular and
painful action of the muscles or muscular fibers, as in Epilepsy, St.
Vitus' Dance, etc.
Aromatics are medicines which have, a grateful smell and agreeable
pungent taste.
Astringents are those remedies which, when applied to the body, render
the solids dense and firmer.
Carminatives are those medicines which dispel flatulency of the
stomach and bowels.
Cathartics are medicines which accelerate the action of the bowels, or
increase the discharge by stool.
Demulcents are medicines suited to prevent the action of acrid and
stimulating matters upon the mucous membranes of the throat, lungs,
etc.
Diaphoretics are medicines that promote or cause perspirable discharge
by the skin.
Diuretics are medicines which increase the flow of urine by their
action upon the kidneys.
Emetics are those medicines which produce vomiting.
Emmenagogues are medicines which promote the menstrual discharge.
Emollients are those remedies which, when applied to the solids of the
body, render them soft and flexible.
Errhines are substances which, when applied to the lining membrane of
the nostrils, occasion a discharge of mucous fluid.
Epispastices are those which cause blisters when applied to the
surface.
Escharotics are substances used to destroy a portion of the surface of
the body, forming sloughs.
Expectorants are medicines capable of facilitating the excretion of
mucous from the chest.
Narcotics are those substances having the property of diminishing the
action of the nervous and vascular systems, and of inducing sleep.
Rubefacients are remedies which excite the vessels of the skin and
increase its heat and redness.
Sedatives are medicines which have the power of allaying the actions
of the systems generally, or of lessening the exercise of some
particular function.
Sialagogues are medicines which increase the flow of the saliva.
Stimulants are medicines capable of exciting the vital energy, whether
as exerted in sensation or motion.
Tonics are those medicines which increase the tone or healthy action,
or strength of the living system.
RULES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH.
Pure atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and a very small
proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed has lost the chief
part of its oxygen, and acquired a proportionate increase of carbonic
acid gas. Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same air once
only.
The solid part of our bodies is continually wasting and requires to be
repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, food, which is to repair the
loss, should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the
body.
The fluid part of our bodies also wastes constantly; there is but one
fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water only is necessary,
and no artifice can produce a better drink.
The fluid of our bodies is to the solid in proportion as nine to one.
Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the total amount of
food taken.
Light exercises an important influence upon the growth and vigor of
animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should freely admit the
sun's rays.
Decomposing animal and vegetable substances yield various noxious
gases, which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood. Therefore, all
impurities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution
be observed to secure a pure atmosphere.
Warmth is essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore, an equal
bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise, by clothing or by
fire.
Exercise warms, invigorates and purifies the body; clothing preserves
the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth externally.
Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise and clothing are
preferable to fire.
Fire consumes the oxygen of the air, and produces noxious gases.
Therefore, the air is less pure in the presence of candles, gas or
coal fire, than otherwise, and the deterioration should be repaired by
increased ventilation. The skin is a highly-organized membrane, full
of minute pores, cells, blood-vessels, and nerves; it imbibes moisture
or throws it off according to the state of the atmosphere or the
temperature of the body. It also "breathes," like the lungs (though
less actively). All the internal organs sympathize with the skin.
Therefore, it should be repeatedly cleansed.
Late hours and anxious pursuits exhaust the nervous system and produce
disease and premature death. Therefore, the hours of labor and study
should be short.
Mental and bodily exercise are equally essential to the general health
and happiness. Therefore, labor and study should succeed each other.
Man will live most happily upon simple solids and fluids, of which
a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken. Therefore,
over-indulgence in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff, opium, and all mere
indulgences, should be avoided.
Sudden alternations of heat and cold are dangerous (especially to the
young and the aged). Therefore, clothing, in quantity and quality,
should be adapted to the alternations of night and day, and of the
seasons. And therefore, also, drinking cold water when the body is
hot, and hot tea and soups when cold are productive of many evils.
Never visit a sick person (especially if the complaint be of a
contagious nature) with an empty stomach, as this disposes the system
more readily to receive the contagion. And in attending a sick person,
place yourself where the air passes from the door or window to the bed
of the diseased; not between the diseased person and any fire that is
in the room, as the heat of the fire will draw the infectious vapor in
that direction.
MOTHER SHIPTON'S PROPHECY.--The lines known as "Mother Shipton's
Prophecy" were first published in England in 1485, before the
discovery of America, and, of course, before any of the discoveries
and inventions mentioned therein. All the events predicted have come
to pass except that in the last two lines.
Carriages without horses shall go,
And accidents fill the world with woe.
Around the world thoughts shall fly
In the twinkling of an eye.
Waters shall yet more wonders do,
Now strange, yet shall be true.
The world upside down shall be,
And gold be found at root of tree.
Through hills man shall ride,
And no horse nor ass be at his side.
Under water man shall walk,
Shall ride, shall sleep, shall talk.
In the air men shall be seen
In white, in black, in green.
Iron in the water shall float,
As easy as a wooden boat.
Gold shall be found 'mid stone,
In a land that's now unknown.
Fire and water shall wonders do,
England shall at last admit a Jew.
And this world to an end shall come
In eighteen hundred and eighty-one.
CAPTAIN KIDD, a notorious American pirate, was born about 1650. In
1696 he was entrusted by the British Government with the command of
a privateer, and sailed from New York, for the purpose of suppressing
the numerous pirates then infesting the seas. He went to the East
Indies, where he began a career of piracy, and returned to New York in
1698 with a large amount of booty. He was soon after arrested, sent to
England for trial, and executed in 1701.
VALUE OF OLD AMERICAN COINS.--1793--Half cent, 75 cents; one cent,
$2. 1794--Half cent, 20 cents, one cent, 10 cents; five cents, $1.25;
fifty cents, $3; one dollar, $10. 1795--Half cent, 5 cents; one cent,
5 cents; five cents, 25 cents; fifty cents, 55 cents; one dollar,
$1.25. 1796--Half cent, $5; one cent, 10 cents; five cents $1; ten
cents, 50 cents; twenty-five cents, $1; fifty cents, $10; one dollar,
$1.50. 1797--Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 cents; five cents, 50
cents; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $10; one dollar, $1.50. 1798--One
cent, 5 cents; ten cents, $1; one dollar, $1.50. 1799--One cent, $5;
one dollar, $1.60. 1800--Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 3 cents; five
cents, 25 cents; [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'ten
cents 1'] ten cents, $1; one dollar, $1.10. 1801--One cent, 3 cents;
five cents, $1; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $2; one dollar, $1.25.
1802--Half cent, 50 cents; one cent, 2 cents; ten cents, $1; fifty
cents, $2; one dollar, $1.25. 1803--Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 2
cents; five cents, $10; [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads
'ten cents, 1'] ten cents, $1; one dollar, $1.10. 1804--Half cent, 2
cents; one cent, $2; five cents, 75 cents; ten cents, $2; twenty-five
cents, 75 cents; one dollar, $100. 1805--Half cent, 2 cents; one cent,
3 cents; five cents, $1.50; ten cents, 25 cents. 1806--Half cent, 2
cents; one cent, 3 cents. 1807--Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents;
ten cents, 25 cents. 1808--Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 5 cents.
1809--Half cent, 1 cent; one cent, 25 cents; ten cents, 50 cents.
1810--Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 cents. 1811--Half cent, 25
cents; one cent, 10 cents; ten cents, 50 cents. 1812--One cent, 2
cents. 1813--One cent, 5 cents. 1815--Fifty cents, $5. 1821--One cent,
5 cents. 1822--Ten cents, $1. 1823--One cent, 5 cents; twenty-five
cents, $10. 1824--Twenty-five cents, 40 cents. 1825--Half cent, 2
cents. 1826--Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 50 cents. 1827--One cent,
3 cents; twenty-five cents, $10. 1828--Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five
cents, 30 cents. 1829--Half cent, 2 cents. 1830--Half cent, 2 cents.
1832-'33-'34--Half cent, 2 cents. 1835--Half cent, 1 cent. 1836--Fifty
cents, $3; one dollar, $3. 1838--Ten cents, 25 cents. 1839--One
dollar, $10. 1846--Five cents, 50 cents. 1849-'50--Half cent, 5
cents. 1851--Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five cents, 30 cents; one
dollar, $10.90. 1852--Twenty-five cents, 30 cents; fifty cents,
$2; one dollar, $10. 1853--Half cent, 1 cent; twenty cents (with
no arrows), $2.50; one dollar, $1.25. 1854--Half cent, 2 cents;
one dollar, $2. 1855-'57--Half cent, 5 cents; one dollar, $1.50.
1856--Half cent, 5 cents; one dollar. $1.50. 1858--One dollar, $10.
1863-'4-'5--Three cents, 95 cents. 1866--Half cent, 6 cents; three
cents, 25 cents; five cents, 10 cents; twenty-five cents, 30 cents.
1867--Three cents, 25 cents; five cents, 10 cents. 1868-'9--Three
cents, 25 cents. 1870--Three cents, 15 cents. 1871--Two cents, 10
cents; three cents, 25 cents. 1873--Two cents, 50 cents; three cents.
50 cents. 1877-'8--Twenty cents, $1.50. These prices are for good
ordinary coins without holes. Fine specimens are worth more.
LEANING TOWER OF PISA.--The leaning tower of Pisa was commenced in
1152, and was not finished till the fourteenth century. Tho cathedral
to which this belongs was erected to celebrate a triumph of the Pisans
in the harbor of Palermo in 1063, when allied with the Normans to
drive the Saracens out of Sicily. It is a circular building, one
hundred feet in diameter and 179 feet in extreme height, and has
fine mosaic pavements, elaborately carved columns, and numerous
bas-reliefs. The building is of white marble. The tower is divided
into eight stories, each having an outside gallery of seven feet
projection, and the topmost story overhangs the base about sixteen
feet, though, as the center of gravity is still ten feet within the
base, the building is perfectly safe. It has been supposed that this
inclination was intentional, but the opinion that the foundation
has sunk is no doubt correct. It is most likely that the defective
foundation became perceptible before the tower had reached one-half
its height, as at that elevation the unequal length of the columns
exhibits an endeavor to restore the perpendicular, and at about the
same place the walls are strengthened with iron bars.
What causes the water to flow out of an artesian well?--The
theoretical explanation of the phenomenon is easily understood.
The secondary and tertiary geological formations often present the
appearance of immense basins, the boundary or rim of the basin having
been formed by an upheaval of adjacent strata. In these formations it
often happens that a porous stratum, consisting of sand, sandstone,
chalk or other calcareous matter, is included between two impermeable
layers of clay, so as to form a flat [Transcriber's Note: The original
text reads 'porus'] porous U tube, continuous from side to side of
the valley, the outcrop on the surrounding hills forming the mouth
of the tube. The rain filtering down through the porous layer to the
bottom of the basin forms there a subterranean pool, which, with the
liquid or semi-liquid column pressing upon it, constitutes a sort
of huge natural hydrostatic bellows. Sometimes the pressure on
the superincumbent crust is so great as to cause an upheaval or
disturbance of the valley. It is obvious, then, that when a hole is
bored down through the upper impermeable layer to the surface of the
lake, the water will be forced up by the natural law of water seeking
its level to a height above the surface of the valley, greater or
less, according to the elevation of the level in the feeding column,
thus forming a natural mountain on precisely the same principle as
that of most artificial fountains, where the water supply comes from a
considerable height above the jet.
HOW MANY CUBIC FEET THERE ARE IN A TON OF COAL.--There is a difference
between a ton of hard coal and one of soft coal. For that matter, coal
from different mines, whether hard or soft, differs in weight, and
consequently in cubic measure, according to quality. Then there is a
difference according to size. To illustrate, careful measurements have
been made of Wilkes-barre anthracite, a fine quality of hard coal,
with the following results:
Cubic-feet Cubic feet
in ton of in ton of
Size of coal. 2,240 lbs. 2,000 lbs.
Lump 33.2 28.8
Broken 33.9 30.3
Egg 34.5 30.8
Stone 34.8 31.1
Chestnut 35.7 31.9
Pea 36.7 32.8
For soft coal the following measures may be taken as nearly correct;
it is simply impossible to determine any exact rule, even for
bituminous coal of the same district: Briar Hill coal, 44.8 cubic
feet per ton of 2,240 pounds; Pittsburgh, 47.8; Wilmington, Ill., 47;
Indiana block coal, 42 to 43 cubic feet.
The dimensions of the great wall of China and of what it is built.--It
runs from a point on the Gulf of Liantung, an arm of the Gulf of
Pechili in Northeastern China, westerly to the Yellow River; thence
makes a great bend to the south for nearly 100 miles, and then runs
to the northwest for several hundred miles to the Desert of Gobi. Its
length is variously estimated to be from 1,250 to 1,500 miles. For the
most of this distance it runs through a mountainous country, keeping
on the ridges, and winding over many of the highest peaks. In some
places it is only a formidable rampart, but most of the way it is
composed of lofty walls of masonry and concrete, or impacted lime and
clay, from 12 to 16 feet in thickness, and from 15 to 30 or 35 feet
in height. The top of this wall is paved for hundreds of miles, and
crowned with crenallated battlements, and towers 30 to 40 feet high.
In numerous places the wall climbs such steep declivities that its
top ascends from height to height in flights of granite steps. An army
could march on the top of the wall for weeks and even months, moving
in some places ten men abreast.
Limits of Natural Vision.--This question is too indefinite for a
specific answer. The limits of vision vary with elevation, conditions
of the atmosphere, intensity of illumination, and other modifying
elements in different cases. In a clear day an object one foot above
a level plain may be seen at the distance of 1.31 miles; one ten feet
high, 4.15 miles; one twenty feet high, 5.86 miles; one 100 feet high,
13.1 miles; one a mile high, as the top of a mountain, 95.23 miles.
This allows seven inches (or, to be exact, 6.99 inches) for the
curvature of the earth, and assumes that the size and illumination of
the object are sufficient to produce an image. Five miles may be taken
as the extreme limit at which a man is visible on a flat plain to an
observer on the same level.
THE NIAGARA SUSPENSION BRIDGE.--For seven miles below the falls,
Niagara river flows through a gorge varying in width from 200 to 400
yards. Two miles below the falls the river is but 350 feet wide, and
it is here that the great suspension bridge, constructed in 1855 by
Mr. Roebling, crosses the gorge, 245 feet above the water. The length
of the span, from tower to tower, is 821 feet, and the total length of
the bridge is 2,220 feet. The length of the span, which is capable of
sustaining a strain of 10,000 tons, is 821 feet from tower to tower,
and the total length of the bridge is 2,220 feet. It is used both for
railway and wagon traffic, the wagon-road and foot-way being directly
under the railway bed. There is another suspension bridge across the
Niagara river at a distance of only about fifty rods from the falls,
on the American side. This is only for carriages and foot travel. It
was finished in 1869. It is 1,190 feet long from cliff to cliff, 1,268
feet from tower to tower, and 190 feet above the river, which at this
point is a little over 900 feet in width.
THE SPEED OF SOUND.--It has been ascertained that a full human voice,
speaking in the open air, calm, can be heard at a distance of 400 feet;
in an observable breeze a powerful human voice with the wind is audible
at a distance of 15,840 feet; the report of a musket, 16,000 feet; a
drum, 10,560 feet; music, a strong brass band, 15,840 feet; very heavy
cannonading, 575,000 feet, or 90 miles. In the Arctic regions
conversation has been maintained over water a distance of 6,766 feet. In
gases the velocity of sound increases with the temperature; in air this
increase is about two feet per second for each degree centigrade. The
velocity of sound in oxygen gas at zero C. is 1,040 feet; in carbonic
acid, 858 feet; in hydrogen, 4,164 feet. In 1827 Colladon and Sturm
determined experimentally the velocity of sound in fresh water; the
experiment was made in the Lake of Geneva, and it was found to be 4,174
feet per second at a temperature of 15 degrees C. The velocity of sound
in alcohol at 20 degrees C. is 4,218 feet; in ether at zero, 3,801; in
sea water at 20 degrees C., 4,768. By direct measurements, carefully
made, by observing at night the interval which elapses between the flash
and report of a cannon at a known distance, the velocity of sound has
been about 1,090 per second at the temperature of freezing water.
DESCRIPTION OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK.--The Yellowstone National Park
extends sixty-five miles north and south, and fifty-five miles east
and west, comprising 3,575 square miles, and is all 6,000 feet or more
above sea-level. Yellowstone Lake, twenty miles by fifteen, has an
altitude of 7,788 feet. The mountain ranges which hem in the valleys
on every side rise to the height of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and are
always covered with snow. This great park contains the most striking
of all the mountains, gorges, falls, rivers and lakes in the whole
Yellowstone region. The springs on Gardiner's River cover an area of
about one square mile, and three or four square miles thereabout are
occupied by the remains of springs which have ceased to flow. The
natural basins into which these springs flow are from four to six feet
in diameter and from one to four feet in depth. The principal ones are
located upon terraces midway up the sides of the mountain. The banks
of the Yellowstone River abound with ravines and canons, which are
carved out of the heart of the mountains through the hardest of rocks.
The most remarkable of these is the canon of Tower Creek and Column
Mountain. The latter, which extends along the eastern bank of the
river for upward of two miles, is said to resemble the Giant's
Causeway. The canon of Tower Creek is about ten miles in length and
is so deep and gloomy that it is called "The Devil's Den." Where
Tower Creek ends the Grand Canon begins. It is twenty miles in length,
impassable throughout, and inaccessible at the water's edge, except
at a few points. Its rugged edges are from 200 to 500 yards apart, and
its depth is so profound that no sound ever reaches the ear from the
bottom. The Grand Canon contains a great multitude of hot springs of
sulphur, sulphate of copper, alum, etc. In the number and magnitude
of its hot springs and geysers, the Yellowstone Park surpasses all
the rest of the world. There are probably fifty geysers that throw a
column of water to the height of from 50 to 200 feet, and it is stated
that there are not fewer than 5,000 springs; there are two kinds,
those depositing lime and those depositing silica. The temperature of
the calcareous springs is from 160 to 170 degrees, while that of the
others rises to 200 or more. The principal collections are the upper
and lower geyser basins of the Madison River, and the calcareous
springs on Gardiner's River. The great falls are marvels to which
adventurous travelers have gone only to return and report that they
are parts of the wonders of this new American wonderland.
DESIGNATIONS OF GROUPS OF ANIMALS.--The ingenuity of the sportsman
is, perhaps, no better illustrated than by the use he puts the English
language to in designating particular groups of animals. The following
is a list of the terms which have been applied to the various classes:
A covey of patridges, A nide of pheasants, A wisp of snipe, A flight
of doves or swallows, A muster of peacocks, A siege of herons, A
building of rooks, A brood of grouse, A plump of wild fowl, A stand of
plovers, A watch of nightingales, A clattering of choughs, A flock of
geese, A herd or bunch of cattle, A bevy of quails, A cast of hawks,
A trip of dottrell, A swarm of bees, A school of whales, A shoal of
herrings, A herd of swine, A skulk of foxes, A pack of wolves, A drove
of oxen, A sounder of hogs, A troop of monkeys, A pride of lions, A
sleuth of bears, A gang of elk.
THE BUNKER HILL MONUMENT.--The monument is a square shaft, built of
Quincy granite, 221 feet high, 31 feet square at the base and 15 at
the top. Its foundations are inclosed 12 feet under ground. Inside the
shaft is a round, hollow cone, 7 feet wide at the bottom and 4 feet
2 inches at the top, encircled by a winding staircase of 224 stone
steps, which leads to a chamber immediately under the apex, 11 feet
in diameter. The chamber has four windows, which afford a wide view of
the surrounding country, and contains two cannons, named respectively
Hancock and Adams, which were used in many engagements during the war.
The corner-stone of the monument was laid on the fiftieth anniversary
of the battle, June 17, 1825, by Lafayette, who was then visiting
America, when Webster pronounced the oration. The monument was
completed, and June 17, 1843, was dedicated, Webster again delivering
the oration.
THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE.--The names generally given are
Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Periander (in place of whom some give
Epimenides), Cleobulus, and Thales. They were the authors of the
celebrated mottoes inscribed in later days in the Delphian Temple.
These mottoes were as follows:
"Know thyself."--Solon.
"Consider the end."--Chilo.
"Know thy opportunity."--Pittacus.
"Most men are bad."--Bias.
"Nothing is impossible to industry."--Periander.
"Avoid excesses."--Cleobulus.
"Suretyship is the precursor of ruin."--Thales.
FIRST STEAMBOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI.--Nicholas J. Roosevelt was the
first to take a steamboat down the great river. His boat was built
at Pittsburgh, in the year 1811, under an arrangement with Fulton and
Livingston, from Fulton's plans. It was called the "New Orleans," was
about 200 tons burden, and was propelled by a stern-wheel, assisted,
when the wind was favorable, by sails carried on two masts. The hull
was 138 feet long, 30 feet beam, and the cost of the whole, including
engines, was about $40,000. The builder, with his family, an engineer,
a pilot, and six "deck hands," left Pittsburgh in October, 1811,
reaching Louisville in about seventy hours (steaming about ten miles
an hour), and New Orleans in fourteen days, steaming from Natchez.
THE EXPLORATIONS OF FREMONT.--- Among the earliest efforts of Fremont,
after he had tried and been sickened by the sea, were his experiences as
a surveyor and engineer on railroad lines from Charleston to Augusta,
Ga., and Charleston to Cincinnati. Then he accompanied an army
detachment on a military reconnoissance of the mountainous Cherokee
country in Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee, made in the depth of
winter. In 1838-9 he accompanied M. Nicollet in explorations of the
country between the Missouri and the British line, and his first detail
of any importance, after he had been commissioned by President Van
Buren, was to make an examination of the river Des Moines, then on the
Western frontier. In 1841 he projected his first trans-continental
expedition, and left Washington May 2, 1842, and accomplished the object
of his trip, examined the South Pass, explored the Wind River mountains,
ascended in August, the highest peak of that range, now known as
Fremont's Peak, and returned, after an absence of four months. His
report of the expedition attracted great attention in the United States
and abroad. Fremont began to plan another and a second expedition. He
determined to extend his explorations across the continent; and in May,
1843, commenced his journey with thirty-nine men, and September 6, after
traveling over 1,700 miles, arrived at the Great Salt Lake; there made
some important discoveries, and then pushed on to the upper Columbia,
down whose valley he proceeded to Fort Vancouver, near its mouth. On
Nov. 10, he set out to return East, selecting a southeasterly course,
leading from the lower part of the Columbia to the upper Colorado,
through an almost unknown region, crossed by high and rugged mountains.
He and his party suffered incredible hardships in crossing from the
Great Basin to Sutter's Fort on the Sacramento; started from there March
24, proceeded southward, skirted the western base of the Sierra Nevada,
crossed that range through a gap, entered the Great Basin; again visited
the Great Salt Lake, from which they returned through the South Pass to
Kansas, in July, 1844, after an absence of fourteen months. In the
spring of 1845 Fremont set out on a third expedition to explore the
Great Basin and the maritime region of Oregon and California; spent the
summer examining the headwaters of the rivers whose springs are in the
grand divide of the continent; in October camped on the shores of the
Great Salt Lake: proceeded to explore the Sierra Nevada, which he again
crossed in the dead of winter; made his way into the Valley of the San
Joaquin; obtained permission, at Monterey, from the Mexican authorities
there, to proceed with his expedition, which permission was almost
immediately revoked, and Fremont peremptorily ordered to leave the
country without delay, but he refused, and a collision was imminent, but
was averted, and Fremont proceeded toward San Joaquin. Near Tlamath
Lake, Fremont met, May 9, 1846, a party in search of him, with
dispatches from Washington, ordering him to watch over the interests of
the United States in California, as there was reason to believe that
province would be transferred to Great Britain. He at once returned to
California; General Castro was already marching against our settlements;
the settlers rose in arms, flocked to Fremont's camp, and, with him as
leader, in less than a month, all Northern California was freed from
Mexican authority; and on July 4 Fremont was elected Governor of
California by the American settlers. Later came the conflict between
Commodore Stockton and General Kearney; and Fremont resigned his
commission as Lieutenant-Colonel, to which he had been promoted. In
October, 1848, he started across the continent on a fourth expedition,
outfitted at his own expense, to find a practicable route to California.
In attempting to cross the great Sierra, covered with snow, his guide
lost his way, and the party encountered horrible suffering from cold and
hunger, a portion of them being driven to cannibalism; he lost all his
animals (he had 120 mules when he started), and one-third of his men (he
had thirty-three) perished, and he had to retrace his steps to Santa Fe.
He again set out, with thirty men, and, after a long search, discovered
a secure route, which led to the Sacramento, where he arrived in the
spring of 1840. He led a fifth expedition across the continent in 1853,
at his own expense, and found passes through the mountains in the line
of latitude 38 deg., 39 min., and reached California after enduring
great hardships; for fifty days his party lived on horse-flesh, and for
forty-eight hours at a time without food of any kind. These are the
barest outlines of five expeditions of which many volumes have been
written, but will hint at Fremont's work in the West which entitled him
to the name of the "Pathfinder."
CHINESE PROVERBS.--The Chinese are indeed remarkably fond of proverbs.
They not only employ them in conversation--and even to a greater
degree than the Spaniards, who are noted among Europeans for the
number and excellence of their proverbial sayings--but they have a
practice of adorning their reception rooms with these sententious
bits of wisdom, inscribed on decorated scrolls or embroidered on rich
crapes and brocades. They carve them on door-posts and pillars, and
emblazon them on the walls and ceilings in gilt letters. The following
are a few specimens of this sort of literature: As a sneer at the
use of unnecessary force to crush a contemptible enemy, they say:
"He rides a fierce dog to catch a lame rabbit." Similar to this is
another, "To use a battle-ax to cut off a hen's head." They say of
wicked associates: "To cherish a bad man is like nourishing a tiger;
if not well-fed he will devour you." Here are several others mingling
wit with wisdom: "To instigate a villain to do wrong is like teaching
a monkey to climb trees;" "To catch fish and throw away the net,"
which recalls our saying, "Using the cat's paw to pull the chestnuts
out of the fire;" "To climb a tree to catch a fish" is to talk much
to no purpose; "A superficial scholar is a sheep dressed in a tiger's
skin;" "A cuckoo in a magpie's nest," equivalent to saying, "he is
enjoying another's labor without compensation;" "If the blind lead
the blind they will both fall into the pit;" "A fair wind raises no
storm;" "Vast chasms can be filled, but the heart of man is never
satisfied;" "The body may be healed, but the mind is incurable;" "He
seeks the ass, and lo! he sits upon him;" "He who looks at the sun is
dazzled; he who hears the thunder is deafened." i.e., do not come too
near the powerful; "Prevention is better than cure;" "Wine and good
dinners make abundance of friends, but in adversity not one of them is
to be found." "Let every man sweep the snow from before his own door,
and not trouble himself about the frost on his neighbor's tiles." The
following one is a gem of moral wisdom: "Only correct yourself on the
same principle that you correct others, and excuse others on the same
principles on which you excuse yourself." "Better not be, than be
nothing." "One thread does not make a rope; one swallow does not make
a summer." "Sensuality is the chief of sins, filial duty the best of
acts." "The horse's back is not so safe us the buffalo's"--the former
is used by the politician, the latter by the farmer. "Too much lenity
multiplies crime." "If you love your son give him plenty of the rod;
if you hate him cram him with dainties." "He is my teacher who tells
me my faults, he my enemy who speaks my virtues." Having a wholesome
dread of litigation, they say of one who goes to law, "He sues a flea
to catch a bite." Their equivalent for our "coming out at the little
end of the horn" is, "The farther the rat creeps up (or into) the
cow's horn, the narrower it grows." The truth of their saying that
"The fame of good deeds does not leave a man's door, but his evil
acts are known a thousand miles off," is illustrated in our own daily
papers every morning. Finally, we close this list with a Chinese
proverb which should be inscribed on the lintel of every door
in Christendom: "The happy-hearted man carries joy for all the
household."
MASON AND DIXON'S LINE.--Mason and Dixon's line is the concurrent
State line of Maryland and Pennsylvania. It is named after two eminent
astronomers and [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads
'mathemeticians'] mathematicians, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon,
who were sent out from England to run it. They completed the survey
between 1703 and 1707, excepting thirty-six miles surveyed in 1782 by
Colonel Alex. McLean and Joseph Neville. It is in the latitude of 39
deg. 43 min. 26.3 sec.
GREAT FIRES OF HISTORY.--The loss of life and property in the willful
destruction by fire and sword of the principal cities of ancient
history--Nineveh, Babylon, Persepolis, Carthage, Palmyra, and
many others--is largely a matter of conjecture. The following is a
memorandum of the chief conflagrations of the current era:
In 64, A. D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire raged in Rome
for eight days, destroying ten of the fourteen wards. The loss of life
and destruction of property is not known.
In 70 A. D., Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and a large part of it
given to the torch, entailing an enormous destruction of life and
property.
In 1106 Venice, then a city of immense opulence, was almost, wholly
consumed by a fire, originating in accident or incendiarism.
In 1212 the greater part of London was burned.
In 1606 what is known as the Great Fire of London raged in the city
from September 2 to 6, consuming 13,200 houses, with St. Paul's
Church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the Guild Hall, the Royal
Exchange, the Custom House, 52 companies halls, many hospitals,
libraries and other public edifices. The total destruction of property
was estimated at $53,652,500. Six lives were lost, and 436 acres burnt
over.
In 1679 a fire in Boston burned all the warehouses, eighty dwellings,
and vessels in the dock-yards; loss estimated at $1,000,000.
In 1700 a large part of Edinburgh was burned; loss unknown. In 1728
Copenhagen was nearly destroyed; 1,650 houses burned.
In 1736 a fire in St. Petersburg burned 2,000 houses.
In 1729 a fire in Constantinople destroyed 12,000 houses, and 7,000
people perished. The same city suffered a conflagration in 1745,
lasting five days; and in 1750 a series of three appalling fires:
one in January, consuming 10,000 houses; another in April destroying
property to the value of $5,000,000, according to one historian, and
according to another, $15,000,000; and in the latter part of the year
another, sweeping fully 10,000 houses more out of existence. It seemed
as if Constantinople was doomed to utter annihilation.
In 1751 a fire in Stockholm destroyed 1,000 houses and another fire in
the same city in 1759 burned 250 houses with a loss of $2,420,000.
In 1752 a fire in Moscow swept away 18,000 houses, involving an
immense loss.
In 1758 Christiania suffered a loss of $1,250,000 by conflagration. In
1760 the Portsmouth (England) dock yards were burned, with a loss of
$2,000,000.
In 1764 a fire in Konigsburg, Prussia, consumed the public buildings,
with a loss of $3,000,000; and in 1769 the city was almost totally
destroyed.
In 1763 a fire in Smyrna destroyed 2,600 houses, with a loss of
$1,000,000; in 1772 a fire in the same city carried off 3,000
dwellings and 3,000 to 4,000 shops, entailing a loss of $20,000,000;
and in 1796 there were 4,000 shops, mosques, magazines, etc., burned.
In 1776, six days after the British seized the city, a fire swept off
all the west side of New York city, from Broadway to the river.
In 1771 a fire in Constantinople burned 2,500 houses; another in 1778
burned 2,000 houses; in 1782 there were 600 houses burned in February,
7,000 in June, and on August 12 during a conflagration that lasted
three days, 10,000 houses, 50 mosques, and 100 corn-mills, with a
loss of 100 lives. Two years later a fire, on March 13, destroyed
two-thirds of Pera, the loveliest suburb of Constantinople, and on
August 5 a fire in the main city, lasting twenty-six hours, burned
10,000 houses. In this same fire-scourged city, in 1791, between March
and July, there were 32,000 houses burned, and about as many more
in 1795; and in 1799 Pera was again swept with fire, with a loss of
13,000 houses, including many buildings of great magnificence.
In 1784 a fire and explosion in the dock yards, Brest, caused a loss
of $5,000,000.
But the greatest destruction of life and property by conflagration, of
which the world has anything like accurate records, must be looked for
within the current century. Of these the following is a partial list
of instances in which the loss of property amounted to $3,000,000 and
upward:
Dates--Cities: Property destroyed.
1802--Liverpool: $5,000,000
1803--Bombay: 3,000,600
1805--St. Thomas: 30,000,000
1808--Spanish Town: 7,500,000
1812--Moscow, burned five days; 30,800 houses destroyed: 150,000,000
1816--Constantinople, 12,000 dwellings, 3,000 shops: ----
1820--Savannah: 4,000,000
1822--Canton nearly destroyed: ----
1828--Havana, 350 houses: ----
1835--New York ("Great Fire"): 15,000,000
1837--St. Johns, N. B.: 5,000,000
1838--Charleston, 1,158 buildings: 3,000,000
1841--Smyrna, 12,000 houses: ----
1842--Hamburg, 4,219 buildings, 100 lives lost: 35,000,000
1845--New York, 35 persons killed: 7,500,000
1845--Pittsburgh, 1,100 buildings: 10,000,000
1845--Quebec, May 28, 1,650 dwellings: 3,750,000
1845--Quebec, June 28, 1,300 dwellings: ----
1846--St. Johns, Newfoundland: 5,000,000
1848--Constantinople, 2,500 buildings: 15,000,000
1848--Albany, N. Y., 600 houses: 3,000,000
1849--St. Louis: 3,000,000
1851--St. Louis, 2,500 buildings: 11,000,000
1851--St. Louis, 500 buildings: 3,000,000
1851--San Francisco, May 4 and 5, many lives lost: 10,000,000
1851--San Francisco, June: 3,000,000
1852--Montreal, 1,200 buildings: 5,000,000
1861--Mendoza destroyed by earthquake and fire, 10,000 lives lost: ----
1862--St. Petersburg: 5,000,000
1802--Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed: ----
1862--Valparaiso almost destroyed: ----
1864--Novgorod, immense destruction of property: ----
1865--Constantinople, 2,800 buildings burned: ----
1806--Yokohama, nearly destroyed: ----
1865--Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed but Bishop's residence, hospital
and jail; 10 lives lost: ----
1866--Portland, Me., half the city: 11,000,000
1866--Quebec, 2,500 dwellings, 17 churches: ----
1870--Constantinople, Pera, suburb: 26,000,000
1871--Chicago--250 lives lost, 17,430 buildings burned, on 2,124 acres:
192,000,000
1871--Paris, fired by the Commune: 160,000,000
1872--Boston: 75,000.000
1873--Yeddo, 10,000 houses: ----
1877--Pittsburgh, caused by riot: 3,260,000
1877--St. Johns, N. B., 1,650 dwellings, 18 lives lost: 12,500,000
From the above it appears that the five greatest fires on record,
reckoned by destruction of property, are:
Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871: $192,000,000
Paris fires, of May, 1871: 160,000,000
Moscow fire, of Sept. 14-19, 1812: 150,000,000
Boston fire, Nov. 9-10, 1872: 75,000.000
London fire, Sept. 2-6, 1666: 53,652,500
Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842: 35,000,000
Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and Chicago, the great
Wisconsin and Michigan forest fires of 1871, in which it is estimated
that 1,000 human beings perished and property to the amount of
over $3,000,000 was consumed, it is plain that in the annals of
conflagrations that year stands forth in gloomy pre-eminence.
WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES PER CAPITA.--The following statistics
represent the amount of taxable property, real and personal, in each
State and Territory, and also the amount per capita:
State: Total; Per capita.
Maine: $235,978,716; $362.09
New Hampshire: 164,755,181; 474.81
Vermont: 86,806,755; 261.24
Massachusetts: 1,584,756,802; 888.77
Rhode Island: 252,536,673; 913.23
Connecticut: 327,177,385; 525.41
New Jersey: 572,518,361; 506.06
New York: 2,651,940,000; 521.74
Pennsylvania: 1,683,459,016; 393.08
Delaware: 59,951,643; 408.92
Maryland: 497,307,675; 533.07
District of Columbia: 99,401,787; 845.08
Virginia: 308,455,135; 203.92
West Virginia: 139,622,705; 225.75
North Carolina: 156,100,202; 111.52
South Carolina: 153,560,135; 154.24
Georgia: 239,472,599; 155.82
Florida: 30,938,309; 114.80
Alabama: 122,867,228; 97.32
Mississippi: 110,628,129; 97.76
Louisiana: 100,162,439; 170.39
Texas: 320,364,515; 201.26
Arkansas: 80,409,364; 176.71
Kentucky: 350,563,971; 212.63
Tennessee: 211,778,538; 137.30
Ohio: 1,534,360,508; 479.77
Indiana: 727,815,131; 367.89
Illinois: 786,616,394; 255.24
Michigan: 517,666,359; 316.23
Wisconsin: 438,971,751; 333.69
Iowa: 398,671,251; 245.39
Minnesota: 258,028,687; 330.48
Missouri: 432,795,801; 245.72
Kansas: 160,891,689; 161.52
Nebraska: 90,585,782; 200.23
Colorado: 74,471,693; 383.22
Nevada: 29,291,459; 470.40
Oregon: 52,522,084; 300.52
California: 584,578,036; 676.05
Arizona: 9,270,214; 229.23
Dakota: 20,321,530; 150.33
Idaho: 6,440,876; 197.51
Montana: 18,609,802; 475.23
New Mexico: 11,362,406; 95.04
Utah: 24,775,279; 172.09
Washington: 23,810,603; 316.98
Wyoming: 13,621,829; 655.24
--------------------------------------------------
Total: $16,902,993,543; 337.00
TABLE FOR MEASURING AN ACRE.--To measure an acre in rectangular form
is a simple question in arithmetic. One has only to divide the total
number of square yards in an acre, 4,840, by the number of yards in
the known side or breadth to find the unknown side in yards. By this
process it appears that a rectangular strip of ground--
5 yards wide by 968 yards long is 1 acre.
10 yards wide by 484 yards long is 1 acre.
20 yards wide by 242 yards long is 1 acre.
40 yards wide by 121 yards long is 1 acre.
80 yards wide by 60-1/2 yards long is 1 acre.
70 yards wide by 69-1/2 yards long is 1 acre.
60 yards wide by 80-3/8 yards long is 1 acre.
THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS.--The language of the various precious stones is
as follows:
Moss Agate--Health, prosperity and long life.
Amethyst--Prevents violent passions.
Bloodstone--Courage, wisdom and firmness in affection.
Chrysolite--Frees from evil passions and sadness.
Emerald--Insures true love, discovers false.
Diamonds--Innocence, faith and virgin purity, friends.
Garnet--Constancy and fidelity in every engagement.
Opal--Sharpens the sight and faith of the possessor.
Pearl--Purity; gives clearness to physical and mental sight.
Ruby--Corrects evils resulting from mistaken friendship.
Sapphire--Repentance; frees from enchantment.
Sardonyx--Insures conjugal felicity.
Topaz--Fidelity and friendship; prevents bad dreams.
Turquoise--Insures prosperity in love.
GREAT SALT LAKE AND THE DEAD SEA.--Great Salt Lake is a shallow body
of water, its average depth being but a little more than three feet,
while in many parts it is much less. The water is transparent, but
excessively salt; it contains about 22 per cent of common salt,
slightly mixed with other salts, and forming one of the purest and
most concentrated brines in the world. Its specific gravity is 1.17.
The water is so buoyant that a man may float in it at full length upon
his back, having his head and neck, his legs to the knee, and both
arms to the elbow, entirely out of water. If he assumes a sitting
posture, with his arms extended, his shoulders will rise above the
water. Swimming, however, is difficult as the lower limbs tend to rise
above the surface, and the brine is so strong that to swallow even
a very little of it will cause strangulation. The waters of the Dead
Sea, on the other hand, are nearly black, and contain much sulphur and
bitumen, as well as salt. It is also very deep, varying from thirteen
feet near the south end of the lake to more than 1,300 feet in the
northern part. Its buoyancy is quite equal to that of Great Salt Lake,
for travelers say that a man can float prone upon the surface for
hours without danger of sinking, and in a sitting position is held
breast-high above the water.
SOME FAMOUS WAR SONGS.--The slavery war developed several Union
song-writers whose stirring verses have kept on singing themselves
since the close of that great struggle. Two among them are best
remembered nowadays, both men who wrote the words and composed the
music to their own verses. Chicago lays claim to one, Dr. George
F. Root, and Boston to the other, Henry C. Work. The song "Marching
Through Georgia," as every one knows, was written in memory of
Sherman's famous march from Atlanta to the sea, and words and music
were the composition of Henry C. Work, who died not many months ago
(in 1884). The first stanza is as follows: Bring the good old bugle,
boys, we'll sing another song--Sing it with spirit that will start
the world along--Sing it as we used to sing it, fifty thousand strong,
While we were marching through Georgia.
Chorus--"Hurrah! hurrah! we bring the jubilee! Hurrah! hurrah! the
flag that makes you free!" So we sang the chorus from Atlanta to the
sea, While we were marching through Georgia.
Among the other songs of Work the following are best known: "Kingdom
Coming," or "Say, Darkey, Hab You Seen de Massa?" "Babylon is Fallen,"
"Grafted into the Army" and "Corporal Schnapps." This record would be
incomplete were we to fail to mention some of the many ringing songs
of George F. Root, songs which have made the name of Root famous in
thousands upon thousands of households in the West. Some of these
songs are: "Battle Cry of Freedom," "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp," "On, on,
on, the Boys Came Marching," "Just Before the Battle, Mother," "Just
After the Battle," "Lay Me Down and Save the Flag," "Stand Up for
Uncle Sam, My Boys." The well known song, "Wrap the Flag Around Me,
Boys," was composed by R. Stewart Taylor, and "When Johnny Cones
Marching Home" by Louis Lambert.
THE COST OF ROYALTY IN ENGLAND.--Her Majesty:
Privy purse: L60,000
Salaries of household: 131,260
Expenses of household: 172,500
Royal bounty, etc.: 13,200
Unappropriated: 8,040
_________
L385,000
Prince of Wales: 40,000
Princess of Wales: 10,000
Crown Princess of Prussia: 8,000
Duke of Edinburgh: 25,000
Princess Christian of
Schleswig-Holstein: 6,000
Princess Louise (Marchioness of Lome): 6,000
Duke of Connaught: 25,000
Duke of Albany: 25,000
Duchess of Cambridge: 6,000
Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: 3,000
Duke of Cambridge: 12,000
Duchess of Teck: 5,000
SOME GREAT RIVERS.--From Haswell's little work for engineers and
mechanics the following figures are taken, showing the lengths of the
largest rivers on the various continents:
Name: Miles.
EUROPE.
Volga, Russia: 2,500
Danube: 1,800
Rhine: 840
Vistula: 700
ASIA.
Yeneisy and Selenga: 3,580
Kiang: 3,290
Hoang Ho: 3,040
Amoor: 2,500
Euphrates: 1,900
Ganges: 1,850
Tigris: 1,160
AFRICA.
Nile: 3,240
Niger: 2,400
Gambia: 1,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Amazon and Beni: 4,000
Platte: 2,700
Rio Madeira: 2,300
Rio Negro: 1,650
Orinoco: 1,600
Uruguay: 1,100
Magdalena: 900
NORTH AMERICA.
Mississippi and Missouri: 4,300
Mackenzie: 2,800
Rio Bravo: 2,300
Arkansas: 2,070
Red River: 1,520
Ohio and Alleghany: 1,480
St. Lawrence: 1,450
The figures as to the length of the Nile are estimated. The Amazon,
with its tributaries (including the Rio Negro and Madeira), drains
an area of 2,330,000 square miles; the Mississippi and Missouri,
1,726,000 square miles; the Yeneisy (or Yenisei, as it is often
written) drains about 1,000,000 square miles; the Volga, about
500,000. In this group of great rivers the St. Lawrence is the most
remarkable. It constitutes by far the largest body of fresh water in
the world. Including the lakes and streams, which it comprises in its
widest acceptation, the St. Lawrence covers about 73,000 square miles;
the aggregate, it is estimated, represents not less than 9,000 solid
miles--a mass of water which would have taken upward of forty years
to pour over Niagara at the computed rate of 1,000,000 cubic feet in
a second. As the entire basin of this water system falls short of
300,000 square miles, the surface of the land is only three times that
of the water.
HOW THE UNITED STATES GOT ITS LANDS.--The United States bought
Louisiana, the vast region between the Mississippi River, the eastern
and northern boundary of Texas (then belonging to Spain), and the
dividing ridge of the Rocky Mountains, together with what is now
Oregon, Washington Territory, and the western parts of Montana and
Idaho, from France for $11,250,000. This was in 1803. Before the
principal, interest, and claims of one sort and another assumed by
the United States were settled, the total cost of this "Louisiana
purchase," comprising, according to French construction and our
understanding, 1,171,931 square miles, swelled to $23,500,000, or
almost $25 per section--a fact not stated in cyclopedias and school
histories, and therefore not generally understood. Spain still held
Florida and claimed a part of what we understood to be included in the
Louisiana purchase--a strip up to north latitude 31--and disputed our
boundary along the south and west, and even claimed Oregon. We bought
Florida and all the disputed land east of the Mississippi and her
claim to Oregon, and settled our southwestern boundary dispute for the
sum of $6,500,000. Texas smilingly proposed annexation to the United
States, and this great government was "taken in" December 29, 1845,
Texas keeping her public lands and giving us all her State debts and
a three-year war (costing us $66,000,000) with Mexico, who claimed
her for a runaway from Mexican jurisdiction. This was a bargain that
out-yankeed the Yankees, but the South insisted on it and the North
submitted. After conquering all the territory now embraced in New
Mexico, a part of Colorado, Arizona, Utah, Nevada and California, we
paid Mexico $25,000,000 for it--$15,000,000 for the greater part of it
and $10,000,000 for another slice, known as the "Gadsden purchase."
In 1867 we bought Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. All the several
amounts above named were paid long ago. As for all the rest of our
landed possessions, we took them with us when we cut loose from mother
Britain's apron string, but did not get a clear title until we had
fought ten years for it--first in the Revolutionary War, costing us in
killed 7,343 reported--besides the unreported killed--and over 15,000
wounded, and $135,193,103 in money; afterward in the War of 1812-15,
costing us in killed 1,877, in wounded 3,737, in money $107,159,003.
We have paid everybody but the Indians, the only real owners, and,
thanks to gunpowder, sword, bayonet, bad whisky, small-pox, cholera
and other weapons of civilization, there are not many of them left to
complain. Besides all the beads, earrings, blankets, pots, kettles,
brass buttons, etc., given them for land titles in the olden times, we
paid them, or the Indian agents, in one way and another, in the ninety
years from 1791 to 1881, inclusive, $193,672,697.31, to say nothing
of the thousands of lives sacrificed and many millions spent in Indian
wars, from the war of King Philip to the last fight with the Apaches.
ILLUSTRIOUS MEN AND WOMEN.--It is not likely that any two persons would
agree as to who are entitled to the first fifty places on the roll of
great men and great women. Using "great" in the sense of eminence in
their professions, of great military commanders the following are among
the chief: Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, who is represented as
having subdued all Asia to the Oxus and the Ganges, Ethiopia, and a part
of Europe; Cyrus the Great; Alexander the Great; Hannibal; Che-Hwanti,
who reduced all the kingdoms of China and Indo-China to one empire, and
constructed the Great Wall; Caesar; Genghis Khan, the Tartar chief, who
overran all Asia and a considerable part of Europe; Napoleon Bonaparte;
Ulysses S. Grant, and General Von Moltke. Among the most illustrious
benefactors of mankind, as statesmen, lawgivers and patriots, stand
Moses, David, Solon, Numa Pompilius, Zoroaster, Confucius, Justinian,
Charlemagne, Cromwell, Washington and Lincoln. Eminent among the
philosophers, rhetoricians and logicians stand Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, Seneca, the two Catos, and Lord Bacon; among orators,
Pericles, Demosthenes, Cicero, Mirabeau, Burke, Webster and Clay; among
poets, Homer, Virgil, Dante, Milton, and Shakespeare; among painters and
sculptors, Phidias, Parrhasius, Zenxis, Praxiteles, Scopas, Michael
Angelo, Raphael and Rubens; among philanthropists, John Howard; among
inventors, Archimedes, Watt, Fulton, Arkwright, Whitney and Morse; among
astronomers, Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Newton, La Place and the
elder Herschel. Here are sixty names of distinguished men, and yet the
great religious leaders, excepting Moses and Zoroaster, have not been
named. Among these stand Siddhartha or Buddha, Mahomet, Martin Luther,
John Knox and John Wesley. Then the great explorers and geographers of
the world have not been noticed, among whom Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny,
Vasco de Gama, Columbus and Humboldt barely lead the van.
Of eminent women there are Seling, wife of the Emperor Hwang-ti, B.
C. 2637, who taught her people the art of silk-raising and weaving;
Semiramis, the Assyrian Queen; Deborah, the heroic warrior prophetess
of the Israelites; Queen Esther, who, with the counsel of her cousin,
Mordecai, not only saved the Jews from extermination, but lifted
them from a condition of slavery into prosperity and power; Dido, the
founder of Carthage; Sappho, the eminent Grecian poetess; Hypatia, the
eloquent philosopher; Mary, the mother of Christ; Zenobia, Queen of
Palmyra; the mother of St. Augustine; Elizabeth of Hungary; Queen
Elizabeth of England; Queen Isabella of Spain; the Empress Maria
Theresa; Margaret the Great of Denmark; Catherine the Great of Russia,
Queen Victoria; Florence Nightingale; Mme. de Stael: Mrs. Fry, the
philanthropist; among authoresses, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. Sigourney, Mrs.
Browning, "George Sand," "George Eliot," and Mrs. Stowe; and among
artists, Rosa Bonheur, and our own Harriet Hosmer.
THE SUEZ CANAL.--The Suez Canal was begun in 1,858 and was formally
opened in November, 1869. Its cost, including harbors, is estimated at
$100,000,000. Its length is 100 miles, 75 of which were excavated; its
width is generally 325 feet at the surface, and 75 feet at the bottom,
and its depth 26 feet. The workmen employed were chiefly natives, and
many were drafted by the Khedive. The number of laborers is estimated
at 30,000. The British government virtually controls the canal as it
owns most of the stock.
SENDING VESSELS OVER NIAGARA FALLS.--There have been three such
instances. The first was in 1827. Some men got an old ship--the
Michigan--which had been used on lake Erie, and had been pronounced
unseaworthy. For mere wantonness they put aboard a bear, a fox, a
buffalo, a dog and some geese and sent it over the cataract. The bear
jumped from the vessel before it reached the rapids, swam toward the
shore, and was rescued by some humane persons. The geese went over
the falls, and came to the shore below alive, and, therefore, became
objects of great interest, and were sold at high prices to visitors at
the Falls. The dog, fox, and buffalo were not heard of or seen again.
Another condemned vessel, the Detroit, that had belonged to Commodore
Perry's victorious fleet, was started over the cataract in the winter
of 1841, but grounded about midway in the rapids, and lay there till
knocked to pieces by the ice. A somewhat more picturesque instance was
the sending over the Canada side of a ship on fire. This occurred in
1837. The vessel was the Caroline, which had been run in the interest
of the insurgents in the Canadian rebellion. It was captured by
Colonel McNabb, an officer of the Canada militia, and by his orders
it was set on fire then cut loose from its moorings. All in flames, it
went glaring and hissing down the rapids and over the precipice,
and smothered its ruddy blaze in the boiling chasm below. Thia
was witnessed by large crowds on both sides of the falls, and was
described as a most magnificent sight. Of course there was no one on
board the vessel.
OLD TIME WAGES IN ENGLAND.--The following rates of daily wages
"determined" by the Justices of Somerset, in 1685, answer this
question very fairly. Somerset; being one of the average shires of
England. The orthography is conformed to original record:
s. d.
Mowers per diem, findeing themselves: 1 2
Mowers at meate and drinke: 0 7
Men makeing hay per diem, findeing themselves: 0 10
Men at meate and drinke: 0 6
Women makeing hay: 0 7
Women at meate and drinke: 0 4
Men reapeing corne per diem, findeing themselves: 1 2
Men reapinge corne at meate and drinke: 0 8
Moweing an acre of grasse, findeing themselves: 1 2
Moweing an acre of grasse to hay: 1 6
Moweing an acre of barley: 1 1
Reapeinge and bindeinge an acre of wheate: 3 0
Cuttinge and bindeinge an acre of beanes and hookinge: 2 0
The shilling is about 24 cents and the penny 2 cents.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE SIGNERS.--The following is the list of
names appended to that famous document, with the colony which each
represented in Congress:
New Hampshire--Josiah Bartlett; William Whipple, Matthew Thornton.
Massachusetts--John Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Robert Treat
Paine.
Rhode Island--Elbridge Gerry, Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery.
Connecticut--Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams,
Oliver Wolcott.
New York--William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis
Morris.
New Jersey--Richard Hockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John
Hart, Abraham Clark.
Pennsylvania--Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John
Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson,
George Ross.
Delaware--Caesar Rodney, George Reed, Thomas McKean.
Maryland--Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca, Charles Carroll,
of Carrollton.
Virginia--George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin
Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton.
North Carolina--William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn.
South Carolina--Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch,
Jr., Arthur Middleton.
Georgia--Button Gwinntet, Lyman Hall, George Walton.
LIFE OF ETHAN ALLEN.--Colonel Ethan Allan was captured in an attack upon
Montreal, September 25, 1775. He was sent as prisoner to Great Britain,
ostensibly for trial, but in a few months was sent back to America, and
confined in prison ships and jails at Halifax and New York till May 3,
1778, when he was exchanged. During most of his captivity he was treated
as a felon and kept heavily ironed, but during 1777 was allowed
restricted liberty on parole. After his exchange he again offered his
services to the patriot army, but because of trouble in Vermont was put
in command of the militia in that State. The British authorities were at
that time making especial efforts to secure the allegiance of the
Vermonters, and it was owing to Allen's skillful negotiations that the
question was kept open until the theater of war was changed, thus
keeping the colony on the American side, but avoiding the attacks from
the British that would certainly have followed an open avowal of their
political preferences. Allen died at Burlington, Vt., February 13, 1789.
BURIAL CUSTOMS.--Among the early Christians the dead were buried
with the face upward and the feet toward the east, in token of the
resurrection at the coming again of the Sun of Righteousness. It
cannot be said, however, that the custom was first used by the
Christians. It was in practice among early pagan nations also, and is
regarded as a survival of the ideas of the fire-worshipers. The sun,
which was the impersonation of deity to many primitive races, had his
home in their mythology in the east, and out of respect for him the
dead were placed facing this quarter, among certain tribes always in
a sitting posture. It may also be remarked that among other races the
position was reversed, the dead body being placed with its feet toward
the west, because the region of sunset was the home of the departed
spirits.
THE SURRENDER OF LEE TO GRANT.--The surrender of General Lee was made
at the house of a farmer named McLean, in Appomattox village, that
house having been selected by General Lee himself at General Grant's
request for the interview. General Grant went thither, and was met
by General Lee on the threshold. The two went into the parlor of the
house, a small room, containing little furnishing but a table and
several chairs. About twenty Union officers besides General Grant
were present, among them the members of the General's staff. The only
Confederate officer with General Lee was Colonel Marshall, who
acted as his secretary. General Lee, as well as his aid, was in full
uniform, and wore a burnished sword which was given him by the State
of Virginia; General Grant was in plain uniform, without a sword.
After a brief conversation, relative to the meeting of the two
generals while soldiers in Mexico, General Lee adverted at once to the
object of the interview by asking on what terms the surrender of his
army would be received. General Grant replied that officers and men
must become prisoners of war, giving up of course all munitions,
weapons and supplies, but that a parole would be accepted. General Lee
then requested that the terms should be put in writing, that he might
sign them. General Badeau says that while General Grant was writing
the conditions of surrender he chanced to look up and his eye caught
the glitter of General Lee's sword, and that this sight induced him
to insert the provision that the "officers should be allowed to retain
their side-arms, horses and personal property." This historian thinks
that General Lee fully expected to give up his sword, and that General
Grant omitted this from the terms of surrender out of consideration
for the feelings of a soldier. Badeau says that General Lee was
evidently much touched by the clemency of his adversary in this
regard. The Confederate chief now wrote his acceptance of the terms
offered and signed them. He further requested that the cavalry and
artillery soldiers might be allowed to retain their horses as well
as the officers, to which General Grant consented, and asked that
a supply train left at Danville might be allowed to pass on, as his
soldiers were without food. The reply of General Grant to this was
an order that 25,000 rations should be immediately issued from the
commissariat of the National army to the Army of Northern Virginia.
The formal papers were now drawn up and signed, and the interview
which ended one of the greatest wars of modern times was over.
COLORED POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS.--The following will show the
white and colored population of the United States, from 1790 to 1880,
inclusive:
Year White. Colored Free. Colored Slaves.
1790 3,172,006 59,527 697,681
1800 4,306,446 108,435 893,002
1810 5,862,073 186,446 1,191,362
1820 7,862,166 223,634 1,538,022
1830 10,538,378 319,599 2,009,043
1840 14,195,805 386,293 2,487,355
1850 19,553,068 434,495 3,204,313
1860 26,922,537 488,070 3,953,760
1870 33,589,377 4,880,009 None.
1880 43,402,970 6,580,973 None.
ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.--From 1496 to 1857 there were 134 voyages and
land journeys undertaken by governments and explorers of Europe and
America to investigate the unknown region around the North Pole. Of
these, sixty-three went to the northwest, twenty-nine via Behring
Straits, and the rest to the northeast or due north. Since 1857 there
have been the notable expeditions of Dr. Hayes, of Captain Hall, those
of Nordenskjold, and others sent by Germany, Russia and Denmark;
three voyages made by James Lament, of the Royal Geographical Society,
England, at his own expense; the expeditions of Sir George Nares,
of Leigh Smith, and that of the ill-fated Jeannette; the search
expeditions of the Tigress, the Juniata, and those sent to rescue
Lieutenant Greely; further, all the expeditions fitted out under the
auspices of the Polar Commission--in which the Greely expedition was
included--and a number of minor voyages, making a sum total of some
sixty exploring journeys in these twenty-seven years.
THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO.--The battle of Waterloo was fought June 18,
1815, between the allied British, Netherland and German troops under
Wellington and the French under Napoleon. On June 16 Napoleon had
attacked the Prussians under Blucher at Ligny and forced them to retreat
toward Wavre, and Marshal Noy at the same time attacked the British and
Dutch forces at Quatre Bras, but was forced to retire after an
engagement of five hours. Napoleon's object, however, which was to
prevent a union of the Prussians with Wellington's main army, was
partially gained. The latter commander, having learned the next morning
of Blucher's repulse, moved on to Waterloo expecting that the Prussian
commander, according to previous arrangement, would join him there as
speedily as possible. On June 17 Napoleon also moved toward Waterloo
with the main body of his army, having directed Marshal Grouchy with
34,000 men and ninety-six guns to pursue Blucher's command toward Wavre.
Both armies bivouacked on the field of Waterloo, and the next morning
Napoleon, confident that Grouchy would prevent the arrival of the
Prussians, delayed attack until the ground should become dry, a heavy
shower having fallen on the day previous. The forces under Wellington
occupied a semi-circular ridge a mile and a half in length, and the
French were on an opposite ridge, the two being separated by a valley
about 500 yards wide. The plan of Napoleon was to turn the allied left,
force it back upon center, and gain possession of the enemy's line of
retreat. To draw off Wellington's attention to his right, French troops
were sent about 11 o'clock to attack the chateau of Houguemont, which
the English had fortified. After a fight of more than two hours this was
still in the possession of its defenders. About 1 o'clock a Prussian
corps under Bulow was seen approaching on the French right, and
Napoleon, finding it necessary to send 10,000 men to check their
advance, was obliged to change the plan of battle. He therefore ordered
a fierce attack upon the allied center. Wellington massed his troops
there, and the battle was obstinately maintained for five hours, with
varying success to the participants, both commanders hourly expecting
re-enforcements. Wellington was waiting for Blucher and Napoleon for
Grouchy. The French at last were gaining ground; the allied troops in
the center were wavering under Ney's impetuous onslaughts, General
Durutte had forced back the left, and Bulow's troops on the right had
been forced to yield the position they had taken. Now, however, there
were rumors that Blucher's army was approaching and the allies again
rallied. At 7 o'clock Napoleon, despairing of the approach of Grouchy,
determined to decide the day by a charge of the Old Guard, which had
been held in reserve. At this stage the advance of Prussian horse on the
allied left forced back General Durutte's troops, and the Old Guard
formed in squares to cover this retreat. Ney's division surrounded, made
a gallant struggle--their brave leader still unwounded, though five
horses had been shot under him, heading them on foot, sword in hand--but
were forced to give way. The Old Guard held their ground against
overwhelming numbers. Finally, when five squares were broken, the
Emperor gave the order to "fall back." The cry "The Guard is repulsed"
spread consternation through the French army and threatened to turn
retreat into precipitate flight. Napoleon, seeing this, reformed the
Guard in order to give a rallying point for the fugitives. Failing in
this, he declared that he would die within the square, but Marshal Soult
hurried him away. The heroic band, surrounded, was bidden to surrender.
"The Old Guard dies, but never surrenders" is the reply popularly
attributed to General Cambronne, and with the cry of "Vive l'Empereur!"
the remnant of the Guard made a last charge upon the enemy and perished
almost to a man. The forces of Blucher being now upon the field, the
rout of the French was complete, and the Prussians pursued the fleeing
troops, capturing guns and men. There is no doubt that the failure of
Grouchy to come upon the field caused Napoleon to lose his last great
battle. It was subsequently asserted that this marshal was bribed, but
there seems to be no real foundation for so base a charge. The trouble
was that he had been ordered by Napoleon to follow the Prussians toward
Wavre and thought it necessary to follow the strict letter of his
instructions. Before he reached the village the main body of the
Prussian force was on its way to Waterloo, but one division had been
left there to occupy his attention. Engaged in skirmishing with this, he
paid no attention to the advice of his subordinate generals who, hearing
the terrible cannonading at Waterloo, besought him to go to the aid of
the army there. Napoleon believing that he was either holding back
Blucher's forces or was hotly pursuing them, did not recall him to the
main army, and the decisive battle was lost. Grouchy was summoned before
a council of war, but the court declared itself incompetent to decide
his case, and nothing further came of it.
OUR NATIONAL CEMETERIES.--National Cemeteries for soldiers and sailors
may be said to have originated in 1850, the army appropriation bill of
that year appropriating money for a cemetery near the City of Mexico,
for the interment of the remains of soldiers who fell in the Mexican
War. The remains of Federal soldiers and sailors who fell in the war
for the Union have been buried in seventy-eight cemeteries exclusive
of those interred elsewhere, a far greater number.
In the subjoined list are given the names and locations of the
National Cemeteries with the number therein buried, known and unknown.
We have no means of knowing what cemeteries also contain the bodies of
Southern soldiers:
(Location): Known; Unknown
Cypress Hill, N. Y.: 3,675; 70
Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y.: 3,096; ----
Beverly, N. J.: 142; 7
Finn's Point, N.J.: ----; 2,644
Gettysburg, Pa.: 1,967; 1,608
Philadelphia, Pa.: 1,880; 28
Annapolis, Md.: 2,289; 197
Antietam, Md.: 2,853; 1,811
London Park, Baltimore, Md.: 1,627; 168
Laurel, Baltimore, Md.: 232; 6
Soldiers' Home, D. C.: 5,313; 288
Battle, D. C.: 13; ----
Grafton, W. Va.: 634; 620
Arlington, Va.: 11,911; 4,349
Alexandria, Va.: 3,434; 124
Ball's Bluff, Va.: 1; 24
Cold Harbor, Va.: 672; 1,281
City Point, Va.: 3,779; 1,374
Culpepper, Va.: 454; 910
Danville, Va.: 1,171; 155
Fredericksburg, Va.: 2,487; 12,770
Fort Harrison, Va.: 239; 575
Glendale, Va.: 233; 961
Hampton, Va.: 4,808; 494
Poplar Grove, Va.: 2,197; 3,993
Richmond, Va.: 841; 5,700
Seven Pines, Va.: 150; 1,208
Staunton, Va.: 233; 520
Winchester, Va.: 2,094; 2,301
Yorktown, Va.: 748; 1,434
Newbern, N. C.: 2,174; 1,077
Raleigh, N. C.: 625; 553
Salisbury, N. C.: 94; 12,032
Wilmington, N. C.: 710; 1,398
Beaufort, S. C.: 4,748; 4,493
Florence, S. C.: 199; 2,799
Andersonville, Ga.: 12,878; 959
Marietta, Ga.: 7,182; 2,963
Barrancas, Fla.: 791; 657
Mobile, Ala.: 751; 112
Corinth, Miss.: 1,788; 3,920
Natchez, Miss.: 308; 2,780
Vicksburg, Miss.: 3,896; 12,704
Alexandria, La.: 534; 772
Baton Rouge, La.: 2,468; 495
Chalmette, La.: 6,833; 5,075
Port Hudson, La.: 590; 3,218
Brownsville, Texas: 1,409; 1,379
San Antonio, Texas: 307; 167
Fayetteville, Ark.: 431; 781
Fort Smith, Ark.: 706; 1,152
Little Rock, Ark.: 3,260; 2,337
Chattanooga, Tenn.: 7,993; 4,903
Fort Donelson, Tenn.: 158; 511
Knoxville, Tenn.: 2,089; 1,040
Memphis, Tenn.: 5,150; 8,817
Nashville, Tenn.: 11,824; 4,692
Pittsburg Landing, Tenn.: 1,229; 2,361
Stone River, Tenn.: 3,820; 2,314
Camp Nelson, Ky.: 2,477; 1,165
Cave Hill, Louisville, Ky.: 3,342; 583
Danville, Ky.: 346; 12
Lebanon, Ky.: 591; 277
Lexington, Ky.: 824; 105
Logan's, Ky.: 345; 366
Crown Hill, Indianapolis, Ind.: 686; 36
New Albany, Ind.: 2,138; 676
Camp Butler, Ill.: 1,007; 355
Mound City, Ill.: 2,505; 2,721
Rock Island, Ill.: 280; 9
Jefferson Barracks, Mo.: 8,569; 2,906
Jefferson City, Mo.: 348; 412
Springfield, Mo.: 845; 713
Fort Leavenworth, Kas.: 821; 913
Fort Scott, Kas.: 388; 161
Keokuk, Iowa: 610; 21
Fort Gibson, I. T.: 212; 2,212
Fort McPherson, Neb.: 149; 291
City of Mexico, Mexico: 254; 750
THE CATACOMBS OF PARIS.--The so-called catacombs of Paris were never
catacombs in the ancient sense of the word, and were not devoted to
purposes of sepulture until 1784. In that year the Council of State
issued a decree for clearing the Cemetery of the Innocents, and for
removing its contents, as well as those of other graveyards, into the
quarries which had existed from the earlier times under the city
of Paris and completely undermined the southern part of the city.
Engineers and workmen were sent to examine the quarries and to prop up
their roofs lest the weight of buildings above should break them in.
April 7, 1786, the consecration of the catacombs was performed with
great solemnity, and the work of removal from the cemeteries was
immediately begun. This work was all performed by night; the bones
were brought in funeral cars, covered with a pall, and followed by
priests chanting the service of the dead, and when they reached the
catacombs the bones were shot down the shaft. As the cemeteries were
cleared by order of the government, their contents were removed to
this place of general deposit, and these catacombs further served as
convenient receptacles for those who perished in the revolution. At
first the bones were heaped up without any kind of order except that
those from each cemetery were kept separate, but in 1810 a regular
system of arranging them was commenced, and the skulls and bones were
built up along the wall. From the main entrance to the catacombs,
which is near the barriers d'Enfer, a flight of ninety steps descends,
at whose foot galleries are seen branching in various directions. Some
yards distant is a vestibule of octagonal form, which opens into a
long gallery lined with bones from floor to roof. The arm, leg and
thigh bones are in front, closely and regularly piled, and their
uniformity is relieved by three rows of skulls at equal distances.
Behind these are thrown the smaller bones. This gallery conducts to
several rooms resembling chapels, lined with bones variously arranged.
One is called the "Tomb of the Revolution." another the "Tomb of
Victims," the latter containing the relics of those who perished in
the early period of the revolution and in the "Massacre of September."
It is estimated that the remains of 3,000,000 human beings lie in this
receptacle. Admission to these catacombs has for years been strictly
forbidden on account of the unsafe condition of the roof. They are
said to comprise an extent of about 3,250,000 square yards.
HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE.--The principle of the telephone, that sounds
could be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated
by Robert Hook in 1667, but no practical application was made of
the discovery until 1821, when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his
"Enchanted Lyre," in which the sounds of a music-box were conveyed
from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discoverer of the
speaking telephone, however, was Johaun Philipp Reis, a German
scientist and professor in the institute at Friedrichsdorf. April 25,
1861, Reis exhibited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all
the essential features of the modern telephone, but as its commercial
value was not at all comprehended, little attention was paid to it.
Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists in his
discovery, died in 1874, without having reaped any advantage from it,
and there is no doubt that his death was hastened by the distress of
mind caused by his continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, the idea was being
worked into more practical shape by other persons, Professor Elisha
Gray and Professor A.G. Bell, and later by Edison. There is little
doubt that Professor Gray's successful experiments considerably
antedated those of the others, but Professor Bell was the first to
perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, Bell's articulating telephone
was tested by experiments at Boston and Salem, Mass., and was found
to convey sounds distinctly from one place to the other, a distance
of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited widely in this
country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies
were established to bring it into general use. Edison's carbon
"loud-speaking" telephone was brought out in 1878. It is not worth
while to go into details of the suits on the subject of priority
of invention. The examiner of patents at Washington, July 21, 1883,
decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the
first to complete his invention and secure a full patent. Since
1878 there have been many improvements in the different parts of the
telephone, rendering it now nearly perfect in its working.
SECESSION AND READMISSION OF REBEL STATES.--
Seceded. Readmitted.
South Carolina Dec. 20,1860. June 11, 1868.
Mississippi Jan. 9, 1861. Feb. 3, 1870.
Alabama Jan. 11, 1861. June 11, 1868.
Florida Jan. 11, 1861. June 11, 1868.
Georgia Jan. 19, 1861. April 20, 1870.
Louisiana Jan. 26, 1861. June 11, 1868.
Texas Feb. 1, 1861. Mar. 15, 1870.
Virginia April 16, 1861. Jan. 15, 1870.
Arkansas May 6, 1861. June 20, 1868.
North Carolina May 21, 1861. June 11, 1868.
Tennessee June 24, 1861. July, 1866.
THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1811-12.--The earthquake shocks felt on the shores
of the Lower Mississippi in the years 1811-12 are recorded as among
the most remarkable phenomena of their kind. Similar instances where
earth disturbances have prevailed, severely and continuously, far from
the vicinity of a volcano, are very rare indeed. In this instance,
over an extent of country stretching for 300 miles southward from
the mouth of the Ohio river, the ground rose and sank in great
undulations, and lakes were formed and again drained. The shocks were
attended by loud explosions, great fissures--generally traveling
from northeast to southwest, and sometimes more than half a mile in
length--were opened in the earth, and from these openings mud and
water were thrown often to the tops of the highest trees. Islands in
the Mississippi were sunk, the current of the river was driven back
by the rising of its bed, and overflowed the adjacent lands. More than
half of New Madrid county was permanently submerged. The inhabitants
noticed that these earth movements were sometimes vertical and
sometimes horizontal, the former being by far the most serious
in their effects. These disturbances ceased March 26, 1812,
simultaneously with the great earthquake which destroyed the city of
Caracas, South America.
THE DARK DAYS IN NEW ENGLAND.--On May 19, 1780, there was a remarkable
darkening of the sky and atmosphere over a large part of New England,
which caused much alarm among those who witnessed it. The darkness began
between ten and eleven o'clock on the day named, and continued in
some places through the entire day, and was followed by an unusually
intense degree of blackness during the ensuing night. This phenomenon
extended from the northeastern part of New England westward as far as
Albany, and southward to the coast of New Jersey. The most intense and
prolonged darkness, however, was confined to Massachusetts, especially
to the eastern half of the State. It came up from the southwest, and
overhung the country like a pall. It was necessary to light candles in
all the houses, and thousands of good people, believing that the end
of all things terrestrial had come, betook themselves to religious
devotions. One incident of the occasion has been woven into verse with
excellent effect by the poet Whittier. The Connecticut Legislature was
in session on that day, and as the darkness came on and grew more and
more dense, the members became terrified, and thought that the day
of judgment had come; so a motion was made to adjourn. At this, a
Mr. Davenport arose and said: "Mr. Speaker, it is either the day of
judgment, or it is not. If it is not, there is no need of adjourning.
If it is, I desire to be found doing my duty. I move that candles be
brought and that we proceed to business." Mr. Davenport's suggestion
was taken, candles were brought in, and business went on as usual.
As to the explanation of this phenomenon, scientists have been much
puzzled. It was plain from the falling of the barometer that the air
was surcharged with heavy vapor. The darkness then, it might be said,
was only the result of a dense fog, but the question of the cause of
so remarkable a fog was still unanswered. Omitting this unascertained
primary cause, then, Professor Williams, of Harvard College, who
subsequently made a thorough investigation of the matter, gave it as
his opinion that this unprecedented quantity of vapor had gathered
in the air in layers so as to cut off the rays of light, by repeated
refraction, in a remarkable degree. He thought that the specific
gravity of this vapor must have been the same as that of the air,
which caused it to be held so long in suspension in the atmosphere. In
this case the extent of the darkness would coincide with the area of
the vapor, and it would continue until a change in the gravity of the
air caused the vapors to ascend or descend. In some places when the
darkness cleared it was as if the vapor was lifted and borne away by
the wind like a dark pall, and in others, after a period of intense
darkness the atmosphere gradually lightened again. In our day, a
phenomenon of this kind would be thoroughly investigated to its most
remote possible cause; but then owing to the sparse settlement of the
country and the difficulties of travel, the investigation of distant
causes could not be made. Large fires may have prevailed that spring
in the forests of Western New York and Pennsylvania--a region then an
absolute wilderness--the smoke of which was borne through the upper
regions of the atmosphere, to fall when it came to a locality of less
buoyant air, down to the lower strata. We say these fires may have
recently preceded this day, and served as its sufficient cause, but
we have only presumptive evidence that they did occur. Had Professor
Williams entertained a supposition of the previous existence of such
fires, he had then no means of verifying it, and long before the
advent of railroads and telegraphs, or even of stage lines, the
scientific theories of the dark day had passed from the general
memory.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE LIBERTY BELL.--In 1751 the Pennsylvania
Assembly authorized a committee to procure a bell for their State
House. November 1st of that year an order was sent to London for "a
good bell of about 2,000 pounds weight." To this order were added the
following directions: "Let the bell be cast by the best workmen and
examined carefully before it is shipped, with the following words well
shaped in large letters around it, viz.: 'By order of the Assembly
of the Province of Pennsylvania, for the State House, in the city of
Philadelphia, 1752.' And underneath, 'Proclaim Liberty Through All the
Land Unto All the Inhabitants Thereof.--Levit. xxv. 10.'" In due time,
in the following year, the bell reached Philadelphia, but when it was
hung, early in 1753, as it was being first rung to test the sound, it
cracked without any apparent reason, and it was necessary to have it
recast. It was at first thought to be necessary to send it back to
England for the purpose, but some "ingenious workmen" in Philadelphia
wished to do the casting and were allowed to do so. In the first week
of June, 1753, the bell was again hung in the belfry of the State
House. On July 4, 1776, it was known throughout the city that the
final decision on the question of declaring the colonies independent
of Great Britain was to be made by the Continental Congress, in
session at the State House. Accordingly the old bellman had been
stationed in the belfry on that morning, with orders to ring the bell
when a boy waiting at the door of the State House below should signal
to him that the bill for independence had been passed. Hour after
hour the old man stood at his post. At last, at 2 o'clock, when he had
about concluded that the question would not be decided on that day at
least, the watchman heard a shout from below, and looking down saw
the boy at the door clapping his hands and calling at the top of his
voice: "Ring! ring!" And he did ring, the story goes, for two whole
hours, being so filled with excitement and enthusiasm that he could
not stop. When the British threatened Philadelphia, in 1777, the
precious bell was taken down and removed to the town of Bethlehem for
safety. In 1778 it was returned to the State House and a new steeple
built for it. Several years after it cracked, for some unknown reason,
under a stroke of the clapper, and its tone was thus destroyed. An
attempt was made to restore its tone by sawing the crack wider, but
without success. This bell was sent to New Orleans during the winter
to be exhibited in the World's Fair there. The Pullman Company gave
one of their handsomest cars for the transit. It was in the charge of
three custodians appointed by the Mayor of Philadelphia, who did not
leave it night or day, and guarded it as fully as possible against
accident. A pilot engine preceded the train carrying the bell over
the entire route. It left Philadelphia Jan. 24, 1885, and returned in
June.
THE ANTARCTIC POLAR REGIONS.--The climate of the southern polar regions
is much more severe than that at the north pole, the icefields extending
in degrees nearer the equator from the south than from the north. Within
the arctic circle there are tribes of men living on the borders of the
icy ocean on both the east and west hemispheres, but within the
antarctic all is one dreary, uninhabitable waste. In the extreme north
the reindeer and the musk-ox are found in numbers, but not a single land
quadruped exists beyond 50 degrees of southern latitude. Flowers are
seen in summer by the arctic navigator as far as 78 degrees north, but
no plant of any description, not even a moss or a lichen, has been
observed beyond Cockburn Island, in 64 degrees 12 minutes south
latitude. In Spitzbergen, 79 degrees north, vegetation ascends the
mountain slopes to a height of 3,000 feet, but on every land within or
near the antarctic circle the snow-line descends to the water's edge.
The highest latitude ever reached at the south is 78 degrees 10 minutes,
while in the north navigators have penetrated to 84 degrees. The reason
for this remarkable difference is the predominance of large tracts of
land in the northern regions, while in the south is a vast expanse of
ocean. In the north continental masses form an almost continuous belt
around the icy sea, while in the southern hemisphere the continents
taper down into a broad extent of frigid waters. In the north the plains
of Siberia and of the Hudson's Bay territories, warmed by the sunbeams
of summer, become at that season centers of radiating heat, while the
antarctic lands, of small extent, isolated in the midst of a polar ocean
and chilled by cold sea winds, act at every season as refrigerators of
the atmosphere. Further in the north the cold currents of the polar sea,
having but two openings of any estent through which they can convey
drift ice, have their chilly influence confined to comparatively narrow
limits, but the cold currents of the antarctic seas have scope to branch
out freely on all sides and carry their ice even into temperate waters.
Finally, at the northern hemisphere, the Gulf Stream conveys warmth even
to the shores of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, while on the opposite
regions of the globe no traces of warm currents have been observed
beyond 55 degrees of south latitude.
THE LANGUAGE USED BY CHRIST.--The language used by Christ was the
Aramaic, the dialect of Northern Syria. The Israelites were much in
contact with Aramaean populations, and some words from that tongue
became incorporated into the Hebrew at a very early date. At the time
of Hezekiah, Aramaic had become the official language of both Judea
and Assyria: that is, the language spoken at the courts. After the
fall of Samaria the Hebrew inhabitants of Northern Israel were largely
carried into captivity, and their place was taken by colonists from
Syria, who probably spoke Aramaic as their mother tongue. The fall
of the Jewish Kingdom hastened the decay of Hebrew as a spoken
language--not that the captives forgot their own language, as is
generally assumed, but after the return to Judea the Jews found
themselves, a people few in number, among a large number of
surrounding populations using the Aramaic tongue. When the latest
books of the Old Testament were written, Hebrew, though still the
language of literature, had been supplanted by Aramaic as the language
of common life. From that time on the former tongue was the exclusive
property of scholars, and has no history save that of a merely
literary language.
HOW ANCIENT TEMPLES AND PYRAMIDS WERE BUILT.--This is beyond modern
conjecture, so imperfect is our understanding of the extent of the
mechanical knowledge of the ancients. Their appliances are believed
to have been of the simplest order, and their implements exceedingly
crude, and yet they were able to convey these enormous blocks of
stones for vast distances, over routes most difficult, and having
accomplished this, to raise them to great height, and fit them in
place without the aid of either cement or mortar to cover up the
errors of the stonecutter. How all this was done is one of the enigmas
of modern science. It has been generally believed that inclined planes
of earth were used to enable the workmen to raise the huge stones
to their places, the earth being cleared away afterward. But it is
possible that the ancients had a more extended knowledge of mechanical
powers than we usually give them credit for, and that they made use
of machinery very like that employed by moderns for lifting great
weights. Large cavities are found in some of the stones in the
pyramids, which may have been worn by the foot of a derrick turning in
them. That there were enormous numbers of men employed in the building
of these ancient structures is well known; these results of their
great aggregated strength we see, but they left no record of the means
by which this strength was focused and brought most effectually to
bear on their mighty tasks.
THE FIRST ATLANTIC CABLE.--As early as 1842 Professor Morse declared a
submarine cable connection between America and Europe to be among the
possibilities, but no attempt toward this great achievement was made
until 1854, when Cyrus Field established a company, which secured
the right of landing cables in Newfoundland for fifty years. In 1858
soundings between Ireland and Newfoundland were completed, showing
a maximum depth of 4,400 meters. Having succeeded in laying a
cable between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, Mr. Field secured the
co-operation of English capitalists in his enterprise. The laying
of the cable was begun August 7, 1857, from the port of Valencia,
Ireland, but on the third day it broke, and the expedition had to
return. Early in the following year another attempt was made.
The cable was laid from both ends at the same time, was joined in
mid-ocean, but in lowering it was broken. Again, in the same year, the
attempt was made, and this time connection was successfully made. The
first message over the line was sent August 7, 1858. The insulation
of this cable, however, was defective, and by September 4th had
quite failed. Some time was now spent in experiments, conducted by
scientists, to secure a more perfect cable. A new company was formed,
and in 1865 the work again began. The Great Eastern was employed to
lay the cable, but when it was partly laid serious defects in the line
were discovered and in repairing these it broke. The apparatus for
recovering the wire proving insufficient the vessel returned to
England. A new company, called the Anglo-American, was formed in 1865,
and again the Great Eastern was equipped for the enterprise. The plan
of the new expedition was not only to lay a new cable, but also
to take up the end of the old one and join it to a new piece, thus
obtaining a second telegraph line. The vessel sailed from Valencia
July 13, 1866, and July 27 the cable was completely laid to Heart's
Content, Newfoundland, and a message announcing the fact sent over the
wire to Lord Stanley. Queen Victoria sent a message of congratulation
to President Buchanan on the 28th. September 2d the lost cable of 1865
was recovered and its laying completed at Newfoundland September 8,
1866.
ENGRAVING ON EGGS.--The art of engraving on eggs is very puzzling to
the uninitiated, but in reality it is very simple. It merely consists
in writing upon the egg-shell with wax or varnish, or simply with
tallow, and then immersing the egg in some weak acid, such, for
example, as vinegar, dilute hydrochloric acid, or etching liquor.
Wherever the varnish or wax has not protected the shell, the lime of
the latter is decomposed and dissolved in the acid, and the writing
or drawing remains in relief. In connection with this art a curious
incident is told in history. In the month of August, 1808, at the time
of the Spanish war, there was found in a church in Lisbon an egg, on
which was plainly foretold the utter destruction of the French, who
then had control of the city. The story of the wonderful prophecy
spread through the town, causing the greatest excitement among the
superstitious populace, and a general uprising was expected.
This, however, the French commander cleverly thwarted by causing
a counter-prophecy, directly denying the first, to be engrossed on
several hundred eggs, which were then distributed in various parts of
the city. The astonished Portuguese did not know what to think of this
new phenomenon, but its "numerousness," if we may so call it, caused
it to altogether outweigh the influence of the first prediction, and
there were no further symptoms of revolt against the French.
CAYENNE PEPPER.--The name of the plant genus from which cayenne pepper
is obtained is capsicum, a name also given to the product of the
plant. This genus belongs to the solanaceae, or night shade family, and has
no relation to the family piperaceae, which produces the shrub yielding
black pepper. The plant which yields cayenne pepper is identical with
the common red pepper of our gardens. It is an annual, a native of
tropical countries, where it thrives luxuriantly even in the dryest
soils, but it is also cultivated in other parts of the world. It grows
to the height of two or three feet, and bears a fruit in the shape of
a conical pod or seed-vessel, which is green when immature, but bright
scarlet or orange when ripe. This pod, with its seeds, has a very
pungent taste, and is used when green for pickling, and when ripe
and dried is ground to powder to make cayenne pepper, or is used
for medicine. This powder has a strongly stimulating effect, and is
believed to aid digestion. It is also employed externally to excite
the action of the skin.
THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA.--There are several groves of Big Trees in
California, the most famous of which are the Calaveras grove and the
Mariposa grove. The Calaveras grove occupies what may be described
as a band or belt 3,200 feet long and 700 in width. It is between two
slopes, in a depression in the mountains, and has a stream winding
through it, which runs dry in the summer time. In this grove the Big
Trees number ninety-three, besides a great many smaller ones, which
would be considered very large if it were not for the presence of
these monarchs of the forest. Several of the Big Trees have fallen
since the grove was discovered, one has been cut down, and one had
the bark stripped from it to the height 116 feet from the ground. The
highest now standing is the "Keystone State," 325 feet high and 45
feet in circumference; and the largest and finest is the "Empire
State." There are four trees over 300 feet in height, and 40 to 61
feet in circumference. The tree which was cut down occupied five men
twenty-two days, which would be at the rate of one man 110 days, or
nearly four months' work, not counting Sundays. Pump augers were used
for boring through the giant. After the trunk was severed from the
stump it required five men with immense wedges for three days to
topple it over. The bark was eighteen inches thick. The tree would
have yielded more than 1,000 cords of four-foot wood and 100 cords of
bark, or more than 1,100 cords in all. On the stump of the tree was
built a house, thirty feet in diameter, which the Rev. A.H. Tevis, an
observant traveler, says contains room enough in square feet, if it
were the right shape, for a parlor 12x10 feet, a dining-room 10x12,
a kitchen 10x12, two bed-rooms 10 feet square each, a pantry 4x8,
two clothes-presses 1-1/2 feet deep and 4 feet wide, and still have
a little to spare! The Mariposa grove is part of a grant made by
Congress to be set apart for public use, resort and recreation
forever. The area of the grant is two miles square and comprises two
distinct groves about half a mile apart. The upper grove contains 365
trees, of which 154 are over fifteen feet in diameter, besides a great
number of smaller ones. The average height of the Mariposa trees is
less than that of the Calaveras, the highest Mariposa tree being 272
feet; but the average size of the Mariposa is greater than that of
Calaveras. The "Grizzly Giant," in the lower grove, is 94 feet in
circumference and 31 feet in diameter; it has been decreased by
burning. Indeed, the forests at times present a somewhat unattractive
appearance, as, in the past, the Indians, to help them in their
hunting, burned off the chaparral and rubbish, and thus disfigured
many of these splendid trees by burning off nearly all the bark. The
first branch of the "Grizzly Giant" is nearly two hundred feet from
the ground and is six feet in diameter. The remains of a tree, now
prostrate, indicate that it had reached a diameter of about forty feet
and a height of 400 feet; the trunk is hollow and will admit of the
passage of three horsemen riding abreast. There are about 125 trees of
over forty feet in circumference. Besides these two main groves there
are the Tolumne grove, with thirty big trees; the Fresno grove, with
over eight hundred spread over an area of two and a half miles long
and one to two broad; and the Stanislaus grove, the Calaveras group,
with from 700 to 800. There should be named in this connection the
petrified forest near Calitoga, which contains portions of nearly one
hundred distinct trees of great size, scattered over a tract of three
or four miles in extent: the largest of this forest is eleven feet in
diameter at the base and sixty feet long. It is conjectured that these
prostrate giants were silicified by the eruption of the neighboring
Mount St. Helena, which discharged hot alkaline waters containing
silica in solution. This petrified forest is considered one of the
great natural wonders of California.
HISTORY OF THE CITY OF JERUSALEM.--The earliest name of Jerusalem
appears to have been Jebus, or poetically, Salem, and its king in
Abraham's time was Melchizedek. When the Hebrews took possession of
Canaan, the city of Salem was burned, but the fortress remained in the
hands of the Jebusites till King David took it by storm and made it the
capital of his kingdom. From that time it was called Jerusalem. During
the reigns of David and Solomon it attained its highest degree of power.
When ten of the Jewish tribes seceded under Jeroboam they made Shechem
(and later Samaria) the capital of their kingdom of Israel, and
Jerusalem remained the capital of the smaller but more powerful kingdom
of Judah. The city was taken by Shishak, King of Egypt, in 971 B.C., was
later conquered and sacked by Joash, King of Israel, and in the time of
Ahaz, the King of Syria came against it with a large force, but could
not take it. The city was besieged in Hezekiah's reign, by the army of
Sennacherib, King of Assyria, but was saved by the sudden destruction of
the invading army. After the death of Josiah, the city was tributary for
some years to the King of Egypt, but was taken after repeated attempts
by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C., and was left a heap
of ruins. The work of rebuilding it began by order of King Cyrus about
538 B.C., who allowed the Jewish people who had been carried into
captivity to return for this purpose. From this time Jerusalem enjoyed
comparative peace for several hundred years and grew to be an important
commercial city. When Alexander invaded Syria it submitted to him
without resistance. After his death it belonged for a time to Egypt and
in 198 B.C., passed with the rest of Judea under the rule of Syria.
Antiochus the Great ruled it with mildness and justice, but the tyranny
of his son, Antiochus Epiphanes, brought about the revolt, headed by the
Maccabees, through which Jerusalem gained a brief independence. In 63
B.C., Pompey the Great took the city, demolished the walls and killed
thousands of the people, but did not plunder it. However, nine years
later Crassus robbed the temple of all its treasures. The walls were
soon after rebuilt under Antipater, the Roman procurator, but when Herod
came to rule over the city with the title of King, given him by the
Roman Senate, he was resisted and only took possession after an
obstinate siege, which was followed by the massacre of great numbers of
the people. Herod improved and enlarged the city, and restored the
temple on a more magnificent scale than in Solomon's time. Jerusalem is
said at this time to have had a population of over 200,000. This period
of wealth and prosperity was also rendered most, memorable for Jerusalem
by the ministry and crucifixion of Christ. About A.D. 66, the Jews,
goaded to desperation by the tyranny of the Romans, revolted, garrisoned
Jerusalem, and defeated a Roman army sent against them. This was the
beginning of the disastrous war which ended with the destruction of the
city. It was taken by Titus, in the year 70, after a long siege, all the
inhabitants were massacred, or made prisoners, and the entire city left
a heap of ruins. The Emperor Hadrian built on the site of Jerusalem a
Roman city, under the name of Elia Capitolina, with a temple of Jupiter,
and Jews were forbidden to enter the city under pain of death. Under
Constantine it was made a place of pilgrimage for Christians, as the
Emperor's mother, Helena, had with much pains located the various sites
of events in the history of Christ. The Emperor Julian, on the contrary,
not only allowed the Jews to return to their city, but also made an
attempt, which ended in failure, to rebuild their temple. In 614 the
Persian Emperor Chosroes invaded the Roman empire. The Jews joined his
army, and after conquering the northern part of Palestine, the united
forces laid siege to and took Jerusalem. The Jews wreaked vengeance on
the Christians for what they had been forced to endure, and 20,000
people were massacred. The Persians held rule in the city for fourteen
years; it was then taken by the Romans again, but in 636 the Caliph Omar
beseiged it. After four months the city capitulated. It was under the
rule of the Caliphs for 400 years, until the Seljuk Turks in 1077
invaded Syria and made it a province of their empire. Christian pilgrims
had for many years kept up the practice of visiting the tomb of Christ,
as the Caliphs did not interfere with their devotions any further than
by exacting a small tribute from each visitor. But the cruelties
practiced upon the pilgrims by the Turks were many, and report of them
soon roused all Europe to a pitch of indignation, and brought about that
series of holy wars, which for a time restored the holy sepulcher into
Christian hands. Jerusalem was stormed and taken July 15, 1099, and
50,000 Moslems were slaughtered by their wrathful Christian foes. The
new sovereignty was precariously maintained until 1187, when it fell
before the power of Saladin. Jerusalem, after a siege of twelve days,
surrendered. Saladin, however, did not put his captives to death, but
contented himself with expelling them from the city. Jerusalem passed
into the hands of the Franks by treaty, in 1229, was retaken by the
Moslems in 1239, once more restored in 1243, and finally conquered in
1244 by a horde of Kharesmian Turks. In 1517 Palestine was conquered by
Sultan Selin I., and since then has been under the rule of the Ottoman
Empire, except for a brief period--from 1832 to 1840, when it was in the
hands of Mahomet Ali Pasha of Egypt, and his son Ibrahim had his seat of
government in Jerusalem.
THE BLACK DEATH.--- This great plague, known as the "Black Death," was
the most deadly epidemic ever known. It is believed to have been an
aggravated outburst of the Oriental plague, which from the earliest
records of history has periodically appeared in Asia and Northern
Africa. There had been a visitation of the plague in Europe in 1342;
the Black Death, in terrible virulence, appeared in 1348-9; it also
came in milder form in 1361-2, and again in 1369. The prevalence and
severity of the pestilence during this century is ascribed to the
disturbed conditions of the elements that preceded it. For a number
of years Asia and Europe had suffered from mighty earthquakes, furious
tornadoes, violent floods, clouds of locusts darkening the air and
poisoning it with their corrupting bodies. Whether these natural
disturbances were the cause of the plague is not certainly known, but
many writers on the subject regard the connection as both probable and
possible. The disease was brought from the Orient to Constantinople,
and early in 1347 appeared in Sicily and several coast towns of Italy.
After a brief pause the pestilence broke out at Avignon in January,
1348; advanced thence to Southern France, Spain and Northern Italy.
Passing through France and visiting, but not yet ravaging, Germany, it
made its way to England, cutting down its first victims at Dorset, in
August, 1348. Thence it traveled slowly, reaching London early in
the winter. Soon it embraced the entire kingdom, penetrating to every
rural hamlet, so that England became a mere pest-house. The chief
symptoms of the disease are described as "spitting, in some cases
actual vomiting, of blood, the breaking out of inflammatory boils in
parts, or over the whole of the body, and the appearance of those dark
blotches upon the skin which suggested its most startling name. Some
of the victims died almost on the first attack, some in twelve hours,
some in two days, almost all within the first three days." The utter
powerlessness of medical skill before the disease was owing partly to
the physicians' ignorance of its nature, and largely to the effect of
the spirit of terror which hung like a pall over men's minds. After
some months had passed, the practice of opening the hard boils was
adopted, with very good effect, and many lives were thus saved. But
the havoc wrought by the disease in England was terrible. It is said
that 100,000 persons died in London, nearly 60,000 in Norwich, and
proportionate numbers in other cities. These figures seem incredible,
but a recent writer, who has spent much time in the investigation of
records, asserts that at least half the population, or about 2,500,000
souls, of England perished in this outbreak. The ravages of the
pestilence over the rest of the world were no less terrible.
Germany is said to have lost 1,244,434 victims; Italy, over half the
population. On a moderate calculation, it may be assumed that there
perished in Europe during the first appearance of the Black Death,
fully 25,000,000 human beings. Concerning the Orient we have less
reliable records, but 13,000,000 are said to have died in China, and
24,000,000 in the rest of Asia and adjacent islands. The plague also
ravaged Northern Africa, but of its course there little is known.
The horrors of that dreadful time were increased by the fearful
persecutions visited on the Jews, who were accused of having caused
the pestilence by poisoning the public wells. The people rose to
exterminate the hapless race, and killed them by fire and torture
wherever found. It is impossible for us to conceive of the actual
horror of such times.
MIGHTY HAMMERS.--An authority on scientific subjects give the weights
of the great hammers used in the iron works of Europe, and their date
of manufacture, as follows: At the Terni Works, Italy, the heaviest
hammer weighs 50 tons, and was made in 1873; one at Alexandrovski,
Russia, was made the following year of like weight. In 1877, one was
finished at Creusot Works, France, weighing 80 tons; in 1885, one at
the Cockerill Works, Belgium, of 100 tons, and in 1880, at the Krupp
Works, Essen, Germany, one of 150 tons. The latter being the heaviest
hammer in the world.
ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.--July 2, 1881, at 9:25 A.M., as
President Garfield was entering the Baltimore & Potomac Railroad depot
at Washington, preparatory to taking the cars for a two weeks' jaunt in
New England, he was fired upon and severely wounded by Charles Jules
Guitean, a native of Illinois, but of French descent. The scene of the
assassination was the ladies' reception-room at the station. The
President and Mr. Blaine, arm in arm, were walking slowly through the
aisle between two rows of benches on either side of the room; when
Guitean entered by a side door on the left of the gentlemen, passed
quickly around the back of the benches till directly behind the
President, and fired the shot that struck his arm. Mr. Garfield walked
about ten feet to the end of the aisle, and was in the act of turning to
face his assailant when the second shot struck him in the small of the
back, and he fell. The assassin was immediately seized and taken to
jail. The wounded president was conveyed in an ambulance to the White
House. As he was very faint, the first fear was of internal hemorrhage,
which might cause speedy death. But as he rallied in a few hours, this
danger was thought to be averted and inflammation was now feared. But as
symptoms of this failed to appear, the surgeons in attendance concluded
that no important organ had been injured, that the bullet would become
encysted and harmless, or might possibly be located and successfully
removed. By the 10th of July, the reports were so favorable, that the
president's recovery was regarded as certain, and public thanksgivings
were offered in several of the States, by order of the governors, for
his deliverance. The first check in the favorable symptoms occurred on
July 18, and July 23 there was a serious relapse, attended with chills
and fever. The wound had been frequently probed but without securing any
favorable result. The induction balance was used to locate the ball, and
was regarded as a success, though subsequently its indications were
known to have been altogether erroneous. The probings, therefore, in
what was assumed to be the track of the ball, only increased the
unfavorable symptoms. During the entire month of August these reports
were alternately hopeful and discouraging, the dangerous indications
being generally on the increase. By August 25, his situation was
understood to be very critical, though an apparent improvement on the
26th and 28th again aroused hope. At his own earnest desire the
president was removed, September 6, to Elberon Park, near Long Branch.
N.J., in the hope that the cooler air of the seaside might renew his
strength more rapidly. However, the improvement hoped for did not
appear. On September 16, there was a serious relapse, with well-marked
symptoms of blood poisoning, and September 19, the president died. A
post-mortem examination showed that the ball, after fracturing one of
the ribs, had passed through the spinal column, fracturing the body of
one of the vertebra, driving a number of small fragments of bone into
the soft parts adjacent, and lodging below the pancreas, where it had
become completely encysted. The immediate cause of death was hemorrhage
from one of the small arteries in the track of the ball, but the
principal cause was the poisoning of the blood from suppuration.
COINS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES.--The following carefully prepared summary
indicates the coins in use in the various countries, taking their
names in alphabetical order:
Argentine Republic--Gold coins: 20 peso piece, $19.94; 10 pesos,
$9.97; 5 pesos, $4.98. Silver: 1 peso, 99 cents. The copper coin of
the country is the centisimo, 100 of which make a peso or dollar.
Austria--Gold coins: 8 gulden piece, $3.86; 4 gulden, $1.93. Silver:
Marie Theresa thaler, $1.02; 2 gulden, 96 cents; 1 gulden, 48 cents;
1/4 gulden, 12 cents; 20 kreutzer, 10 cents; 10 kreutzer, 5 cents.
Of the small copper coin current, known as the kreutzer, 100 make a
gulden.
Brazil--Gold coins: 20 milrei piece, $10.91; 10 milreis, $5.45.
Silver: 2 milreis, $1.09; 1 milreis, 55 cents; 1/2 milreis, 27 cents.
The Portuguese rei is used for copper money, worth about 1/8 of a
cent.
Chili--Gold coin: 10 pesos (or 1 condor), $9.10; 5 pesos, $4.55: 2
pesos, $1.82. Silver: 1 peso, 91 cents; 50 centavos, 45 cents; 20
centavos, 18 cents; 10 centavos, 9 cents; 5 centavos, 4 cents. The
copper coin is 1 centavo, 100th of a peso.
Colombia--Gold coins: Twenty peso piece, $19.30; 10 pesos, $9.65; 5
pesos, $4.82; 2 pesos, $1.93. Silver: 1 peso, 96 cents; 20 centavos,
19 cents; 10 centavos, 10 cents; 5 centavos, 5 cents. The copper
centavo of Colombia is identical in value with our cent. (The currency
of Coloumbia is also used in Venezuela.)
Denmark--Gold coins: Twenty kroner piece, $5.36; 10 kroner, $2.68.
Silver: Two kroner, 53 cents; 1 krone, 27 cents; 50 ore, 13 cents; 40
ore, 10 cents; 25 ore, 6-1/2 cents; 10 ore, 2-1/2 cents. One hundred
of the copper ore make one krone.
France--Gold coins: One hundred franc piece, $19.30; 50 francs. $9.65;
20 francs, $3.85; 10 francs, $1.93; 5 francs, 96 cents. Silver: Five
francs, 96 cents; 2 francs, 38 cents; 1 franc, 19 cents; 50 centimes,
10 cents: 20 centimes, 4 cents. The copper coins are the sou, worth
about 9-1/2 mills, and the centime, 2 mills.
Germany--Gold coins: Twenty-mark piece, $4.76; 10 marks, $2.38; 5
marks, $1.19. Silver: Five marks, $1.19; 2 marks, 48 cents; 1 mark, 24
cents; 50 pfennige, 12 cents; 20 pfennige, 5 cents. One hundred copper
pfennige make one mark.
Great Britain--Gold coins: Pound or sovereign, $4.86; guinea, $5.12.
Silver: Five shillings or crown, $1.25; half crown, 62-1/2 cents;
shilling, 25 cents; sixpence, 12-1/2 cents. Also a three-penny piece
and a four-penny piece, but the latter is being called in, and is
nearly out of circulation. The copper coins of Great Britain are the
penny, half-penny and farthing.
India--Gold coins: Thirty rupees or double mohur, $14.58; 15 rupees or
mohur, $7.29; 10 rupees, $4.86; 5 rupees, $2.43. Silver: One rupee, 48
cents, and coins respectively of the value of one-half, one-fourth and
one-eighth rupee. In copper there is the pie, one-fourth of a cent;
the pice, 3/4 of a cent; the ana, 3 cents.
Japan--Gold coins: Twenty yen, $19.94; 10 yen, $9.97; 5 yen, $4.98; 2
yen, $1.99; 1 yen, 99 cents. Silver: The 50, 20, 10 and 5 sen pieces,
answering respectively to 50, 20, 10 and 5 cents. In copper there is
the sen, answering to 1 cent.
Mexico--Gold coins: Sixteen dollar piece, $15.74; 8 dollars, $7.87;
4 dollars, $3.93; 2 dollars, $1.96; 1 dollar, 98 cents. Silver: 1
dollar, 98 cents; 50-cent piece, 49 cents; 25 cents, 24 cents. The
Mexican cent, like our own, equals one-hundreth of a dollar.
Netherlands--Gold coins: Ten-guilder piece, $4.02; 5 guilders, $2.01.
Silver: 2-1/2 guilders, $1; 1 guilder, 40 cents; half-guilder, 20
cents; 25 cents, 10 cents; 10 cents, 4 cents; 5 cents, 2 cents. The
Dutch copper cent is one-hundreth of the guilder.
Peru--Gold coins: Twenty-sol piece, $19.30; 10 sol, $9.65; 5 sol,
$4.82; 2 sol. $1.93; 1 sol, 96 cents. Silver: 1 sol, 96 cents; 50
centesimos, 48 cents; 20, 10 and 5 centesimos, worth respectively 19,
10 and 5 cents. It will be noted that the Peruvian coinage is almost
identical with that of Colombia. It is also used in Bolivia.
Portugal--Gold coin: Crown, $10.80; half-crown, $5.40; one-fifth
crown, $2.16; one-tenth crown, $1.08. These gold pieces are also
known respectively as 10, 5, 2 and 1 dollar [Transcriber's Note: The
original text reads 'pices']v pieces. The silver coins are the 500,
200, 100 [Transcriber's Note: The original text reads 'and 5'] and
50 reis coins, worth respectively 54, 21, 11 and 5 cents. One thousand
reis are equal to one crown.
Russia--Gold coins: Imperial or 10-ruble piece, $7.72; 5 rubles,
$3.86; 3 rubles, $2.31. Silver: ruble, 77 cents; half-ruble, 38 cents;
quarter-ruble, 19 cents; 20 copecks, 15 cents; 10 copecks, 7 cents; 5
copecks, 4 cents; 100 copecks are worth 1 ruble.
Turkey--Gold coins: Lira or medjidie, $4.40; half-lira, $2.20;
quarter-lira, $1.10. The silver unit is the piastre, worth 4 cents
of our currency, and silver coins of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 piastres are
current.
The currency of Denmark is also in use in Norway and Sweden, these
three countries forming the Scandinavian Union. Belgium, France, Greece,
Italy, Roumania, Servia, Spain and Switzerland are united in the Latin
Union, and use the French coinage. The units in the different States
are, it is true, called by different names; as in France, Belgium
and Switzerland, franc and centime; in Italy, lira and centesimo; in
Greece, drachm and lepta; in Roumania, lei and bani: in Servia, dinar
and para; in Spain, peseta and centesimo; but in all cases the value
is the same.
The similarity in the coinage of different countries is worth notice.
A very slight change in the percentage of silver used would render
the half-guilder of Austria, the krone of the Scandinavian Union, the
franc of the Latin Union, the mark of Germany, the half-guilder of
Holland, the quarter-ruble of Russia, the 200-reis piece of Portugal,
the 5-piastre piece of Turkey, the half-milreis of Brazil and the
half-rupee of India, all interchangeable with the English shilling,
and all of them about the value of the quarter-dollar of North and
South American coinage. With the exception of Brazil, the other South
American States, as well as Mexico and the Central American countries,
are all rapidly approximating a uniform coinage, which the needs of
commerce will unquestionably soon harmonize with that of the United
States. Curiously enough, the great force that is assimilating the
alien branches of the human race is not Christianity but trade.
A HISTORY OF THE PANIC OF 1857.--The cause of the panic of 1857 was
mainly the rage for land speculation which had run through the country
like an epidemic. Paper cities abounded, unproductive railroads were
opened, and to help forward these projects, irresponsible banks were
started, or good banks found themselves drawn into an excessive issue
of notes. Every one was anxious to invest in real estate and become
rich by an advance in prices. Capital was attracted into this
speculation by the prospect of large gains, and so great was the
demand for money that there was a remarkable advance in the rates of
interest. In the West, where the speculative fever was at its highest,
the common rates of interest were from 2 to 5 per cent. a month.
Everything was apparently in the most prosperous condition, real
estate going up steadily, the demand for money constant, and its
manufacture by the banks progressing successfully, when the failure
of the "Ohio Life and Trust Company," came, August 24, 1857, like
a thunderbolt from a clear sky. This was followed by the portentous
mutterings of a terrible coming storm. One by one small banks in
Illinois, Ohio, and everywhere throughout the West and South went
down. September 25-26 the banks of Philadelphia suspended payment, and
thus wrecked hundreds of banks in Pennsylvania, Maryland and adjoining
States. October 13-14, after a terrible run on them by thousands of
depositors, the banks of New York suspended payment. October 14 all
the banks of Massachusetts went down, followed by a general wreckage
of credit throughout New England. The distress which followed
these calamities was very great, tens of thousands of workmen being
unemployed for months. The New York banks resumed payment again
December 12, and were soon followed by the banks in other cities. The
darkest period of the crisis now seemed past, although there was
much heart rending suffering among the poor during the winter which
followed. The commercial reports for the year 1857 showed 5,123
commercial failures, with liabilities amounting to $291,750,000.
THE HISTORY OF PLYMOUTH ROCK.--A flat rock near the vicinity of New
Plymouth is said to have been the one on which the great, body of the
Pilgrims landed from the Mayflower. The many members of the colony,
who died in the winter of 1620-21, were buried near this rock. About
1738 it was proposed to build a wharf along the shore there. At this
time there lived in New Plymouth an old man over 90 years of ago named
Thomas Faunce, who had known some of the Mayflower's passengers when a
lad, and by them had been shown the rock on which they had landed. On
hearing that it was to be covered with a wharf the old man wept, and
it has been said that his tears probably saved Plymouth Rock from
oblivion. After the Revolution it was found that the rock was quite
hidden by the sand washed upon it by the sea. The sand was cleared
away, but in attempting to take up the rock it was split in two. The
upper half was taken to the village and placed in the town square.
In 1834 it was removed to a position in front of Pilgrim Hall and
enclosed in an iron railing. In September, 1880, this half of the
stone was taken back to the shore and reunited to the other portion.
A handsome archway was then built over the rock, to protect it in part
from the depredations of relic hunters.
GRANT'S TOUR AROUND THE WORLD.--General Grant embarked on a steamer at
the Philadelphia wharf for his tour around the world May 17, 1877. He
arrived at Queenstown, Ireland, May 27. Thence he went to Liverpool,
Manchester, and on to London. He remained in that city several weeks,
and was made the recipient of the most brilliant social honors. July
5th he went to Belgium, and thence made a tour through Germany and
Switzerland, He then visited Denmark, and August 25 returned to Great
Britain, and until October spent the time in visiting the various
cities of Scotland and England. October 24th he started for Paris,
where he remained a month, then went on to Lyons, thence to
Naples, and subsequently with several friends he made a trip on the
Mediterranean, visiting the islands of Sicily, Malta and others.
Thence going to Egypt, the pyramids and other points of note were
visited, and a journey made up the Nile as far as the first cataract.
The programme of travel next included a visit to Turkey and the Holy
Land, whence, in March, the party came back to Italy through Greece,
revisited Naples, went to Turin and back to Paris. After a few weeks
spent in the social gayeties of that city, the Netherlands was chosen
as the next locality of interest, and The Hague, Rotterdam, and
Amsterdam were visited in turn. June 26, 1878, the General and his
party arrived in Berlin. After staying there some weeks they went to
Christiana and Stockholm, then to St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw,
and back over German soil to Vienna. Another trip was now made through
Switzerland, and, then returning to Paris, a start was made for a
journey through Spain and Portugal, in which Victoria, Madrid, Lisbon,
Seville and other important towns were visited. A trip was also made
from Cadiz to Gibraltar by steamer. After another brief visit to
Paris, General Grant went to Ireland, arriving at Dublin January 3,
1879; visited several points of interest in that country, then, by way
of London and Paris, went to Marseilles, whence he set sail by way of
the Mediterranean Sea and the Suez Canal for India. He reached Bombay
February 13th. Thence visited Allahabad, Agra and rode on an elephant
to Amber; also went to Benares, Delhi. Calcutta and Rangoon, spent a
week in Siam, then went by steamer to China. After spending some time
at Canton, Pekin and other places he went to Japan for a brief visit.
He went to Nagasaki, Tokio and Yokahama, and at last, September
3, 1879, set sail from Tokio on his return to the United States.
September 20th he arrived in the harbor of San Francisco. After some
weeks spent in visiting the points of interest in California and
Oregon he returned to his home in the Eastern States.
HISTORY OF VASSAR COLLEGE.--- Vassar College is on the east bank of the
Hudson, near Poughkeepsie, N.Y. It was founded in 1861. In that year
Matthew Vassar, a wealthy brewer of Poughkeepsie, gave to an
incorporated board of trustees the sum of $108,000 and 200 acres of land
for the endowment of a college for women. The building was constructed
from plans approved by him, at a cost of about $200,000. The college was
opened in September, 1865, with eight professors and twenty other
instructors, and 300 students. The first president of the college was
Professor Milo P. Jewett; the second Dr. John H. Raymond; the third the
Rev. Samuel Caldwell. The college has a fine library, with scientific
apparatus and a museum of natural history specimens.
THE ORIGINS OF CHESS.--So ancient is chess, the most purely
intellectual of games, that its origin is wrapped in mystery. The
Hindoos say that it wad the invention of an astronomer, who lived more
than 5,000 years ago, and was possessed of supernatural knowledge
and acuteness. Greek historians assert that the game was invented by
Palamedes to beguile the tedium of the siege of Troy. The Arab legend
is that it was devised for the instruction of a young despot, by his
father, a learned Brahman, to teach the youth that a king, no
matter how powerful, was dependent upon his subjects for safety. The
probability is that the game was the invention of some military genius
for the purpose of illustrating the art of war. There is no doubt,
that it originated in India, for a game called by the Sanskrit name of
Cheturanga--which in most essential points strongly resembles modern
chess, and was unquestionably the parent of the latter game--is
mentioned in Oriental literature as in use fully 2,000 years before
the Christian area. In its gradual diffusion over the world the game
has undergone many modifications and changes, but marked resemblances
to the early Indian game are still to be found in it. From India,
chess spread into Persia, and thence into Arabia, and the Arabs took
it to Spain and the rest of Western Europe.
THE DARK AGES.--The Dark Ages is a name often applied by historians to
the Middle Ages, a term comprising about 1,000 years, from the fall of
the Roman Empire in the fifth century to the invention of printing in
the fifteenth. The period is called "dark" because of the generally
depraved state of European society at this time, the subservience of
men's minds to priestly domination, and the general indifference
to learning. The admirable civilization that Rome had developed and
fostered, was swept out of existence by the barbarous invaders from
Northern Europe, and there is no doubt that the first half of the
medieval era, at least, from the year 500 to 1000, was one of the most
brutal and ruffianly epochs in history. The principal characteristic
of the middle ages were the feudal system and the papal power. By
the first the common people were ground into a condition of almost
hopeless slavery, by the second the evolution of just and equitable
governments by the ruling clashes was rendered impossible through the
intrusion of the pontifical authority into civil affairs. Learning
did not wholly perish, but it betook itself to the seclusion of the
cloisters. The monasteries were the resort of many earnest scholars,
and there were prepared the writings of historians, metaphysicians and
theologians. But during this time man lived, as the historian Symonds
says, "enveloped in a cowl." The study of nature was not only ignored
but barred, save only as it ministered in the forms of alchemy and
astrology to the one cardinal medieval virtue--- credulity. Still the
period saw many great characters and events fraught with the greatest
importance to the advancement of the race.
THE GREATEST DEPTH OF THE OCEAN NEVER MEASURED.--The deepest verified
soundings are those made in the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles off the
island of St. Thomas, in the West Indies, 3,875 fathoms, or 23,250
feet Deeper water has been reported south of the Grand Bank of
Newfoundland, over 27,000 feet in depth, but additional soundings in
that locality did not corroborate this. Some years ago, it was claimed
that very deep soundings, from 45,000 to 48,000 feet, had been
found off the coast of South America, but this report was altogether
discredited on additional investigation in these localities. The ship
Challenger, which in 1872-74 made a voyage round the globe for the
express purpose of taking deep sea soundings in all the oceans,
found the greatest depth touched in the Pacific Ocean less than 3,000
fathoms, and the lowest in the Atlantic 3,875 fathoms, as given above.
THE ARMY OF THE REVOLUTION.--It is not positively known how many men
from the colonies served in the war. The official tabular statement
indicates a total off recorded years of enlistment and not a total of
the the men who served. Hence, a man who served from April 19, 1775,
until the formal cessation of hostilities, April 19, 1783 counted
as eight men in the aggregate. In this basis of enlisted years, the
following table gives the contribution various States: New Hampshire,
12,497; Massachusetts, 69,907; Rhode Island, 5,908; Connecticut,
31,939; New York, 17,781; New Jersey, 10,726; Pennsylvania, 25,678;
Delaware, 2,386; Maryland, 13,912; Virginia, 26,678; North Carolina,
7,263; South Carolina, 6,417; Georgia, 2,679; Total, 233,771.
THE WORLD'S DECISIVE BATTLES.--The fifteen decisive battles of the
world from the fifth century before Christ to the beginning of the
nineteenth century of the present era, are as follows:
The battle of Marathon, in which the Persian hosts were defeated by
the Greeks under Miltiades, B.C. 490.
The defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, B.C. 413.
The battle of Arhela, in which the Persians under Darius were defeated
by the invading Greeks under Alexander the Great, B.C. 331.
The battle of the Metanrus, in which the Carthaginian forces under
Hasdrubal were overthrown by the Romans, B.C. 207. Victory of the
German tribes under Arminins over the Roman legions under Varus,
A.D. 9. (The battle was fought in what is now the province of Lippe,
Germany, near the source of the river Ems.)
Battle of Chalons, where Attila the terrible King of the Huns, was
repulsed by the Romans under Aetius, A.D. 451
Battle of Tours, in which the Saracen Turks invading Western Europe
were utterly overthrown by the Franks under Charles Martel, A.D. 732.
Battle of Hastings, by which William the Conqueror became the ruler of
England, Oct. 14, 1066.
Victory of the French under Joan of Arc over the English at Orleans,
April 29, 1429.
Defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English naval force, July 29 and
30, 1588.
Battle of Blenheim, in which the French and Bavarians were defeated
by the allied armies of Great Britain and Holland under the Duke of
Marlborough, Aug. 2, 1704.
Battle of Pultowa, the Swedish army under Charles XII, defeated by the
Russians under Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. Victory of the American
army under General Gates over the British under General Burgoyne at
Saratoga, Oct. 17, 1777.
Battle of Valmy where the allied armies of Prussia and Austria were
defeated by the French under Marshal Kellerman. Sept. 20, 1792.
Battle of Waterloo, the allied forces of the British and Prussians
defeated the French under Napoleon, the final overthrow of the great
commander, June 18, 1815.
These battles are selected as decisive, because of the important
consequences that followed them. Few students of history, probably,
would agree with Prof. Creasy, in restricting the list as he does.
Many other conflicts might be noted, fraught with great importance to
the human race, and unquestionably "decisive" in their nature; as,
for instance, the victory of Sobieski over the Turkish army at Vienna,
Sept. 12, 1683. Had the Poles and Austrians been defeated there, the
Turkish general might readily have fulfilled his threat "to stable his
horses in the Church of St. Peter's at Rome," and all Western Europe
would, no doubt, have been devastated by the ruthless and bloodthirsty
Ottomans. Of important and decisive battles since that of Waterloo
we may mention in our own Civil War those of Gettysburg, by which the
invasion of the North was checked, and at Chattanooga, Nov. 23 and 25,
1863, by which the power of the Confederates in the southwest received
a deadly blow.
THE WANDERING JEW.--There are various versions of the story of "The
Wandering Jew," the legends of whom have formed the foundation of
numerous romances, poems and tragedies. One version is that this
person was a servant in the house of Pilate, and gave the Master a
blow as He was being dragged out of the palace to go to His death.
A popular tradition makes the wanderer a member of the tribe of
Naphtali, who, some seven or eight years previous to the birth of the
Christ-child left his father to go with the wise men of the East whom
the star led to the lowly cot in Bethlehem. It runs, also, that the
cause of the killing of the children can be traced to the stories this
person related when he returned to Jerusalem of the visit of the wise
men, and the presentation of the gifts they brought to the Divine
Infant, when He was acknowledged by them to be the king of the Jews,
He was lost sight of for a time, when he appeared as a carpenter who
was employed in making the cross on which the Saviour was to be lifted
up into the eyes of all men. As Christ walked up the way to Calvary,
He had to pass the workshop of this man, and when He reached its
door, the soldiers, touched by the sufferings of the Man of Sorrows,
besought the carpenter to allow Him to rest there for a little, but
he refused, adding insult to a want of charity. Then it is said that
Christ pronounced his doom, which was to wander over the earth until
the second coming. Since that sentence was uttered, he has wandered,
courting death, but finding it not, and his punishment, becoming more
unbearable as the generations come and go. He is said to have appeared
in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and even as recently as the eighteenth
century, under the names of Cartaphilus, and Ahasuerus, by which the
Wandering Jew has been known. One of the legends described him as a
shoemaker of Jerusalem, at whose door Christ desired to rest on the
road to Calvary, but the man refused, and the sentence to wander was
pronounced.
SOME MEMORABLE DARK DAYS.--During the last hundred years there have
been an unusually large number of dark days recorded. As has been
suggested by several writers, this may have been the result of the
careful scientific observations of modern times, as well as of the
frequency of these phenomena. The dark day in the beginning of this
century about which so much has been said and written occurred Oct.
21, 1816. The first day of the same month and year is also represented
as "a close dark day." Mr. Thomas Robie, who took observations at
Cambridge, Mass., has this to offer in regard to the phenomenon. "On
Oct. 21 the day was so dark that people were forced to light candles
to eat their dinners by; which could not he from an eclipse, the solar
eclipse being the fourth of that month." The day is referred to by
another writer as "a remarkable dark day in New England and New York,"
and it is noted, quaintly by a third, that "in October, 1816, a dark
day occurred after a severe winter in New England." Nov. 26, 1816,
was a dark day in London, and is described "in the neighborhood of
Walworth and Camberwell so completely dark that some of the coachmen
driving stages were obliged to get down and lead their horses with
a lantern." The famous dark day in America was May 19, 1780. The
phenomenon began about 10 o'clock in the forenoon. The darkness
increased rapidly, and "in many places it was impossible to read
ordinary print." There was widespread fear. Many thought that the Day
of Judgment was at hand. At that time the Legislature of Connecticut
was in session at Hartford. The House of Representatives, being unable
to transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn the
council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel Davenport
was asked, he answered: "I am against an adjournment. The day of
judgment is approaching or it is not. If it is not, there is no cause
for adjournment: if it is, I choose to be found doing my duty. I wish,
therefore, that candles may be brought." In Whittier's "Tent on the
Beach" is given a beautiful poetical version of this anecdote. It is
suggested by several authorities that the cause of the dark day in
1780 should be attributed simply to the presence of ordinary clouds
of very unusual volume and density. These instances are, of course,
grouped with phenomena of which not a great deal is known, and can in
no way be classed with those occurrances occasioned by the smoke from
extensive forest tires, volcanic eruptions, or fogs.
THE REMARKABLE STORY OF CHARLIE ROSS.--Charlie Ross was the son of
Christian K. Ross of Germantown, Pa., and at the time of his
disappearance was a little over 4 years of age. The child and a brother
6 years old were playing July 1, 1874, in the streets of Germantown,
when a couple of men drove up in a buggy and persuaded the children,
with promises of toys and candies, to get in and ride with them in the
vehicle. After driving around the place for a little time, the older
brother, Walter Ross, was put out of the conveyance, and the strangers
gave him 25 cents, telling him to go to a store near at hand and buy
some candy and torpedoes for himself and Charlie. Walter did as he was
told, but when he came out of the store the men with Charlie and the
vehicle had disappeared. It was believed at first by the relatives and
friends of the missing boy that he would be returned in a short time, as
they supposed he might have been taken by some drunken men. Time passed,
however, but no trace of the child had been discovered. In a few weeks a
letter was received by Mr. Ross to the effect that if he would pay
$20,000 his son would be returned, but, that the parent need not search
for Charlie, as all efforts to find the abducted boy or his captors
would only be attended with failure; and it was stated that if this
amount was not paid, Charlie would be killed. The father answered this
and a long correspondence ensued, while the search was prosecuted in all
directions. Mr. Ross wanted the child delivered at the time the money
was paid, but to this the abductors refused to agree. It is stated that
more than $50,000 were expended to recover the child. At one time two
gentlemen were two days in Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York, with the
$20,000 ransom money to be given to the child-thieves, but they did not
appear. The search was continued, and the officers of the law were
looking up any and all evidence, until they had located the two men.
These were found Dec. 4, 1874, committing a burglary in the house of
Judge Van Brunt, Bay Ridge, L. I.; the burglary was discovered, the
burglars seen and shot by persons residing in an adjoining residence.
One of the men was killed instantly, the other lived several hours, and
confessed that he and his companion had abducted Charlie Ross, but that
the dead thief, Mosher by name, was the one who knew where the boy was
secreted. Walter Ross identified the burglars as the men who had enticed
him and Charlie into the buggy. There the case rested. No new fact has
been developed. The missing child has never been found. Many times have
children been reported who resembled Charlie, and Mr. Ross has traveled
far and near in his endless search, only to return sadly and report that
his boy was still missing. No case in recent years has excited such
universal sympathy as that of Charlie Ross.
THE BLUE LAWS ON SMOKING.--There were some very stringent laws in
Massachusetts against the use of tobacco in public, and while the
penalties were not so heavy, yet they were apparently rigidly enforced
for a time. We quote from a law passed in October, 1632, as follows:
"It is ordered that noe person shall take any tobacco publiquely,
under paine of punishment; also that every one shall pay 1_d._ for every
time hee is convicted of takeing tobacco in any place, and that any
Assistant shall have power to receave evidence and give order
for levyeing of it, as also to give order for the levyeing of the
officer's charge. This order to begin the 10th of November next."
In September, 1634, we discover another law on the same article:
"Victualers, or keepers of an Ordinary, shall not suffer any tobacco
to be taken in their howses, under the penalty of 5_s._ for every
offence, to be payde by the victuler, and 12_d._ by the party that
takes it. Further, it is ordered, that noe person shall take tobacco
publiquely, under the penalty of 2_s._ 6_d._, nor privately, in his owne
house, or in the howse of another, before strangers, and that two
or more shall not take it togeather, anywhere, under the aforesaid
penalty for every offence." In November, 1637, the record runs: "All
former laws against tobacco are repealed, and tobacco is sett at
liberty;" but in September, 1638, "the [General] Court, finding that
since the repealing of the former laws against tobacco, the same is
more abused then before, it hath therefore ordered, that no man shall
take any tobacco in the fields, except in his journey, or at meale
times, under paine of 12_d._ for every offence; nor shall take any
tobacco in (or so near) any dwelling house, barne, corne or hay rick,
as may likely indanger the fireing thereof, upon paine of 10s. for
every offence; nor shall take any tobacco in any inne or common
victualing house, except in a private roome there, so as neither the
master of the same house nor any other guests there shall take offence
thereat, which if they do, then such person is fourthwith to forbeare,
upon paine of 12_s._ 6_d._ for every offence. Noe man shall kindle fyre by
gunpowder, for takeing tobacco, except in his journey, upon paine of
12_d._ for every offence."
THE REMARKABLE CAVES--WYANDOTTE AND MAMMOTH.--Wyandotte Cave is in
Jennings township, Crawford county, Ind., near the Ohio river. It is
a rival of the great Mammoth Cave in grandeur and extent. Explorations
have been made for many miles. It excels the Mammoth Cave in the
number and variety of its stalagmites and stalactites, and in the
size of several of its chambers. One of these chambers is 350 feet
in length, 245 feet in height, and contains a hill 175 feet high, on
which are three fine stalagmites. Epsom salts, niter and alum have
been obtained from the earth of the cave. The Mammoth Cave is in
Edmondson county, near Green River, about seventy-five miles from
Louisville. Its entrance is reached by passing down a wild, rocky
ravine through a dense forest. The cave extends some nine miles. To
visit the portions already traversed, it is said, requires 150 to 200
miles of travel. The cave contains a succession of wonderful avenues,
chambers, domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts and other
marvels, which are too well known to need more than a reference. One
chamber--the Star--is about 500 feet long, 70 feet wide, 70 feet high,
the ceiling of which is composed of black gypsum, and is studded with
innumerable white points, that by a dim light resemble stars, hence
the name of the chamber. There are avenues one and a half and even
two miles in length, some of which are incrusted with beautiful
formations, and present the appearance of enchanted palace halls.
There is a natural tunnel about three-quarters of a mile long, 100
feet wide, covered with a ceiling of smooth rock 45 feet high. There
is a chamber having an area of from four to five acres, and there are
domes 200 and 300 feet high. Echo River is some three-fourths of a
mile in length, 200 feet in width at some points, and from 10 to 30 in
depth, and runs beneath an arched ceiling of smooth rock about 15 feet
high, while the Styx, another river, is 450 feet long, from 15 to 40
feet wide, and from 30 to 40 feet deep, and is spanned by a natural
bridge. Lake Lethe has about the same length and width as the river
Styx, varies in depth from 3 to 40 feet, lies beneath a ceiling some
90 feet above its surface, and sometimes rises to a height of 60 feet.
There is also a Dead Sea, quite a somber body of water. There are
several interesting caves in the neighborhood, one three miles long
and three each about a mile in length.
THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE.--The "South Sea Bubble," as it is generally
called, was a financial scheme which occupied the attention of
prominent politicians, communities, and even nations in the early
part of the eighteenth century. Briefly the facts are: In 1711 Robert
Hartley, Earl of Oxford, then Lord Treasurer, proposed to fund a
floating debt of about L10,000,000 sterling, the interest, about
$600,000, to be secured by rendering permanent the duties upon wines,
tobacco, wrought silks, etc. Purchasers of this fund were to become
also shareholders in the "South Sea Company," a corporation to have
the monopoly of the trade with Spanish South America, a part of the
capital stock of which was to be the new fund. But Spain, after the
treaty of Utrecht, refused to open her commerce to England, and the
privileges of the "South Sea Company" became worthless. There were
many men of wealth who were stockholders, and the company continued
to flourish, while the ill success of its trading operations was
concealed. Even the Spanish War of 1718 did not shake the popular
confidence. Then in April, 1720, Parliament, by large majorities in
both Houses, accepted the company's plan for paying the national debt,
and after that a frenzy of speculation seized the nation, and the
stock rose to L300 a share, and by August had reached L1,000 a share.
Then Sir John Blunt, one of the leaders, sold out, others followed,
and the stock began to fall. By the close of September the company
stopped payment and thousands were beggared. An investigation ordered
by Parliament disclosed much fraud and corruption, and many prominent
persons were implicated, some of the directors were imprisoned, and
all of them were fined to an aggregate amount of L2,000,000 for the
benefit of the stockholders. A great part of the valid assets was
distributed among them, yielding a dividend of about 33 per cent.
AREA OF NORTH AMERICA.--The following figures show the extent of
the United States as compared with the British possessions in
North America: United States, 3,602,884 square miles. British
possessions--Ontario, 121,260; Quebec, 210,020; Nova Scotia, 18,670;
New Brunswick, 27,037; British Columbia, 233,000; Manitoba, 16,000;
N.W. and Hudson Bay Territories, 2,206,725; Labrador and Arctic Ocean
Islands, make a total of 3,500,000.
* * * * *
[Illustration: HOUSEHOLD RECIPES]
HOUSEHOLD RECIPES
MISCELLANEOUS.
AXLE GREASE.--1. Water, 1 gallon; soda, 1/3 pound; palm oil, 10
pounds. Mix by heat, and stir till nearly cold.
2. Water, rape oil, of each 1 gallon; soda, 1/3 pound; palm oil, 1/4
pound.
3. Water, 1 gallon; tallow, 3 pounds; palm oil, 6 pounds; soda, 1/2
pound. Heat to 210 deg. Fahrenheit and stir until cool.
4. Tallow, 8 pounds; palm oil, 10 pounds; plumbago, 1 pound. Makes a
good lubricator for wagon axles.
HOW TO SHELL BEANS EASY.--Pour upon the pods a quantity of scalding
water, and the beans will slip very easily from the pod. By pouring
scalding water on apples the skin may be easily slipped off, and much
labor saved.
HOW TO CLEAN BED-TICKS.--Apply Poland starch, by rubbing it on thick
with a cloth. Place it in the sun. When dry, rub it if necessary. The
soiled part will be clean as new.
HOW TO WASH CARPETS.--Shake and beat it well; lay it upon the floor
and tack it firmly; then with a clean flannel wash it over with a
quart of bullock's gall mixed with three quarts of soft, cold water,
and rub it off with a clean flannel or house-cloth. Any particular
dirty spot should be rubbed with pure gall.
HOW TO CLEAN CARPETS.--Before proceeding to sweep a carpet a few
handfuls of waste tea-leaves should be sprinkled over it. A stiff hair
broom or brush should be employed, unless the carpet is very dirty,
when a whisk or carpet-broom should be used, first followed by another
made of hair, to take off the loose dust. The frequent use of a stiff
carpet-broom soon wears off the beauty of the best carpet. An ordinary
clothes brush is best adapted for superior carpets. When carpets are
very dirty they should be cleaned by shaking and beating.
Beat it well with a stick in the usual manner until all the dust is
removed, then take out the stains, if any, with lemon or sorrel-juice.
When thoroughly dry rub it all over with the crumb of a hot wheaten
loaf, and if the weather is very fine, let hang out in the open air
for a night or two. This treatment will revive the colors, and make
the carpet appear equal to new.
TO REMOVE SPOTS ON CARPETS.--A few drops of carbonate of ammonia,
and a small quantity of warm rain water, will prove a safe and easy
antacid, etc., and will change, if carefully applied, discolored spots
upon carpets, and indeed, all spots, whether produced by acids or
alkalies. If one has the misfortune to have a carpet injured by
whitewash, this will immediately restore it.
HOW TO REMOVE INK SPOTS ON CARPETS.--As soon as the ink has been
spilled, take up as much as you can with a sponge, and then pour on
cold water repeatedly, still taking up the liquid; next rub the place
with a little wet oxalic acid or salt of sorrel, and wash it off
immediately with cold water, and then rub on some hartshorn.
CLEANING AND SCOURING OF CLOTH.--The common method of cleaning cloth
is by beating and brushing, unless when very dirty, when it undergoes
the operation of scouring. This is best done on the small scale, as
for articles of wearing apparel, etc., by dissolving a little curd
soap in water, and after mixing it with a little ox-gall, to touch
over all the spots of grease, dirt, etc., with it, and to rub them
well with a stiff brush, until they are removed, after which the
article may be well rubbed all over with a brush or sponge dipped
into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and a little more
ox-gall has been added. When this has been properly done, it only
remains to thoroughly rinse the article in clean water until the
latter passes off uncolored, when it must be hung up to dry. For dark,
colored cloths the common practice is to add some Fuller's-earth to
the mixture of soap and gall. When nearly dry the nap should be
laid right and the article carefully pressed, after which a brush,
moistened with a drop or two of olive oil, is passed several times
over it, which will give it a superior finish.
Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry way, as follows: First remove the
spots, as above, and when the parts have dried, strew clean, damp sand
over it, and beat it in with a brush, after which brush the article
with a hard brush when the sand will readily come out, and bring the
dirt with it. Black cloth which is very rusty should receive a coat of
reviver after drying, and be hung up until the next day, when it
may be pressed and finished off as before. Scarlet cloth requires
considerable caution. After being thoroughly rinsed, it should be
repeatedly passed through cold spring water, to which a tablespoonful
or two of solution of tin has been added. If much faded, it should
be dipped in a scarlet dye-bath. Buff cloth is generally cleansed by
covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and water, which, when
dry,-is rubbed and brushed off.
RENOVATION OF CLOTH.--The article undergoes the process of scouring
before described, and, after being well rinsed and drained, it is put
on a board, and the thread-bare parts rubbed with a half-worn hatter's
card, filled with flocks, or with a teazle or a prickly thistle, until
a nap is raised. It is next hung up to dry, the nap laid the right
way with a hard brush, and finished as before. When the cloth is much
faded, it is usual to give it a dip, as it is called, or to pass it
through a dye-bath, to freshen up the color.
HOW TO REVIVE THE COLOR OF BLACK CLOTH.--If a coat, clean it well,
then boil from two to four ounces of logwood in your copper, or
boiler, for half an hour; dip your coat in warm water, and squeeze it
as dry as you can, then put it into the copper and boil it for half an
hour. Take it out, and add a piece of green copperas, about the size
of a horse-bean; boil it another half hour, then draw it, and hang it
in the air for an hour or two; take it down; rinse it in two or three
cold waters; dry it, and let it be well brushed with a soft brush, over
which a drop or two of the oil of olives has been rubbed, then stroke
your coat regularly over.
HOW TO RESTORE CRAPE.--Skimmed milk and water, with a little bit of
glue in it, made scalding hot, is excellent to restore rusty Italian
crape. If clapped and pulled dry like muslin, it will look as good
as new; or, brush the veil till all the dust is removed, then fold
it lengthwise, and roll it smoothly and tightly on a roller. Steam it
till it is thoroughly dampened, and dry on the roller.
HOW TO CLEANSE FEATHER BEDS.--When feather beds become soiled and
heavy they may be made clean and light by being treated in the
following manner: Rub them over with a stiff brush, dipped in hot
soap-suds. When clean lay them on a shed, or any other clean place
where the rain will fall on them. When thoroughly soaked let them dry
in a hot sun for six or seven successive days, shaking them up well
and turning them over each day. They should be covered over with a
thick cloth during the night; if exposed to the night air they will
become damp and mildew. This way of washing the bed-ticking and
feathers makes them very fresh and light, and is much easier than
the old-fashioned way of emptying the beds and washing the feathers
separately, while it answers quite as well. Care must be taken to dry
the bed perfectly before sleeping on it. Hair mattresses that have
become hard and dirty can be made nearly as good as new by ripping
them, washing the ticking, and picking the hair free from bunches and
keeping it in a dry, airy place several days. Whenever the ticking
gets dry fill it lightly with the hair, and tack it together. HOW TO
CUT UP AND CURE PORK.--Have the hog laid on his back on a stout, clean
bench; cut off the head close to the base. If the hog is large, there
will come off a considerable collar, between head and shoulders,
which, pickled or dried, is useful for cooking with vegetables.
Separate the jowl from the face at the natural joint; open the skull
lengthwise and take out the brains, esteemed a luxury. Then with a
sharp knife remove the back-bone the whole length, then the long
strip of fat underlying it, leaving about one inch of fat covering the
spinal column.
The leaf lard, if not before taken out for the housewife's
convenience, is removed, as is also the tenderloin--a fishy-shaped
piece of flesh--often used for sausage, but which makes delicious
steak. The middling or sides are now cut out, leaving the shoulders
square-shaped and the hams pointed, or they may be rounded to your
taste. The spare-ribs are usually wholly removed from the sides, with
but little meat adhering. It is the sides of small, young hogs cured
as hams that bear the name of breakfast bacon, The sausage meat comes
chiefly in strips from the backbone, part of which may also be used as
steak. The lean trimmings from about the joints are used for sausage,
the fat scraps rendered up with the backbone lard.
The thick part of the backbone that lies between the shoulders, called
griskin or chine, is separated from the tapering, bony part, called
backbone by way of distinction, and used as flesh. The chines are
smoked with jowls, and used in late winter or spring.
When your meat is to be pickled it should be dusted lightly with
saltpetre sprinkled with salt, and allowed to drain twenty-four hours;
then plunge it into pickle, and keep under with a weight. It is good
policy to pickle a portion of the sides. They, after soaking, are
sweeter to cook with vegetables, and the grease fried from them is
much more useful than that of smoked meat.
If your meat is to be dry salted, allow one teaspoonful of pulverized
saltpetre to one gallon of salt, and keep the mixture warm beside you.
Put on a hog's ear as a mitten, and rub each piece of meat thoroughly.
Then pack skin side down, ham upon ham, side upon side, strewing on
salt abundantly. It is best to put large and small pieces in different
boxes for the convenience of getting at them to hang up at the
different times they will come into readiness. The weather has so much
to do with the time that meat requires to take salt that no particular
time can be specified for leaving it in.
The best test is to try a medium-sized ham; if salt enough, all
similar and smaller pieces are surely ready, and it is well to
remember that the saltness increases in drying. Ribs and steaks should
be kept in a cold, dark place, without salting, until ready for use.
If you have many, or the weather is warm, they keep better in pickle
than dry salt. Many persons turn and rub their meat frequently. We
have never practiced this, and have never lost any.
When the meat is ready for smoking, dip the hocks of the joints in
ground black pepper and dust the raw surface thickly with it. Sacks,
after this treatment, may be used for double security, and I think
bacon high and dry is sweeter than packed in any substance. For
sugar-cured hams we append the best recipe we have ever used, though
troublesome.
_English Recipe for Sugar-Curing Hams_.--So soon as the meat comes
from the butcher's hand rub it thoroughly with the salt. Repeat this
four days, keeping the meat where it can drain. The fourth day rub
it with saltpetre and a handful of common salt, allowing one pound of
saltpetre to seventy pounds of meat. Now mix one pound of brown sugar
and one of molasses, rub over the ham every day for a fortnight, and
then smoke with hickory chips or cobs. Hams should be hung highest
in meat-houses, because there they are less liable to the attacks of
insects, for insects do not so much infest high places--unlike human
pests.
_Pickle_.--Make eight gallons of brine strong enough to float an egg;
add two pounds of brown sugar or a quart of molasses, and four ounces
of saltpetre; boil and skim clean, and pour cold on your meat. Meat
intended for smoking should remain in pickle about four weeks. This
pickle can be boiled over, and with a fresh cup of sugar and salt
used all summer. Some persons use as much soda as saltpetre. It will
correct acidity, but we think impairs the meat.
WASHING PREPARATION.--Take a 1/4 of a pound of soap, a 1/4 of a
pound of soda, and a 1/4 of a pound of quicklime. Cut up the soup and
dissolve it in 1 quart of boiling water; pour 1 quart of boiling water
over the soda, and 3 quarts of boiling water upon the quicklime.
The lime must be quick and fresh; if it is good it will bubble up
on pouring the hot water upon it. Each must be prepared in separate
vessels. The lime must settle so as to leave the water on the
top perfectly clear; then strain it carefully (not disturbing the
settlings) into the washboiler with the soda and soap; let it scald
long enough to dissolve the soap, then add 6 gallons of soap water.
The clothes must be put to soak over night, after rubbing soap upon
the dirtiest parts of them. After having the above in readiness, wring
out the clothes which have been put in soak, put them on to boil, and
let each lot boil half an hour; the same water will answer for the
whole washing. After boiling each lot half an hour drain them from
the boiling water put them in a tub and pour upon them two or three
pailsful of clear, hot water; after this they will want very little
rubbing; then rinse through two waters, blueing the last. When dried
they will be a beautiful white. After washing the cleanest part of
the white clothes, take two pails of the suds in which they have been
washed, put it over the fire and scald, and this will wash all
the flannels and colored clothes without any extra soap. The white
flannels, after being well washed in the suds, will require to be
scalded by turning on a teakettle of boiling water.
* * * * *
HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS
HOW TO DESTROY ANTS.--Ants that frequent houses or gardens may he
destroyed by taking flower of brimstone half a pound and potash
four ounces; set them in an iron or earthen pan over the fire till
dissolved and united; afterward beat them to a powder, and infuse a
little of this powder in water; and wherever you sprinkle it the ants
will die or fly the place.
HOW TO DESTROY BLACK ANTS.--A few leaves of green wormwood, scattered
among the haunts of these troublesome insects, is said to be effectual
in dislodging them.
HOW TO DESTROY RED ANTS.--The best way to get rid of ants, is to set a
quantity of cracked walnuts or shell-barks on plates, and put them in
the closet or places where the ants congregate. They are very fond of
these, and will collect on them in myriads. When they have collected
on them make a general _auto-da-fe_, by turning nuts and ants together
into the fire, and then replenish the plates with fresh nuts. After
they have become so thinned off as to cease collecting on plates,
powder some camphor and put in the holes and crevices, whereupon the
remainder of them will speedily depart. It may help the process of
getting them to assemble on shell-barks, to remove all edibles out of
their way for the time.
HOW TO DESTROY BLACK BEES.--Place two or three shallow vessels--the
larger kind of flower-pot saucers will do--half filled with water, on
the floors where they assemble, with strips of cardboard running from
the edge of the vessel to the floor, at a gentle inclination; these
the unwelcome guests will eagerly ascend, and so find a watery grave.
HOW TO DESTROY BED-BUGS.--1. When they have made a lodgement in the
wall, fill all the apertures with a mixture of soft soap and scotch
snuff. Take the bedstead to pieces, and treat that in the same way. 2.
A strong decoction of red pepper applied to bedsteads will either kill
the bugs or drive them away. 3. Put the bedstead into a close room and
set fire to the following composition, placed in an iron pot upon the
hearth, having previously closed up the chimney, then shut the door,
let them remain a day: sulphur nine parts; saltpetre, powdered, one
part. Mix. Be sure to open the door of the room five or six hours
before you venture to go into it a second time. 4. Rub the bedstead
well with lampoil; this alone is good, but to make it more effectual,
get ten cents worth of quicksilver and add to it. Put it into all the
cracks around the bed, and they will soon disappear. The bedsteads
should first be scalded and wiped dry, then put on with a feather. 5.
Corrosive sublimate, one ounce; muriatic acid, two ounces; water, four
ounces; dissolve, then add turpentine, one pint; decoction of tobacco,
one pint. Mix. For the decoction of tobacco boil one ounce of tobacco
in a 1/2 pint of water. The mixture must be applied with a paint
brush. This wash is deadly poison. 6. Rub the bedsteads in the joints
with equal parts of spirits of turpentine and kerosene oil, and the
cracks of the surbase in rooms where there are many. Filling up all
the cracks with hard soap is an excellent remedy.
March and April are the months when bedsteads should be examined to
kill all the eggs. 7. Mix together two ounces spirits of turpentine,
one ounce corrosive sublimate, and one pint alcohol. 8. Distilled
vinegar, or diluted good vinegar, a pint; camphor one-half ounce;
dissolve. 9. White arsenic, two ounces; lard, thirteen ounces;
corrosive sublimate, one-fourth ounce; venetian red, one-fourth ounce.
(deadly poison.) 10. Strong mercurial ointment one ounce; soft soap
one ounce; oil of turpentine, a pint 11. Gasoline and coaloil are both
excellent adjuncts, with cleanliness, in ridding a bed or house of
these pests.
HOW TO DESTROY CATERPILLARS.--Boil together a quantity of rue,
wormwood, and any cheap tobacco (equal parts) in common water. The
liquid should be very strong. Sprinkle it on the leaves and young
branches every morning and evening during the time the fruit is
ripening.
HOW TO DESTROY COCKROACHES AND BEETLES.--1. Strew the roots of black
hellebore, at night, in the places infested by these vermin, and they
will be found in the morning dead or dying. Black hellebore grows in
marshy grounds, and may be had at the herb shops. 2. Put about a quart
of water sweetened with molasses in a tin wash basin or smooth glazed
china bowl. Set it at evening in a place frequented by the bugs.
Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that the bugs can have
easy access to the top. They will go down in the water, and stay
till you come. 3. Take pulverized borax, 4 parts, flour 1 part,
mix intimately and distribute the mixture in cupboards which are
frequented by the roaches, or blow it, by means of a bellows, into the
holes or cracks that are infested by them. 4. By scattering a handful
of fresh cucumber parings about the house. 5. Take carbonic acid
and powdered camphor in equal parts; put them in a bottle; they will
become fluid. With a painter's brush of the size called a sash-tool,
put the mixture on the cracks or places where the roaches hide; they
will come out at once. Then kill. 6. Mix up a quantity of fresh
burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such as is used for making molds and
ornaments), with wheat flour and a little sugar, and distribute on
shallow plates and box boards, and place in the corners of the kitchen
and pantry where they frequent. In the darkness they will feast
themselves on it. Whether it interferes with their digestion or not,
is difficult to ascertain, but after three or four nights renewal of
the preparation, no cockroaches will be found on the premises.
HOW TO DESTROY CRICKETS.--Sprinkle a little quick lime near to the
cracks through which they enter the room. The lime may be laid down
overnight, and swept away in the morning. In a few days they will most
likely all be destroyed. But care must be taken that the children do
not meddle with the lime, as a very small portion of it getting into
the eye, would prove exceedingly hurtful. In case of such an accident
the best thing to do would be to wash the eye with vinegar and water.
HOW TO GET RID OF FLEAS.--Much of the largest number of fleas are
brought into our family circles by pet dogs and cats. The oil of
pennyroyal will drive these insects off: but a cheaper method, where
the herb flourishes, is to throw your cats and dogs into a decoction
of it once a week. When the herb cannot be got, the oil can be
procured. In this case, saturate strings with it and tie them around
the necks of the dogs and cats. These applications should be repeated
every twelve or fifteen days. Mint freshly cut, and hung round
a bedstead, or on the furniture, will prevent annoyance from bed
insects; a few drops of essential oil of lavender will be more
efficacious.
HOW TO DESTROY FLIES.--1. Take an infusion of quassia, one pint;
brown sugar, four ounces, ground pepper, two ounces. To be well mixed
together, and put in small shallow dishes where required. 2. Black
pepper (powdered), one drachm; brown sugar, one drachm; milk or cream,
two drachms. Mix, and place it on a plate or saucer where the flies
are most troublesome. 3. Pour a little simple oxymel (an article to be
obtained at the druggists), into a common tumbler glass, and place in
the glass a piece of cap paper, made into the shape of the upper part
of a funnel, with a hole at the bottom to admit the flies. Attracted
by the smell, they readily enter the trap in swarms, and by the
thousands soon collected prove that they have not the wit or the
disposition to return. 4. Take some jars, mugs, or tumblers, fill them
half full with soapy water; cover them as jam-pots are covered, with
a piece of paper, either tied down or tucked under the rim. Let this
paper be rubbed inside with wet sugar, molasses, honey, or jam, or any
thing sweet; cut a small hole in the center, large enough for a fly
to enter. The flies settle on the top, attracted by the smell of
the bait; they then crawl through the hole, to feed upon the sweets
beneath. Meanwhile the warmth of the weather causes the soapy water to
ferment, and produces a gas which overpowers the flies, and they drop
down into the vessel. Thousands may be destroyed this way, and the
traps last a long time.
FLY PAPER.--Melt resin, and add thereto while soft, sufficient sweet
oil, lard, or lamp oil to make it, when cold about the consistency
of honey. Spread on writing paper, and place in a convenient spot. It
will soon be filled with ants, flies, and other vermin.
HOW TO EXPEL INSECTS.--All insects dread pennyroyal: the smell of
it destroys some, and drives others away. At the time that fresh
pennyroyal cannot be gathered, get oil of pennyroyal; pour some into
a saucer, and steep in it small pieces of wadding or raw cotton, and
place them in corners, closet-shelves, bureau drawers, boxes, etc.,
and the cockroaches, ants, or other insects will soon disappear. It is
also well to place some between the mattresses, and around the bed. It
is also a splendid thing for brushing off that terrible little insect,
the seed tick.
HOW TO DESTROY MICE.--1. Use tartar emetic mingled with some favorite
food. The mice will leave the premises.
2. Take one part calomel,
five parts of wheat flour, one part sugar, and one-tenth of a part
of ultramarine. Mix together in a fine powder and place it in a dish.
This is a most efficient poison for mice.
3. Any one desirous of keeping seeds from the depredations of mice
can do so by mixing pieces of camphor gum in with the seeds. Camphor
placed in drawers or trunks will prevent mice from doing them injury.
The little animal objects to the odor and keeps a good distance from
it. He will seek food elsewhere.
4. Gather all kinds of mint and scatter about your shelves, and they
will forsake the premises.
HOW TO DRIVE AWAY MOSQUITOES.--1. A camphor bag hung up in an
open casement will prove an effectual barrier to their entrance.
Camphorated spirits applied as perfume to the face and hands will
prove an effectual preventive; but when bitten by them, aromatic
vinegar is the beat antidote.
2. A small amount of oil of pennyroyal sprinkled around the room will
drive away the mosquitoes. This is an excellent recipe.
3. Take of gum camphor a piece about half the size of an egg, and
evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel and holding it over a lamp
or candle, taking care that it does not ignite. The smoke will soon
fill the room and expel the mosquitoes.
HOW TO PRESERVE CLOTHING FROM MOTHS.--1. Procure shavings of cedar
wood and enclose in muslin bags, which should be distributed freely
among clothes. 2. Procure shavings of camphor wood, and enclose in
bags. 3. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes. 4.
Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 5. An ounce of
gum camphor and one of the powdered shell of red pepper are macerated
in eight ounces of strong alcohol for several days, then strained.
With this tincture the furs or cloths are sprinkled over, and rolled
up in sheets. 6. Carefully shake and brush woolens early in the
spring, so as to be certain that no eggs are in them; then sew them up
in cotton or linen wrappers, putting a piece of camphor gum, tied up
in a bit of muslin, into each bundle, or into the chests and closets
where the articles are to lie. No moth will approach while the smell
of the camphor continues. When the gum is evaporated, it must be
renewed. Enclose them in a moth-proof box with camphor, no matter
whether made of white paper or white pine, before any eggs are laid on
them by early spring moths. The notion of having a trunk made of
some particular kind of wood for this purpose, is nonsense. Furs or
woolens, put away in spring time, before moth eggs are laid, into
boxes, trunks, drawers, or closets even, where moths cannot enter,
will be safe from the ravages of moth-worms, provided none were
in them that were laid late in the autumn, for they are not of
spontaneous production.
HOW TO KILL MOTHS IN CARPETS.--Wring a coarse crash towel out of clear
water, spread it smoothly on the carpet, iron it dry with a good hot
iron, repeating the operation on all parts of the carpet suspected of
being infected with moths. No need to press hard, and neither the
pile nor color of the carpet will he injured, and the moths will be
destroyed by the heat and steam.
HOW TO DESTROY RATS.--1. When a house is invested with rats which
refuse to be caught by cheese and other baits, a few drops of the
highly-scented oil of rhodium poured on the bottom of the cage will
be an attraction which they cannot refuse. 2. Place on the floor near
where their holes are supposed to be a thin layer of moist caustic
potash. When the rats travel on this, it will cause their feet to
become sore, which they lick, and their tongues become likewise sore.
The consequence is, that they shun this locality, and seem to inform
all the neighboring rats about it, and the result is that they soon
abandon a house that has such mean floors. 3. Cut some corks as thin
as wafers, and fry, roast, or stew them in grease, and place the
same in their track; or a dried sponge fried or dipped in molasses
or honey, with a small quantity of bird lime or oil of rhodium, will
fasten to their fur and cause them to depart. 4. If a live rat can be
caught and smeared over with tar or train oil, and afterwards allowed
to escape in the holes of other rats, he will cause all soon to take
their departure. 5. If a live rat be caught, and a small bell be
fastened around his neck, and allowed to escape, all of his brother
rats as well as himself will very soon go to some other neighbor's
house. 6. Take a pan, about twelve inches deep, and half fill it with
water; then sprinkle some bran on the water and set the pan in a place
where the rats most frequent. In the morning you will find several
rats in the pan. 7. Flour, three parts; sugar, one-half part; sulphur,
two parts, and phosphorus, two parts. Smear on meat, and place near
where the rats are most troublesome. 8. Squills are an excellent
poison for rats. The powder should be mixed with some fatty substance,
and spread upon slices of bread. The pulp of onions is also very
good. Rats are very fond of either. 9. Take two ounces of carbonate of
barytes, and mix with one pound of suet or tallow, place a portion of
this within their holes and about their haunts. It is greedily eaten,
produces great thirst, and death ensues after drinking. This is a very
effectual poison, because it is both tasteless and odorless. 10. Take
one ounce of finely powdered arsenic, one ounce of lard; mix these
into a paste with meal, put it about the haunts of rats. They will eat
of it greedily. 11. Make a paste of one ounce of flour, one-half gill
of water, one drachm of phosphorus, and one ounce of flour. Or, one
ounce of flour, two ounces of powdered cheese crumbs, and one-half
drachm of phosphorus; add to each of these mixtures a few drops of the
oil of rhodium, and spread this on thin pieces of bread like butter;
the rats will eat of this greedily, and it is a sure poison. 12. Mix
some ground plaster of paris with some sugar and indian meal. Set it
about on plates, and leave beside each plate a saucer of water. When
the rats have eaten the mixture they will drink the water and die. To
attract them toward it, you may sprinkle on the edges of the plates
a little of the oil of rhodium. Another method of getting rid of rats
is, to strew pounded potash on their holes. The potash gets into their
coats and irritates the skin, and the rats desert the place. 13. The
dutch method: this is said to be used successfully in holland; we
have, however, never tried it. A number of rats are left together to
themselves in a very large trap or cage, with no food whatever; their
craving hunger will, at last, cause them to fight and the weakest will
be eaten by the others; after a short time the fight is renewed, and
the next weakest is the victim, and so it goes on till one strong
rat is left. When this one has eaten the last remains of any of the
others, it is set loose; the animal has now acquired such a taste for
rat-flesh that he is the terror of ratdom, going round seeking what
rat he may devour. In an incredibly short time the premises are
abandoned by all other rats, which will not come back before the
cannibal rat has left or has died. 14. Catch a rat and smear him over
with a mixture of phosphorus and lard, and then let him loose. The
house will soon be emptied of these pests.
VERMIN, IN WATER.--Go to the river or pond, and with a small net (a
piece of old mosquito bar will do) collect a dozen or more of the
small fishes known as minnows, and put them in your cistern, and in
a short time you will have clear water, the wiggle-tails and
reddish-colored bugs or lice being gobbled up by the fishes.
* * * * *
[ILLUSTRATION: ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES AND HOW TO MEET THEM.]
ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES
AND HOW TO MEET THEM
As accidents are constantly liable to occur, the importance of knowing
how best to meet the various emergencies that may arise can hardly be
over-estimated. In all cases, and under all circumstances, the best
help to assist a party in this trying moment is _presence of mind_.
HARVEST BUG-BITES.--The best remedy is the use of benzine, which
immediately kills the insect. A small drop of tincture of iodine has
the same effect.
BITES AND STINGS OF INSECTS.--Such as bees, wasps, hornets, etc.,
although generally painful, and ofttimes causing much disturbance,
yet are rarely attended with fatal results. The pain and swelling
may generally be promptly arrested by bathing freely with a strong
solution of equal parts of common salt and baking soda, in warm water;
or by the application of spirits of hartshorn; or of volatile liniment
(one part of spirits of hartshorn and two of olive oil). In the
absence of the other articles, warm oil may be used; or, if this is
not at hand, apply a paste made from fresh clay-earth. If the sting of
the insect is left in the wound, as is frequently the case, it should
always be extracted. If there is faintness, give some stimulant; as, a
tablespoonful or two of brandy and water, or brandy and ammonia.
MAD DOG BITES.--1. Take immediately warm vinegar or tepid water; wash
the wound clean therewith and then dry it; pour upon the wound, then,
ten or twelve drops of muriatic acid. Mineral acids destroy the poison
of the saliva, by which means the evil effects of the latter are
neutralized. 2. Many think that the only sure preventive of evil
following the bite of a rabid dog is to suck the wound immediately,
before the poison has had time to circulate with the blood. If the
person bit cannot get to the wound to suck it, he must persuade or pay
another to do it for him. There is no fear of any harm following
this, for the poison entering by the stomach cannot hurt a person.
A spoonful of the poison might be swallowed with impunity, but the
person who sucks the place should have no wound on the lip or
tongue, or it might be dangerous. The precaution alluded to is a most
important one, and should never be omitted prior to an excision
and the application of lunar caustic in every part, especially the
interior and deep-seated portions. No injury need be anticipated if
this treatment is adopted promptly and effectively. The poison of
hydrophobia remains latent on an average six weeks; the part heals
over, but there is a pimple or wound, more or less irritable; it then
becomes painful; and the germ, whatever it is, ripe for dissemination
into the system, and then all hope is gone. Nevertheless, between
the time of the bite and the activity of the wound previous to
dissemination, the caustic of nitrate of silver is a sure preventive;
after that it is as useless as all the other means. The best mode of
application of the nitrate of silver is by introducing it solidly into
the wound.
SERPENTS BITES.--The poison inserted by the stings and bites of many
venomous reptiles is so rapidly absorbed, and of so fatal a description,
as frequently to occasion death before any remedy or antidote can be
applied; and they are rendered yet more dangerous from the fact that
these wounds are inflicted in parts of the country and world where
precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and generally at times
when people are least prepared to meet them. 1. In absence of any
remedies, the first best plan to adopt on being bitten by any of the
poisonous snakes is to do as recommended above in Mad Dog Bites--viz.,
to wash off the place immediately; if possible get the mouth to the
spot, and forcibly suck out all the poison, first applying a ligature
above the wound as tightly as can be borne. 2. A remedy promulgated by
the Smithsonian Institute is to take 30 grs. iodide potassium, 30 grs.
iodine, 1 oz. water, to be applied externally to the wound by saturating
lint or batting--the same to be kept moist with the antidote until the
cure be effected, which will be in one hour, and sometimes instantly. 3.
An Australian physician has tried and recommends carbolic acid, diluted
and administered internally every few minutes until recovery is certain.
4. Another Australian Physician, Professor Halford, of Melbourne
University, has discovered that if a proper amount of dilute ammonia be
injected into the circulation of a patient suffering from snake-bite,
the curative effect is usually sudden and startling, so that, in many
cases, men have thus been brought back, as it were, by magic, from the
very shadow of death.
BLEEDING AT THE NOSE.--1. Roll up a piece of paper, and press it under
the upper lip. 2. In obstinate cases blow a little gum Arabic up the
nostrils through a quill, which will immediately stop the discharge;
powdered alum is also good. 3. Pressure by the finger over the small
artery near the ala (wing) of the nose, on the side where the blood is
flowing, is said to arrest the hemorrhage immediately.
BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS.--A NEW York physician has related a case
in which inhalation of very dry persulphate of iron, reduced to a
palpable powder, entirely arrested bleeding from the lungs, after all
the usual remedies, lead, opium, etc., had failed. A small quantity
was administered by drawing into the lungs every hour during part of
the night and following day.
BLEEDING FROM THE BOWELS.--The most common cause of this, when not a
complication of some disease, is hemorrhoids or piles. Should serious
hemorrhage occur, rest and quiet, and cold water poured slowly over
the lower portion of the belly, or cloths wet with cold water, or
better, with ice water applied over the belly and thighs, and to the
lower end of the bowels, will ordinarily arrest it. In some cases it
may be necessary to use injections of cold water, or even put small
pieces of ice in the rectum.
BLEEDING FROM THE MOUTH.--This is generally caused by some injury to
the cheeks, gums or tongue, but it sometimes occurs without any direct
cause of this kind, and no small alarm may be caused by mistaking it
for bleeding from the lungs. Except when an artery of some size
is injured, bleeding from the mouth can generally be controlled by
gargling and washing the mouth with cold water, salt and water, or
alum and water, or some persulphate of iron may be applied to the
bleeding surface. Sometimes obstinate or even alarming bleeding may
follow the pulling of a tooth. The best remedy for this is to plug
the cavity with lint or cotton wet with the solution of persulphate of
iron, and apply a compress which may be kept in place by closing the
teeth on it.
BLEEDING FROM THE STOMACH.--_Vomiting blood_.--Hemorrhage from the
stomach is seldom so serious as to endanger life; but as it may be a
symptom of some dangerous affection, it is always best to consult a
physician concerning it. In the meantime, as in all other varieties
of hemorrhage, perfect quiet should be preserved. A little salt, or
vinegar, or lemon juice, should be taken at intervals, in a small
glass of fresh cool water, or ice-water, as ice may be swallowed in
small pieces, and cloths wet with ice-water, or pounded ice applied
over the stomach.
BLEEDING FROM VARICOSE VEINS.--Serious and even fatal hemorrhage may
occur from the bursting of a large varicose or "broken" vein. Should
such an accident occur, the bleeding may be best controlled, until
proper medical aid can be procured, by a tight bandage; or a "stick
tourniquet," remembering that the blood comes toward the heart in
the veins, and from it in the arteries. The best thing to prevent the
rupture of varicose or broken veins is to support the limb by wearing
elastic stockings, or a carefully applied bandage.
BURNS AND SCALDS.--There is no class of accidents that cause such
an amount of agony, and none which are followed with more disastrous
results.
1. By putting the burned part under cold water, milk, or other
bland fluid, instantaneous and perfect relief from all pain will be
experienced. On withdrawal, the burn should be perfectly covered
with half an inch or more of common wheaten flour, put on with a
dredging-box, or in any other way, and allowed to remain until a
cure is effected, when the dry, caked flour will fall off, or can be
softened with water, disclosing a beautiful, new and healthy skin,
in all cases where the burns have been superficial. 2. Dissolve white
lead in flaxseed oil to the consistency of milk, and apply over the
entire burn or scald every five minutes. It can be applied with a soft
feather. This is said to give relief sooner, and to be more permanent
in its effects, than any other application. 3. Make a saturated
solution of alum (four ounces to a quart of hot water). Dip a cotton
cloth in this solution and apply immediately on the burn. As soon as
it becomes hot or dry, replace it by another, and continue doing so
as often as the cloth dries, which at first will be every few minutes.
The pain will immediately cease, and after twenty-four hours of this
treatment the burn will be healed; especially if commenced before
blisters are formed. The astringent and drying qualities of the alum
will entirely prevent their formation. 4. Glycerine, five ounces;
white of egg, four ounces; tincture of arnica, three ounces. Mix the
glycerine and white of egg thoroughly in a mortar, and gradually add
the arnica. Apply freely on linen rags night, and morning, washing
previously with warm castile soap-suds. 5. Take one drachm of finely
powdered alum, and mix thoroughly with the white of two eggs and one
teacup of fresh lard; spread on a cloth, and apply to the parts burnt.
it gives almost instant relief from pain, and, by excluding the air,
prevents excessive inflammatory action. The application should be
changed at least once a day. 6. M. Joel, of the Children's Hospital,
Lausanne, finds that a tepid bath, containing a couple of pinches of
sulphate of iron, gives immediate relief to young children who have
been extensively burned. In a case of a child four years old, a
bath repeated twice a day--twenty minutes each bath--the suppuration
decreased, lost its odor, and the little sufferer was soon
convalescent. 7. For severe scalding, carbolic acid has recently been
used with marked benefit. It is to be mixed with thirty parts of the
ordinary oil of lime water to one part of the acid. Linen rags satured
in the carbolic emulsion are to be spread on the scalded parts, and
kept moist by frequently smearing with the feather dipped in the
liquid. Two advantages of this mode of treatment are, the exclusion of
air, and the rapid healing by a natural restorative action without the
formation of pus, thus preserving unmarred and personal appearance of
the patient--a matter of no small importance to some people.
CHOKING.--In case of Choking, a violent slap with the open hand
between the shoulders of the sufferer will often effect a dislodgment.
In case the accident occurs with a child, and the slapping process
does not afford instant relief, it should be grasped by the feet, and
placed head downwards, and the slapping between the shoulders renewed;
but in case this induced violent suffocative paroxysms it must not
be repeated. If the substance, whatever it maybe, has entered the
windpipe, and the coughing and inverting the body fails to dislodge
it, it is probable that nothing but cutting open the windpipe will
be of any avail; and for this the services of a surgeon should always be
procured. If food has stuck in the throat or gullet, the forefinger
should be immediately introduced; and if lodged at the entrance of the
gullet, the substance may be reached and extracted, possibly, with the
forefinger alone, or may be seized with a pair of pincers, if at hand,
or a curling tongs, or anything of the kind. This procedure may be
facilitated by directing the person to put the tongue well out, in
which position it may be retained by the individual himself, or a
bystander by grasping it, covered with a handkerchief or towel. Should
this fail, an effort should be made to excite retching or vomiting
by passing the finger to the root of the tongue, in hopes that the
offending substance may in this way be dislodged; or it may possibly
be effected by suddenly and unexpectedly dashing in the face a basin
of cold water, the shock suddenly relaxing the muscular spasm present,
and the involuntary gasp at the same time may move it up or down. If
this cannot be done, as each instant's delay is of vital importance to
a choking man, seize a fork, a spoon, a penholder, pencil, quill, or
anything suitable at hand, and endeavor to push the article down
the throat. If it be low down the gullet, and other means fail, its
dislodgment may sometimes be effected by dashing cold water on the
spine, or vomiting may be induced by an emetic of sulphate of zinc
(twenty grains in a couple of tablespoonfuls of warm water), or of
common salt and mustard in like manner, or it may be pushed into the
stomach by extemporizing a probang, by fastening a small sponge to the
end of a stiff strip of whalebone. If this cannot he done, a surgical
operation will be necessary. Fish bones or other sharp substances,
when they cannot be removed by the finger or forceps, may sometimes
be dislodged by swallowing some pulpy mass, as masticated bread,
etc. Irregularly shaped substances, a plate with artificial teeth for
instance, can ordinarily be removed only by surgical interference.
COLIC.--Use a hot fomentation over the abdomen, and a small quantity
of ginger, pepermint or common tea. If not relieved in a few minutes,
then give an injection of a quart of warm water with twenty or thirty
drops of laudanum, and repeat it if necessary. A half teaspoonful of
chloroform, in a tablespoonful of sweetened water, with or without a
few drops of spirits of lavender or essence of peppermint, will often
give prompt relief.
CONVULSIONS.--In small children convulsions frequently happen from
teething, sometimes from worms or from some irritating substance
within the stomach or bowels, and sometimes from some affection of the
brain.
When a child has convulsions, place it immediately in a warm or hot
bath, and sponge its head with cold water. Then apply a hot mustard
plaster to the wrists, ankles and soles of the feet, or, in case a
plaster cannot be obtained, apply a cloth wrung out of hot mustard
water. Allow these to remain until the skin reddens, and use care that
the same do not blister. After the fit has subsided, use great care
against its return by attention to the cause which gave rise to it.
Convulsions in adults must be treated in accordance with the manner
which gave rise to them. During the attack great care should be taken
that the party does not injure himself, and the best preventive is
a cork or a soft piece of wood, or other suitable substance, placed
between the teeth to prevent biting the tongue and cheeks: tight
clothing must be removed or loosened; mustard poultices should be
applied to the extremities and over the abdomen; abundance of fresh
air should be secured by opening windows and doors, and preventing
unnecessary crowding of persons around; cold water may be dashed
on the face and chest; and if there be plethora, with full bounding
pulse, with evidence of cerebral or other internal congestion, the
abstraction of a few ounces of blood may be beneficial.
CRAMP.--Spasmodic or involuntary contractions of the muscles generally
of the extremities, accompanied with great pain. The muscles of the
legs and feet are the most commonly affected with cramp, especially
after great exertion. The best treatment is immediately to stand
upright, and to well rub the part with the hand. The application of
strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of anodines, as opiate
liniments, has been recommended. When cramp occurs in the stomach,
a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a dram glassful of good
brandy, should be swallowed immediately. When cramp comes on during
cold bathing, the limb should be thrown out as suddenly and violently
as possible, which will generally remove it, care being also taken
not to become flurried nor frightened, as presence of mind is very
essential to personal safety on such an occasion. A common cause of
cramp is indigestion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should be
avoided.
CUTS.--In case the flow of blood is trifling, stop the bleeding by
bringing the edges of the wound together, if the flow of blood is
great, of a bright vermillion color, and flows in spurts or with a
jerk, an artery is severed, and at once should pressure be made on the
parts by the finger (between the cut and the heart), until a compress
is arranged by a tight ligature above the wounded part. Then the
finger may be taken off, and if the blood still flows, tighten the
handkerchief or other article that forms the ligature, until it
ceases. If at this point the attendance of a physician or surgeon
cannot be secured, take strong silk thread, or wax together three or
four threads and cut them into lengths of about a foot long. Wash the
parts with warm water, and then with a sharp hook or small pair of
pincers in your hand, fix your eye steadfastly upon the wound, and
directing the ligature to be slightly released, you will see the mouth
of the artery from which the blood springs. At once seize it, draw it
out a little while an assistant passes a ligature round it, and ties
it up tight with a double knot. In this way take up in succession
every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. If the wound is too
high up in a limb to apply the ligature do not lose your presence of
mind. If it is the thigh, press firmly on the groin; if in the arm,
with the band-end or ring of a common door-key make pressure above the
collar bone, and about its middle, against its first rib, which
lies under it. The pressure should be continued until assistance is
procured and the vessel tied up. If the wound is on the face, or other
place where pressure cannot effectually be made, place a piece of ice
directly over the wound allowing it to remain there until the blood
coagulates, when it may be removed, and a compress and bandage be
applied.
After the bleeding is arrested the surrounding blood should be cleared
away, as well as any extraneous matter then bring the sides of the
wound into contact throughout the whole depth, in order that they may
grow together as quickly as possible, retaining them in their position
by strips of adhesive plaster. If the wound be deep and extensive,
the wound itself and the adjacent parts must be supported by proper
bandages. The position of the patient should be such as will relax
the skin and muscles of the wounded part. Rest, low and unstimulating
diet, will complete the requirements necessary to a speedy recovery.
HOW TO DISTINGUISH DEATH.--As many instances occur of parties being
buried alive, they being to all appearance dead, the great importance of
knowing how to distinguish real from imaginary death need not be
explained. The appearances which mostly accompany death, are an entire
stoppage of breathing, of the heart's action; the eyelids are partly
closed, the eyes glassy, and the pupils usually dilated; the jaws are
clenched, the fingers partially contracted, and the lips and nostrils
more or less covered with frothy mucus, with increasing pallor and
coldness of surface, and the muscles soon become rigid and the limbs
fixed in their position. But as these same conditions may also exist in
certain other cases of suspended animation, great care should be
observed, whenever there is the least doubt concerning it, to prevent
the unnecessary crowding of the room in which the corpse is, or of
parties crowding around the body; nor should the body be allowed to
remain lying on the back without the tongue being so secured as to
prevent the glottis or orifice of the windpipe being closed by it; nor
should the face be closely covered; nor rough usage of any kind be
allowed. In case there is great doubt, the body should not be allowed to
be inclosed in the coffin, and under no circumstances should burial be
allowed until there are unmistakable signs of decomposition.
Of the numerous methods proposed as signs for real death, we select
the following: 1. So long as breathing continues, the surface of
a mirror held to the mouth and nostrils will become dimmed with
moisture. 2. If a strong thread or small cord be tied tightly round
the finger of a living person, the portion beyond the cord or thread
will become red and swollen--if dead, no change is produced. 3. If the
hand of a living person is held before a strong light a portion of the
margin or edges of the fingers is translucent--if dead, every part of
it is opaque. 4. A coal of fire, a piece of hot iron, or the flame of
a candle, applied to the skin, if life remains, will blister--if dead
it will merely sear. 5. A bright steel needle introduced and allowed
to remain for half an hour in living flesh will be still bright--if
dead, it will be tarnished by oxydation. 6. A few drops of a solution
of atropia (two grains to one-half ounce of water) introduced into the
eye, if the person is alive, will cause the pupils to dilate--if dead,
no effect will be produced. 7. If the pupil is already dilated, and
the person is alive, a few drops of tincture of the calabar bean will
cause it to contract--if dead, no effect will be produced.
DISLOCATIONS.--These injuries can mostly be easily recognized; 1.
By the deformity that the dislocation gives rise to by comparing the
alteration in shape with the other side of the body. 2. Loss of some
of the regular movements of the joints. 3. In case of dislocation,
surgical aid should be procured at once. While waiting the arrival of
a physician, the injured portion should be placed in the position most
comfortable to the patient, and frequent cold bathing or cloths wrung
out of cold water, applied to the parts affected, so as to relieve
suffering and prevent inflammation.
FOREIGN BODIES IN EARS.--Great care should be taken in removing
foreign bodies from the ear, as serious injury may be inflicted. Most
foreign bodies, especially those of small size, can be easily removed
by the use of a syringe with warm water, and in most cases no other
means should be used. Should the first efforts fail, repeat the
operation. A syringe throwing a moderately small and continuous stream
is the best adapted for the purpose, and the removal may generally
be facilitated by inclining the ear downward while using the syringe.
Severe inflammation may be excited, and serious injury done, by
rash attempts to seize a foreign body in the ear, with a forceps or
tweezers, or trying to pick it out with a pin or needle, or with an
ear scoop. Should it be necessary from any cause to use instruments,
great care should be observed, and but very little force exerted. It
has lately been recommended, when foreign bodies cannot be removed by
syringing the ear, to introduce a small brush or swab of frayed linen
or muslin cloth, or a bit of sponge, moistened with a solution of
glue, and keep it in contact with the foreign body until the glue
adheres, when the body may be easily removed.
INSECTS IN THE EAR.--Insects in the ear may be easily killed by
pouring oil in the ear, after which remove by syringing. (See foreign
bodies in ear.)
TO REMOVE HARDENED EAR WAX.--Hardened ear wax may be softened by
dropping into the ear some oil or glycerine, and then syringing. (See
foreign bodies in ear.)
FOREIGN BODIES IN EYE.--To remove small particles from the eye, unless
they have penetrated the globe, or become fixed in the conjunctiva, do
as follows:
Grasp the upper lid between the thumb and forefinger, lift it from the
eyeball, and having drawn it down as far as possible outside the lower
lid, let it slide slowly back to its place, resting upon the lower
lid as it goes back; and then wipe the edges of the lids with a soft
handkerchief to remove the foreign substance. This may be repeated a
number of times, if necessary, without injury. Should this means
fail, evert the lids and remove the foreign substance, by touching it
lightly with the fold of a handkerchief, or with the point of a roll
of paper made like a candle-lighter; or, if necessary, with a small
pair of forceps. A drop of sweet oil instilled in the eye, while
perfectly harmless, provokes a flow of tears that will frequently wash
away any light substance.
Bits of metal, sharp pieces of sand, etc. sometimes penetrate the
globe of the eye, and, unless removed, may excite so much inflammation
as to destroy the eye. They should he removed by a competent surgeon.
FAINTING.--Lay the person who has fainted in a current of air, or in
such a position that the air from an open window or door will have
full play upon the face. Do not allow parties to crowd closely around,
but give the sufferer plenty of room. Recovery will take place in a
few minutes. The clothes also may be opened, and cold water sprinkled
upon the face, hands and chest; and some pungent substance, as
smelling salts, camphor, aromatic vinegar, etc., may be applied to
the nostrils; and as soon as able to swallow, a little fresh water, or
spirits and water, may be given. Persons who faint easily should avoid
crowded rooms and places where the air is close.
FITS.--See Convulsions.
CLOTHING ON FIRE.--If a woman's clothes catch on fire, let her
instantly roll herself over and over on the ground. In case any one be
present, let them throw her down and do the like, and then wrap her up
in a table-cloth, rug, coat, or the first woolen article that can be
found.
FRACTURES.--As we can only give general rules for treating the various
fractures, we would advise any one suffering from such to immediately
apply to the nearest surgeon, and not rely upon an inexperienced
party.
FROST-BITE.--Place the party suffering in a room without fire, and
rub the frozen or frosted parts with snow, or pour ice-water over them
until sensation begins to return. As soon as a stinging pain is felt,
and a change of color appears, then cease the rubbing, and apply
clothes wet with ice-water, and subsequently, if active inflammation
follow and suppuration results, a solution of carbolic acid in water,
one part to thirty, should be applied. If mortification set in,
amputation is generally necessary. Where persons suffer from the
constitutional effects of cold, hot stimulants should be given
internally, and the body rubbed briskly with the hands and warm
flannel.
POISONS, THEIR SYMPTOMS AND ANTIDOTES.--When a person has taken poison,
the first thing to do is to compel the patient to vomit, and for that
purpose give any emetic that can be most readily and quickly obtained,
and which is prompt and energetic, but safe in its action. For this
purpose there is, perhaps, nothing better than a large teaspoonful of
ground mustard in a tumblerful of warm water, and it has the advantage
of being almost always at hand. If the dry mustard is not to be had, use
mixed mustard from the mustard pot. Its operation may generally be
facilitated by the addition of a like quantity of common table salt. If
the mustard is not at hand, give two or three teaspoonfuls of powdered
alum in syrup or molasses, and give freely of warm water to drink; or
give ten to twenty grains of sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), or twenty
to thirty grains of ipecac, with one or two grains of tartar emetic, in
a large cup of warm water, and repeat every ten minutes until three or
four doses are given, unless free vomiting is sooner produced. After
vomiting has taken place, large draughts of warm water should be given
the patient, so that the vomiting will continue until the poisonous
substances have been thoroughly evacuated, and then suitable antidotes
should be given. If vomiting cannot be produced, the stomach-pump should
be used. When it is known what particular kind of poison has been
swallowed, then the proper antidote for that poison should be given, but
when this cannot be ascertained, as is often the case, give freely of
equal parts of calcined magnesia, pulverized charcoal, and sesquioxide
of iron, in sufficient quantity of water. This is a very harmless
mixture, and is likely to be of great benefit, as the ingredients,
though very simple, are antidotes for the most common and active
poisons. In case this mixture cannot be obtained, the stomach should be
soothed and protected by the free administration of demulcent,
mucilaginous or oleaginous drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk,
mucilage of gum arabic, or slippery elm bark, flaxseed tea, starch,
wheat, flour, or arrow-root mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or
melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be moved by some
gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or two of castor oil, or a
teaspoonful of calcined magnesia; and pain or other evidence of
inflammation must be relieved by the administration of a few drops of
laudanum, and the repeated application of hot poultices, fomentations
and mustard plasters. The following are the names of the articles that
may give rise to poisoning, most commonly used, and their antidote:
MINERAL ACIDS--SULPHURIC ACID (OIL OF VITRIOL), NITRIC ACID (AQUA
FORTIS), MURIATIC ACID (SPIRITS OF SALTS).--Symptoms: Acid, burning
taste in the mouth, acute pain in the throat, stomach and bowels;
frequent vomiting, generally bloody, mouth and lips excoriated,
shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough, copious stools, more or less
bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; difficult breathing,
irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while drink increases the pain and
rarely remains in the stomach; frequent but vain efforts to urinate;
cold sweats, altered countenance; convulsions generally preceding
death; nitric acid causes yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black ones.
Treatment: Mix calcined magnesia in milk or water to the consistence
of cream, and give freely to drink a glassful every couple of minutes,
if it can be swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk, whiting, or
even mortar from the wall mixed in water, may be given, until
magnesia can be obtained. Promote vomiting by tickling the throat,
if necessary, and when the poison is got rid of, flaxseed or elm tea,
gruel, or other mild drinks. The inflammation which always follows
wants good treatment to save the patient's life.
VEGETABLE ACIDS--ACETIC, CITRIC, OXALIC, TARTARIC.--Symptoms: Intense
burning pain of mouth, throat and stomach; vomiting blood which is
highly acid, violent purging, collapse, stupor, death.
OXALIC ACID is frequently taken in mistake for Epsom salts, to which
in shops it often bears a strong resemblance. Treatment: Give chalk
or magnesia in a large quantity of water, or large draughts of lime
water. If these are not at hand, scrape the wall or ceiling, and give
the scrapings, mixed with water.
PRUSSIC OR HYDROCYANIC ACID--LAUREL WATER, CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM,
BITTER ALMOND OIL, ETC.--Symptoms: In large doses almost invariably
instantaneously fatal, when not immediately fatal, sudden loss of
sense and control of the voluntary muscles; the odor of the poison
generally susceptible on the breath. Treatment: Chlorine, in the
form of chlorine water, in doses of from one to four fluid drachms,
diluted. Weak solution of chloride lime of soda; water of ammonia
(spirits of hartshorn) largely diluted may be given, and the vapor
of it cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and chloroform in half
to teaspoonful doses in glycerine or mucilage, repeated every few
minutes, until the symptoms are ameliorated. Artificial respiration.
ACONITE--MONKSHOOD, WOLFSBANE.--Symptoms: Numbness and tingling in the
mouth and throat, and afterwards in other portions of the body, with
sore throat, pain over the stomach, and vomiting; dimness of vision,
dizziness, great prostration, loss of sensibility and delirium.
Treatment: An emetic and then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in
ice-water, every half hour; spirits of ammonia in half teaspoonful
doses in like manner; the cold douche over the head and chest, warmth
to the extremities, etc.
ALKALIES AND THEIR SALTS--CONCENTRATED LYE, WOODASH LYE, CAUSTIC
POTASH, AMMONIA, HARTSHORN.--Symptoms: Caustic, acrid taste, excessive
heat in the throat, stomach and [Transcriber's Note: The original text
reads 'intenstines'] intestines; vomiting of bloody matter, cold sweats,
hiccough, purging of bloody stools.--Treatment: The common vegetable acids.
Common vinegar being always at hand, is most frequently used. The fixed
oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond and olive oils form soaps with the
alkalies and thus also destroy their caustic effect. They should be given
in large quantity.
ALCOHOL, BRANDY, AND OTHER SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.--Symptoms: Confusion of
thought, inability to walk or stand, dizziness, stupor, highly flushed
or pale face, noisy breathing.--Treatment: After emptying the stomach,
pour cold water on the head and back of the neck, rub or slap the
wrists and palms, and the ankles and soles of the feet, and give
strong, hot coffee, or aromatic spirits of hartshorn, in teaspoonful
doses in water. The warmth of the body must be sustained.
ANTIMONY, AND ITS PREPARATIONS. TARTAR EMETIC, ANTIMONIAL WINE,
KERME'S MINERAL.--Symptoms: Faintness and nausea, soon followed by
painful and continued vomiting, severe diarrhoea, constriction and
burning sensation in the throat, cramps, or spasmodic twitchings, with
symptoms of nervous derangement, and great prostration of strength,
often terminating in death.--Treatment: If vomiting has not
been produced, it should be effected by tickling the fauces, and
administering copious draughts of warm water. Astringment infusions,
such as of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act as antidotes, and should
be given promptly. Powdered yellow bark may be used until the infusion
is prepared, or very strong green tea should be given. To stop the
vomiting, should it continue, blister over the stomach by applying a
cloth wet with strong spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on the
one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain of morphia.
ARSENIC AND ITS PREPARATIONS--RATSBANE, FOWLER'S SOLUTION,
ETC.--Symptoms: Generally within an hour pain and heat are felt in the
stomach, soon followed by vomiting, with a burning dryness of the throat
and great thirst; the matters vomited are generally colored, either
green yellow, or brownish, and sometimes bloody. Diarrhoea or
dysentery ensues, while the pulse becomes small and rapid, yet
irregular. Breathing much oppressed; difficulty in vomiting may occur,
while cramps, convulsions, or even paralysis often precede death,
which sometimes takes place within five or six hours after arsenic
has been taken.--Treatment: Give a prompt emetic, and then hydrate of
peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in tablespoonful doses every
ten or fifteen minutes until the urgent symptoms are relieved. In the
absence of this, or while it is being prepared, give large draughts of
new milk and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in a
large quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at hand, flour and
water, always, however, giving an emetic the first thing, or causing
vomiting by tickling the throat with a feather, etc. The inflammation
of the stomach which follows must be treated by blisters, hot
fomentations, mucilaginous drinks, etc., etc.
BELLADONNA OR DEADLY NIGHT SHADE.--Symptoms: Dryness of the mouth
and throat, great thirst, difficulty of swallowing, nausea, dimness,
confusion or loss of vision, great enlargement of the pupils,
dizziness, delirium and coma.--Treatment: There is no known antidote.
Give a prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on continual
stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to necessary artificial
respiration. Opium and its preparations, as morphia, laudanum, etc.,
are thought by some to counteract the effect of belladonna, and may
be given in small and repeated doses, as also strong black coffee and
green tea.
BLUE VITRIOL, OR BLUE STONE.--See Copperas.
CANTHARIDES (SPANISH OR BLISTERING FLY) AND MODERN POTATO
BUG.--Symptoms: Sickening odor of the breath, sour taste, with burning
heat in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequent vomiting, often
bloody; copious bloody stools, great pain in the stomach, with burning
sensation in the bladder and difficulty to urinate, followed with
terrible convulsions, delirium and death.--Treatment excite vomiting
by drinking plentifully of sweet oil or other wholesome oils, sugar
and water, milk. Or slippery elm tea; give injections of castor oil
and starch, or warm milk. The inflammatory symptoms which generally
follow must, be treated by a medical man. Camphorated oil or
camphorated spirits should be rubbed over the bowels, stomach and
thighs.
CAUSTIC POTASH.--See Alkalies.
COBALT, OR FLY-POWDER.--Symptoms: Heat and pain in the. Throat and
stomach, violent retching and vomiting, cold and clammy skin,
small and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult breathing, diarrhoea,
etc.--Treatment: An emetic, followed by the free administration of
milk, eggs, wheat flour and water, and mucilaginous drinks.
COPPER--BLUE VITRIOL, VERDIGRIS OR PICKLES OR FOOD COOKED IN SOUL
COPPER VESSELS.--Symptoms: General inflammation of the alimentary
canal, suppression of urine; hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste,
vomiting, violent colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the
throat, anxiety; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and convulsions
generally precede death.--Treatment: Large doses of simple syrup as
warm as can be swallowed, until the stomach rejects the amount it
contains. The whites of eggs and large quantities of milk. Hydrated
peroxide of iron.
COPPERAS.--See Iron.
CREOSOTE.--CARBOLIC ACID.--Symptoms: Burning pain. Acrid, pungent
taste, thirst, vomiting, purging, etc.--Treatment: An emetic, and
the free administration of albumen, as the whites of eggs, or in the
absence of these, milk, or flour and water.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.--See Mercury.
DEADLY NIGHT-SHADE.--See Belladonna.
FOX-GLOVE, OR DIGITALIS.--Symptoms: Loss of strength, feeble,
fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea, and vomiting and stupor; cold
perspiration, dilated pupils, sighing, irregular breathing, and
sometimes convulsions.--Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and
ammonia in frequently repeated doses, apply warmth to the extremities,
and if necessary resort to artificial respiration.
GASES--CARBONIC ACID, CHLORINE, CYANOGEN, HYDROSULPHURIC ACID,
ETC.--Symptoms: Great drowsiness, difficult respiration, features
swollen, face blue as in strangulation.--Treatment: Artificial
respirations, cold douche, frictions with stimulating substances to
the surface of the body. Inhalation of steam containing preparations
of ammonia. Cupping from nape of neck. Internal use of chloroform.
GREEN VITRIOL.--See Iron.
HELLEBORE, OR INDIAN POKE.--Symptoms: Violent vomiting and purging,
bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors, vertigo, fainting, sinking
of the pulse, cold sweets and convulsions.--Treatment: Excite speedy
vomiting by large draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling
the throat with the finger or a feather, and emetics; give oily and
mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, acids, strong
coffee, camphor and opium.
HEMLOCK (CONIUM).--Symptoms: Dryness of the throat, tremors,
dizziness, difficulty of swallowing, prostration and faintness,
limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils dilated, pulse rapid and feeble;
insensibility and convulsions sometimes precede death.--Treatment:
Empty the stomach and give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with half
teaspoonful of spirits of Ammonia, frequently repeated, and if much
pain and vomiting, give bromide of ammonium in five-grain doses every
half hour. Artificial respiration may be required.
HENBANE OR HYOSCYAMUS.--Symptoms: Muscular twitching, inability to
articulate plainly, dimness of vision and stupor; later, vomiting
and purging, small, intermittent pulse, convulsive movement of the
extremities and coma. Treatment: Similar to Opium Poisoning, which
see.
IODINE.--Symptoms: Burning pain in throat, lacerating pain in the
stomach, fruitless effort to vomit, excessive tenderness of the
epigastrium. Treatment: Free emesis, prompt administration of starch,
wheat flour, or arrowroot, beat up in water.
LEAD.--ACETATE OF LEAD, SUGAR OF LEAD, DRY WHITE LEAD, RED LEAD,
LITHARGE, OR PICKLES, WINE, OR VINEGAR, SWEETENED BY LEAD.--Symptoms:
When taken in large doses, a sweet but astringent metallic taste exists,
with constriction in the throat, pain in the region of the stomach,
painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody vomitings, hiccough,
convulsions or spasms, and death. When taken in small but long-continued
doses, it produces colic, called painter's colic; great pain, obstinate
constipation, and in extreme cases paralytic, symptoms, especially
wrist-drop, with a blue line along the edge of the gums. Treatment: To
counteract the poison, give alum in water, one and a half ounce to a
quart; or, better still, Epsom salts or Glauber salts, an ounce of
either in a quart of water; or dilute sulphuric acid, a teaspoonful in a
quart of water. If a large quantity of sugar of lead has been recently
taken, empty the stomach by an emetic of sulphate of zinc (one drachm in
a quart of water), giving one-fourth to commence, and repeating smaller
doses until free vomiting is produced; castor oil should be given to
clear the bowels, and injections of oil and starch freely administered.
If the body is cold, use the warm bath.
MEADOW SAFFRON.--See Belladonna.
LAUDANUM.--See Opium.
LUNAR CAUSTIC.--See Silver.
LOBELIA.--Indian Poke.--Symptoms: Excessive vomiting and purging,
pains in the bowels, contraction of the pupils, delirium, coma, and
convulsions. Treatment: Mustard over the stomach, and brandy and
ammonia.
MERCURY.--CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE (bug poisons frequently contain this
poison), RED PRECIPITATE, CHINESE OR ENGLISH VERMILLION.--Symptoms:
Acrid, metallic taste in the mouth, immediate constriction and burning
in the throat, with anxiety and tearing pains in both stomach
and bowels, sickness, and vomiting of various colored fluids, and
sometimes bloody and profuse diarrhoea, with difficulty and pain
in urinating; pulse quick, small and hard; faint sensations, great
debility, difficult breathing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope and
convulsions. Treatment: If vomiting does not already exist, emetics
must be given immediately--albumen of eggs in continuous large doses,
and infusion of catechu afterwards, sweet milk, mixtures of flour and
water in successive cupfuls, and to check excessive salivation put a
half ounce of chlorate of potash in a tumbler of water, and use freely
as a gargle, and swallow a tablespoonful every hour or two.
MONKSHOOD.--See Arnica.
MORPHINE.--See Opium.
NITRATE OF SILVER (LUNAR CAUSTIC.)--Symptoms: Intense pain and
vomiting and purging of blood; mucus and shreds of mucus membranes;
and if these stand they become dark. Treatment: Give freely of a
solution of common salt in water, which decomposes the poison, and
afterwards flax-seed or elm bark tea, and after a while a dose of
castor oil.
NUX VOMICA.--See Strychnine.
OPIUM AND ALL ITS PREPARATIONS--MORPHINE, LAUDANUM, PAREGORIC,
ETC.--Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness, increasing to stupor, and
insensibility; pulse usually, at first, quirk and irregular,
and breathing hurried, and afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and
respiration slow and noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes and
face congested, and later, as death approaches, the extremities become
cold, the surface is covered with cold, clammy perspiration, and
the sphincters relax. The effects of opium and its preparations,
in poisonous doses, appear in from a half to two hours from its
administration. Treatment: Empty the stomach immediately with an
emetic or with the stomach pump. Then give very strong coffee without
milk; put mustard plasters on the wrist and ankles; use the cold
douche to the head and chest, and if the patient is cold and sinking
give brandy, or whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is thought by many to
counteract the poisonous effects of opium, and may be given in
doses of half to a teaspoonful of the tincture, or two grains of
the extract, every twenty minutes, until some effect is observed in
causing the pupils to expand. Use warmth and friction, and if possible
prevent sleep for some hours, for which purpose the patient should be
walked about between two persons, and if necessary a bunch of
switches may be freely used. Finally, as a last resort, use artificial
respiration, and a persistance in it will sometimes be rewarded with
success in apparently hopeless cases. Galvanism should also be tried.
OXALIC ACID.--See Acids.
PHOSPHORUS--FOUND IN LUCIFER MATCHES AND SOME RAT POISONS.--Symptoms:
Symptoms of irritant poisoning; pain in the stomach and bowels;
vomiting; diarrhoea; tenderness and tension of the abdomen. Treatment:
An emetic is to be promptly given; copious draughts containing
magnesia in suspension: mucilaginous drinks. General treatment for
inflammatory symptoms.
POISONOUS FISH.--Symptoms: In an hour or two--often in much shorter
time--after the fish has been eaten, a weight at the stomach comes
on, with slight vertigo and headache; sense of heat about the head
and eyes; considerable thirst, and often an eruption of the skin.
Treatment: After full vomiting, an active purgative should be given
to remove any of the noxious matter from the intestines. Vinegar and
water may be drunk after the above remedies have operated, and the
body may be sponged with the same. Water made very sweet with sugar,
with aromatic spirits of ammonia added, may be drunk freely as a
corrective. A solution of cholorate of potash, or of alkali, the
latter weak, may be given to obviate the effect of the poison. If
spasms ensue after evacuation, laudanum in considerable doses it
necessary. If inflammation should occur, combat in the usual way.
POISONOUS MUSHROOMS.--- Symptoms: Nausea, heat and pains in the
stomach and bowels; vomiting and purging, thirst, convulsions and
faintings, pulse small and frequent, dilated pupil and stupor, cold
sweats and death.
Treatment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared by an emetic of
ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, followed by frequent doses of
Glauber of Epsom salts, and large stimulating clysters. After the
poison is evacuated, either may be given with small quantities of
brandy and water. But if inflammatory symptoms manifest themselves,
such stimuli should be avoided, and these symptoms appropriately
treated.
POTASH.--See Alkali.
PRUSSIC ACID, HYDROCYANIC.--See Acids.
POISON IVY.--Symptoms. Contact with, and with many persons the
near approach to the vine, gives rise to violent erysipelatous
inflammation, especially of the face and hands, attended with itching,
redness, burning and swelling, with watery blisters.
Treatment: Give saline laxatives, and apply weak lead and laudanum,
or limewater and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely with spirits of
nitre. Anointing with oil will prevent poisoning from it.
SALTPETRE, NITRATE OF POTASH.--Symptoms. Only poisonous in large
quantities, and then causes nausea, painful vomiting, purging,
convulsions, faintness, feeble pulse, cold feet and hands, with
tearing pains in stomach and bowels.
Treatment: Treat just as is directed for arsenic, for there is no
antidote known, and emptying the stomach and bowels with mild drinks
must be relied on.
SAVINE.--Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels, hot skin, rapid pulse,
violent vomiting and sometimes purging, with great prostration.
Treatment: Mustard and hot fomentations over the stomach and bowels,
and ice only allowed in the stomach until the inflammation ceases. If
prostration comes on, food and stimulants must be given by injection.
STRAMONIUM, THORN-APPLE OR JAMESTOWN WEED.--Symptoms: Vertigo,
headache, perversion of vision, slight delirium, sense of suffocation,
disposition to sleep, bowels relaxed and all secretions augmented.
Treatment: Same as Belladonna.
STRYCHNINE AND NUX VOMICA.--Symptoms: Muscular twitching, constriction
of the throat, difficult breathing and oppression of the chest; violent
muscular spasms then occur, continuous in character like lock-jaw, with
the body bent backwards, sometimes like a bow. Treatment: Give, if
obtainable, one ounce or more of bone charcoal mixed with water, and
follow with an active emetic; then give chloroform in teaspoonful doses,
in flour and water or glycerine, every few minutes while the spasms
last, and afterwards brandy and stimulants, and warmth of the
extremities if necessary. Recoveries have followed the free and prompt
administration of oils or melted butter or lard. In all cases empty the
stomach if possible.
SULPHATE OF ZINC, WHITE VITRIOL.--See Zinc.
TIN--CHLORIDE OF TIN, SOLUTION OF TIN (USED BY DYERS), OXIDE OF TIN
OR PUTTY POWDER.--Symptoms: Vomiting, pains in the stomach, anxiety,
restlessness, frequent pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment: Empty the
stomach, and give whites of eggs in water, milk in large quantities,
or flour beaten, up in water, with magnesia or chalk.
TARTAR EMETIC.--See Antimony.
TOBACCO.--Symptoms: Vertigo, stupor, fainting, nausea, vomiting,
sudden nervous debility, cold sweat, tremors, and at times fatal
prostration. Treatment: After the stomach is empty apply mustard
to the abdomen and to the extremities, and give strong coffee, with
brandy and other stimulants, with warmth to the extremities.
ZINC--OXIDE OF ZINC, SULPHATE OF ZINC, WHITE VITRIOL, ACETATE OF
ZINC.--Symptoms: Violent vomiting, astringent taste, burning pain in
the stomach, pale countenance, cold extremities, dull eyes, fluttering
pulse. Death seldom ensues, in consequence of the emetic effect.
Treatment: The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts of warm
water. Carbonate of soda, administered in solution, will decompose the
sulphate of zinc. Milk and albumen will also act as antidotes. General
principles to be observed in the subsequent treatment.
WOORARA.--Symptoms: When taken into the stomach it is inert; when
absorbed through a wound it causes sudden stupor and insensibility,
frothing at the mouth and speedy death. Treatment: Suck the wound
immediately, or cut it out and tie a cord around the limb between the
wound and the heart. Apply iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it
internally, and try artificial respiration.
SCALDS.--See Burns and Scalds.
SPRAINS.--The portions most frequently implicated are the wrist and
ankle; no matter which portion it may be, however, rest and quietness
is a very important part of the treatment, and, when possible, in an
elevated position. If the wrist is sprained it should be carried in a
sling; if the ankle, it should be supported on a couch or stool. Cold
lotions (see Bruises) should be freely applied, and irrigation by
pouring water from a pitcher or tea-kettle resorted to several times a
day to prevent inflammation. Later, frictions with opodeldoc, or with
some stimulating liniment, and supporting the parts by pressure made
with a flannel roller, or laced stocking when the ankle is involved,
will be useful to restore tone; or strips of adhesive plaster properly
applied will be useful for the same purpose. Recovery from severe
sprains is always tedious. It is an old saying "that a bad sprain is
worse than a broken bone."
STINGS OF BEES AND WASPS.--See Bites and Stings.
SUFFOCATION FROM NOXIOUS GASES, FOUL AIR, FIRE DAMP, ETC.--Remove to
fresh air and dash cold water over the head, neck and chest; carefully
apply hartshorn, or smelling salts to the nostrils, and when the
breathing is feeble or has ceased, resort immediately to artificial
respiration (see Asphyxia and Drowning). Keep up the warmth of the
body, and as soon as the patient can swallow give stimulants in small
quantities.
SUNSTROKE.--This is caused by long exposure in great heat, especially
when accompanied with great fatigue and exhaustion. Though generally
happening from exposure to the sun's rays, yet precisely similar
effects may be and are produced from any undue exposure to great and
exhaustive heat, such as workmen are exposed to in foundries, gas
factories, bakeries, and other similar employments. Its first symptom
is pain in the head and dizziness, quickly followed by loss of
consciousness, and resulting in complete prostration: sometimes,
however, the attack is sudden, as in apoplexy. The head is generally
burning hot, the face, dark and swollen, the breathing labored and
snoring, and the feet and hands cold. Remove the patient at once to a
cool and shady place, and lay him down with his head a little raised;
apply ice or iced water to the head and face; loosen all cloths around
the neck or waist; bathe the chest with cold water, apply mustard
plasters, or cloths wetted with turpentine, to the calves and soles of
the feet, and as soon as the patient can swallow, give weak brandy or
whisky and water.
There is no easy road to success--I Thank God for it . . . .
A trained man will make his life tall. Without training, you
are left on a sea of luck, where thousands go down, while one
meets with success.
JAMES A. GARFIELD.
* * * * *
[Illustration: THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN]
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN
The following receipts written by DR. J. H. Gunn will be found of
great value, especially in emergencies:
ASTHMA.--Take hyssop water and poppy water, of each ten ounces; oxymel
of squills, six ounces; syrup of maiden hair, two ounces. Take one
spoonful when you find any difficulty in breathing.
AGUE IN THE BREAST.--Take one part of gum camphor, two parts yellow
bees-wax, three parts clean lard; let all melt slowly, in any vessel
[earthen best], on stove. Use either cold or warm; spread very thinly
on cotton or linen cloths, covering those with flannel. No matter if
the breast is broken, it will cure if persevered in. Do not, no matter
how painful, cease from drawing milk from the breast that is affected.
AGUE, MIXTURE.--Mix twenty grains quinine with one pint diluted gin or
port wine, and add ten grains subcarbonate of iron. Dose, a wine-glass
each hour until the ague is broken, and then two or three times a day
until the whole has been used.
2. Take Peruvian bark, two ounces; wild cherry tree bark, 1 ounce;
cinnamon, one drachm; powdered capsicum, one teaspoonful; sulphur,
one ounce; port wine, two quarts. Let it stand a day or two. Dose, a
wine-glassful every two or three hours until the disease is broken,
and then two or three times a day until all is taken.
SPRAINED ANKLE.--Wash the ankle frequently with cold salt and water,
which is far better than warm vinegar or decoctions of herbs. Keep
your foot as cold as possible to prevent inflammation, and sit with it
elevated on a cushion. Live on very low diet, and take every day some
cooling medicine. By obeying these directions only, a sprained ankle
has been cured in a few days.
APOPLEXY.--Occurs only in the corpulent or obese, and the gross or
high livers. To treat, raise the head to a nearly upright position;
unloose all tight clothes, strings, etc., and apply cold water to the
head and warm water and warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment
cool and well ventilated. Give nothing by the mouth until the
breathing is relieved, and then only draughts of cold water.
PREPARATION FOR THE CURE OF BALDNESS.--Rum, one pint; alcohol, one
ounce; distilled water, one ounce, tincture of cantharides, a half
drachm; carbonate of potash, a half drachm; carbonate of ammonia, one
drachm. Mix the liquids after having dissolved the salts, and filter.
After the skin of the head has been wetted with this preparation for
several minutes, it should be washed with water.
BILIOUS COLIC.--Mix two tablespoonfuls of Indian meal in half a pint
of cold water; drink it at two draughts.
BILIOUS COMPLAINTS.--Take the root and branch of dandelion, and
steep it in soft water a sufficient length of time to extract all
the essence; then strain the liquor and simmer until it becomes quite
thick. Dose: From one to three glasses a day may be taken with good
effect.
BLACKBERRY CORDIAL.--To one quart blackberry juice add one pound white
sugar, one tablespoonful each cloves, allspice, cinnamon and nutmeg.
Boil together fifteen minutes, and add a wine-glass of whisky, brandy
or rum. Bottle while hot, cork tight and seal. Used in diarrhea and
dysentery. Dose, a wine-glassful for an adult, half that quantity
for a child. It can be taken three or four times a day if the case is
severe.
BLISTERS.--- On the feet, occasioned by walking, are cured by drawing
a needleful of worsted thread through them; clip it off at both ends
and leave it till the skin peals off.
RAISING BLOOD.--Make a tea of white oak bark, and drink freely during
the day; or take half a pound of yellow dock root, boil in new milk,
say one quart: drink one gill three times a day, and take one pill of
white pine pitch every day.
HOW TO STOP BLOOD.--Take the fine dust of tea, or the scrapings of the
inside of tanned leather. Bind it upon the wound closely, and blood
will soon cease to flow.
BOILS.--Make a poultice of ginger and flour, and lay it on the boil.
This will soon draw it to a head.
SWELLED BOWELS IN CHILDREN.--Bathe the stomach of the child with
catnip steeped, mixed with fresh butter and sugar.
CHILBLAINS.--Dr. Fergus recommends sulphurous acid in this affection.
It should be applied with a camel's hair brush, or by means of a spray
producer. One application of this effects a cure. The acid should be
used pure. A good wash for hands or feet affected with chilblains is
sulphurous acid, three parts; glycerine, one part, and water one
part. The acid will be found particularly useful in the irritating,
tormenting stage of chilblains.
CHILBLAINS AND CHAPPED HANDS.--When chilblains manifest themselves, the
best remedy not only for preventing their ulcerating, but overcoming the
tingling, itching pain, and stimulating the circulation of the part to
healthy action, is the liniment of belladona, two drachms; the liniment
of aconite, one drachm; carbolic acid, ten drops; collodion flexile, one
ounce; painted with a camel's hair pencil over their surface. When the
chilblains vesicate, ulcerate or slough, it is better to omit the
aconite and apply the other components of the liniment without it. The
collodion flexile forms a coating or protecting film, which excludes the
air, while the sedative liniments allay the irritation, generally of no
trivial nature. For chapped hands we advise the free use of glycerine
and good oil, in the proportion of two parts of the former to four of
the latter; after this has been well rubbed into the hands and allowed
to remain for a little time, and the hands subsequently washed with
Castile soap and water, we recommend the belladonna and collodion
flexile to be painted on, and the protective film allowed to remain
permanently. These complaints not unfrequently invade persons of languid
circulation and relaxed habit, who should be put on a generous regimen,
and treated with ferruginous tonics. Obstinate, cases are occasionally
met with which no local application will remedy, unless some disordered
state of the system is removed, or the general condition of the
patient's health improved. Chapped lips are also benefited by the
stimulating form of application we advocate, but the aconite must not be
allowed to get on the lips, or a disagreeable tingling results.
CHILBLAIN BALM.--Boil together ten fluid ounces olive oil, two fluid
ounces Venice turpentine, and one ounce yellow wax; strain, and while
still warm add, constantly stirring, two and a half drachms balsam of
Peru and ten grains camphor.
CURE FOR CHILBLAIN.--Make a strong lye by boiling wood ashes in water.
Put your feet in a small tub and cover them with the lye as hot as you
can bear it. Gradually add more lye, hotter and hotter. Keep them in
half an hour, bathing and rubbing them continually, and being very
careful to keep the lye hot.
CHILBLAIN LOTION.--Dissolve one ounce muriate of ammonia in one-half
pint cider vinegar, and apply frequently. One-half pint of alcohol may
be added to this lotion with good effects.
CHILBLAIN OINTMENT.--Take mutton tallow and lard, of each
three-fourths of a pound avoirdupois; melt, in an iron vessel, and add
hydrated oxide of iron, two ounces, stirring continually with an iron
spoon until the mass is of a uniform black color; when nearly cool
add Venice turpentine, two ounces; Armenian bole, one ounce; oil of
bergamot, one drachm; rub up the bole with a little olive oil before
putting it in. Apply several times daily by putting it upon lint or
linen. It heals the worst cases in a few days.
RUSSIAN REMEDY FOR CHILBLAINS.--Slices of the rind of fully ripe
cucumbers, dried with the soft parts attached. Previous to use they
are softened by soaking them in warm water, and are then bound on the
sore parts with the inner side next them, and left on all night.
This treatment is said to be adopted for both broken and unbroken
chilblains. HOW TO CURE ITCHING CHILBLAINS.--Take hydrochloric acid,
one part, and water, eight parts; mix. Apply on going to bed. This
must not be used if the skin is broken. Sal ammoniac, two ounces; rum,
one pint; camphor, two drachms. The affected part is wetted night and
morning, and when dry is touched with a little simple ointment of any
kind--cold cream or pomatum.
Oil of turpentine, four ounces; camphor, six drachms; oil of cajeput,
two drachms. Apply with friction.
HOW TO CURE BROKEN CHILBLAINS.--Mix together four fluid ounces
collodion, one and a half fluid ounces Venice turpentine, and one
fluid ounce castor oil.
HOW TO CURE CORNS.--Take equal parts of mercurial and galbanum
ointments; mix them well together, spread on a piece of soft leather,
and apply it to the corns morning and evening. In a few days benefit
will be derived. Take two ounces of gum ammoniac, two ounces of yellow
wax, and six ounces of verdigris; melt them together, and spread the
composition on soft leather; cut away as much of the corn as you can,
then apply the plaster, and renew it every fortnight till the corn
is away. Get four ounces of white diachylon plaster, four ounces of
shoemaker's wax, and sixty drops of muriatic acid or spirits of salt.
Boil them for a few minutes in an earthen pipkin, and when cold roll
the mass between the hands, and apply it on a piece of white leather.
Soak the feet well in warm water, then with a sharp instrument pare
off as much of the corn as can be done without pain, and bind up the
part with a piece of linen or muslin thoroughly saturated with sperm
oil, or, which is better, the oil which floats upon the surface of
the herring or mackerel. After three or four days the dressing may
be removed by scraping, when the new skin will be found of a soft and
healthy texture, and less liable to the formation of a new corn than
before. Corns may be prevented by wearing easy shoes. Bathe the feet
frequently in lukewarm water, with a little salt or potashes dissolved
in it. The corn itself will be completely destroyed by rubbing it
often with a little caustic solution of potash till the soft skin is
formed. Scrape to a pulp sufficient Spanish garlic, and bind on the
corn over night, after first soaking it well in warm water, and scrape
off as much as possible of the hardened portion in the morning. Repeat
the application as required.
HOW TO CURE SOFT CORNS.--Scrape a piece of common chalk, and put a
pinch to the soft corn, and bind a piece of linen rag upon it.
HOW TO CURE TENDER CORNS.--A strong solution of tannic acid is said to
be an excellent application to tender feet as well as a preventive of
the offensive odor attendant upon their profuse perspiration. To those
of our readers who live far away in the country, we would suggest a
strong decoction of oak bark as a substitute.
CAUSTIC FOR CORNS.--Tincture of iodine, four drachms: iodide of iron,
twelve grains; chloride of antimony, four drachms; mix, and apply with
a camel's hair brush, after paring the corn. It is said to cure in
three times.
HOW TO RELIEVE CORNS.--Bind them up at night with a cloth wet
with tincture of arnica, to relieve the pain, and during the day
occasionally moisten the stocking over the corn with arnica if the
shoe is not large enough to allow the corn being bound up with a piece
of linen rag.
REMEDY FOR CORNS.--1. The pain occasioned by corns may be greatly
alleviated by the following preparation: Into a one-ounce vial put
two drachms of muriatic acid and six drachms of rose-water. With this
mixture wet the corns night and morning for three days. Soak the feet
every evening in warm water without soap. Put one-third of the acid
into the water, and with a little picking the corn will be dissolved.
2. Take a lemon, cut off a small piece, then nick it so as to let in
the toe with the corn, tie this on at night so that it cannot move,
and in the morning you will find that, with a blunt knife, you
may remove a considerable portion of the corn. Make two or three
applications, and great relief will be the result.
HOW TO CURE SOLVENT CORNS.--Expose salt of tartar (pearlash) in a
wide-mouth vial in a damp place until it forms an oil-like liquid, and
apply to the corn.
HOW TO CURE CHOLERA.--Take laudanum, tincture cayenne, compound
tincture rhubarb, peppermint, and camphor, of each equal parts. Dose,
ten to thirty drops. In plain terms, take equal parts tincture of
opium, red pepper, rhubarb, peppermint and camphor, and mix them for
use. In case of diarroea, take a dose of ten to twenty drops in three
or four teaspoonfuls of water. No one who has this by him, and takes
it in time, will ever have the cholera.
SIGNS OF DISEASE IN CHILDREN.--In the case of a baby not yet able to
talk, it must cry when it is ill. The colic makes a baby cry loud, long,
and passionately, and shed tears--stopping for a moment and beginning
again.
If the chest is affected, it gives one sharp cry, breaking off
immediately, as if crying hurt it.
If the head is affected, it cries in sharp, piercing shrieks, with low
moans and wails between. Or there may be quiet dozing, and startings
between.
It is easy enough to perceive, where a child is attacked by disease,
that there has some change taken place; for either its skin will be
dry and hot, its appetite gone; it is stupidly sleepy, or fretful or
crying; it is thirsty, or pale and languid, or in some way betrays
that something is wrong. When a child vomits, or has a diarrhoea, or
is costive and feverish, it is owing to some derangement, and needs
attention. But these various symptoms may continue for a day or two
before the nature of the disease can be determined. A warm bath, warm
drinks, etc., can do no harm, and may help to determine the case. On
coming out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the hand, the
skin will show symptoms of rash, if it is a skin disease which has
commenced. By the appearance of the rash, the nature of the disease
can be learned. Measles are in patches, dark red, and come out first
about the face. If scarlet fever is impending, the skin will look a
deep pink all over the body, though most so about the neck and face.
Chicken-pox shows fever, but not so much running at the nose, and
appearances of cold, as in measles, nor is there as much of a cough.
Besides, the spots are smaller, and do not run much together, and are
more diffused over the whole surface of the skin; and enlarge into
blisters in a day or two.
HOW TO CURE CONSUMPTION.--Take one tablespoonful of tar, and the yolks
of three hen's eggs, beat them well together. Dose, one tablespoonful
morning, noon and night.
CROUP, REMEDY FOR IN ONE MINUTE.--This remedy is simply alum. Take
a knife or grater, and shave or grate off in small particles about a
teaspoonful of alum; mix it with about twice its quantity of sugar, to
make it palatable, and administer as quickly as possible. Its
effects will be truly magical, as almost instantaneous relief will be
afforded.
CHOLERA REMEDY, HARTSHORNE'S.--Take of chloroform, tincture of opium,
spirits of camphor, and spirits of aromatic ammonia, each one and
one-half fluid drachms; creosote, three drops; oil of cinnamon,
eight drops; brandy, two fluid drachms. Dilute a teaspoonful with a
wine-glass of water, and give two teaspoonfuls every five minutes,
followed by a lump of ice.
CURE FOR DANDRUFF.--Good mild soap is one of the safest remedies, and
is sufficient in ordinary cases; carbonate of potash or soda is too
alkaline for the skin. Every application removes a portion of the
cuticle, as you may observe by the smoothness of the skin of your
hands after washing them with it. Borax is recommended; but this
is also soda combined with a weak acid, boracic acid, and may by
protracted use also injuriously act on the scalp. Soap is also soda or
potash combined with the weak, fatty acids; and when the soap contains
an excess of the alkalies or is sharp, it is as injurious as the
carbonate of potash. All that injures the scalp injures the growth of
the hair. One of the best applications from the vegetable kingdom is
the mucilaginous decoction of the root of the burdock, called bardane
in French (botanical name, _Lappa Minor_). In the mineral kingdom the
best remedy is a solution of flowers of sulphur in water, which may be
made by the addition of a very small portion of sulphide of potassium,
say ten or twenty grains to the pint. This solution is shaken up with
the sulphur, and the clear liquid remaining on the top is used. This
recipe is founded on the fact that sulphur is a poison for inferior
vegetable or animal growth, like dandruff, itch, etc., and is not at
all a poison for the superior animal like man.
HOW TO CURE DIPHTHERIA.--A French physician expresses his preference
for lemon juice, as a local application in diphtheria, to chlorate of
potash, nitrate of silver, perchloride of lime water. He uses it by
dipping a little plug of cottonwood, twisted around a wire, in the
juice, and pressing it against the diseased surface four or five times
daily.
HOW TO CURE BAD BREATH.--Bad or foul breath will be removed by taking
a teaspoonful of the following mixture after each meal: One ounce
liquor of potassa, one ounce chloride of soda, one and one-half ounces
phosphate of soda, and three ounces of water.
2. Chlorate of potash, three drachms; rose-water, four ounces. Dose, a
tablespoonful four or five times daily.
HOW TO CURE BUNIONS.--A bunion is a swelling on the ball of the great
toe, and is the result of pressure and irritation by friction. The
treatment for corns applies also to bunions; but in consequence of
the greater extension of the disease, the cure is more tedious. When
a bunion is forming it may be stopped by poulticing and carefully
opening it with a lancet.
HOW TO CURE BURNS AND SCALDS.--Take half a pound of powdered alum,
dissolve it in a quart of water; bathe the burn or scald with a linen
rag, wetted with this mixture, then bind the wet rag on it with
a strip of linen, and moisten the bandage with the alum water
frequently, without removing it during two or three days.
TEA LEAVES FOR BURNS.--Dr. Searles, of Warsaw, Wis., reports
the immediate relief from pain in severe burns and scalds by the
application of a poultice of tea leaves.
HOW TO CURE CANCER.--Boil down the inner bark of red and white oak to
the consistency of molasses; apply as a plaster, shifting it once a
week; or, burn red-oak bark to ashes; sprinkle it on the sore till it
is eaten out; then apply a plaster of tar; or, take garget berries and
leaves of stramonium; simmer them together in equal parts of neatsfoot
oil and the tops of hemlock; mix well together, and apply it to the
parts affected; at the same time make a tea of winter-green (root and
branch); put a handful into two quarts of water; add two ounces of
sulphur and drink of this tea freely during the day.
CASTOR OIL MIXTURE.--Castor oil, one dessert spoonful; magnesia, one
dessert spoonful. Rub together into a paste. By this combination, the
taste of the oil is almost entirely concealed, and children take it
without opposition. HOW TO DISGUISE CASTOR OIL.--Rub up two drops oil
of cinnamon with an ounce of glycerine and add an ounce of castor oil.
Children will take it as a luxury and ask for more.
CASTOR OIL EMULSIONS.--Take castor oil and syrup, each one ounce; the
yolk of an egg, and orange flower water, one-half ounce. Mix. This
makes a very pleasant emulsion, which is readily taken by adults as
well as children. HOW TO CURE CATARRH.--Take the bark of sassafras
root, dry and pound it, use it as a snuff, taking two or three pinches
a day.
HOW TO CURE CHILBLAINS.--Wash the parts in strong alum water, apply as
hot as can be borne.
HOW TO CURE COLD.--Take three cents' worth of liquorice, three of rock
candy, three of gum arabic, and put them into a quart of water; simmer
them till thoroughly dissolved, then add three cents' worth paregoric,
and a like quantity of antimonial wine.
HOW TO CURE CORNS.--Boil tobacco down to an extract, then mix with
it a quantity of white pine pitch, and apply it to the corn; renew it
once a week until the corn disappears.
GOOD COUGH MIXTURE.--Two ounces ammonia mixture; five ounces camphor
mixture; one drachm tincture of digitalis (foxglove); one-half ounce
each of sweet spirits of nitre and syrup of poppies; two drachms
solution of sulphate of morphia. A tablespoonful of this mixture is to
be taken four times a day.
2. Tincture of blood-root, one ounce; sulphate of morphia, one and a
half grains; tincture of digitalis, one-half ounce; wine of antimony,
one-half ounce; oil of wintergreen, ten drops. Mix. Dose from twenty
to forty drops twice or three times a day. Excellent for a hard, dry
cough.
3. Common sweet cider, boiled down to one-half, makes a most,
excellent syrup for colds or coughs for children, is pleasant to the
taste, and will keep for a year in a cool cellar. In recovering from
an illness, the system has a craving for some pleasant drink. This
is found in cider which is placed on the fire as soon as made, and
allowed to come to a boil, then cooled, put in casks, and kept in a
cool cellar.
4. Roast a large lemon very carefully without burning; when it is
thoroughly hot, cut and squeeze into a cup upon three ounces of sugar
candy. Finely powdered: take a spoonful whenever your cough troubles
you. It is as good as it is pleasant.
CURE FOR DEAFNESS.--Take ant's eggs and union juice. Mix and drop them
into the ear. Drop into the ear, at night, six or eight drops of hot
sweet oil.
REMEDIES FOR DIARRHOEA.--1. Take one teaspoonful of salt, the same
of good vinegar, and a tablespoonful of water; mix and drink. It acts
like a charm on the system, and even one dose will generally cure
obstinate cases of diarrhoea, or the first stages of cholera. If the
first does not bring complete relief, repeat the dose, as it is quite
harmless. 2. The best rhubarb root, pulverized, 1 ounce; peppermint
leaf, 1 ounce, capsicum, 1/8 ounce; cover with boiling water and
steep thoroughly, strain, and add bicarbonate of potash and essence
of cinnamon, of each 1/2 ounce; with brandy (or good whisky); equal in
amount to the whole, and loaf sugar, four ounces. Dose--for an adult,
1 or 2 tablespoons; for a child, 1 to 2 teaspoons, from 3 to 6
times per day, until relief is obtained. 3. To half a bushel of
blackberries; well mashed, add a quarter of a pound of allspice, 2
ounces of cinnamon, 2 ounces of cloves; pulverize well, mix and boil
slowly until properly done; then strain or squeeze the juice through
home-spun or flannel, and add to each pint of the juice 1 pound of
loaf sugar, boil again for some time, take it off, and while cooling,
add half a gallon of the best Cognac brandy.
CURE FOR CHRONIC DIARRHOEA. Rayer recommends the association of
cinchona, charcoal and bismuth in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea,
in the following proportions: Subnitrate of bismuth, one drachm;
cinchona, yellow, powdered, one-half drachm; charcoal, vegetable, one
drachm. Make twenty powders and take two or three a day during the
intervals between meals.
CURES FOR DYSENTERY.--Tincture rhubarb, tincture of capsicum, tincture
of camphor, essence of ginger and laudanum, equal parts. Mix; shake
well and take from ten to twenty drops every thirty minutes, until
relief is obtained. This is a dose for an adult. Half the amount for
a child under twelve years of age. 2. Take some butter off the churn,
immediately after being churned, just as it is, without being salted
or washed: clarify it over the fire like honey. Skim off all the milky
particles when melted over a clear fire. Let the patient (if an adult)
take two tablespoonfuls of the clarified remainder, twice or thrice
within the day. This has never failed to effect a cure, and in many
cases it has been almost instantaneous. 3. In diseases of this kind
the Indians use the roots and leaves of the blackberry bush--- a
decoction of which, in hot water, well boiled down, is taken in doses
of a gill before each meal, and before retiring to bed. It is
an almost infallible cure. 4. Beat one egg in a teacup; add one
tablespoonful of loaf sugar and half a teaspoonful of ground spice;
fill the cup with sweet milk. Give the patient one tablespoonful once
in ten minutes until relieved. 5. Take one tablespoonful of common
salt, and mix it, with two tablespoonfuls of vinegar and pour upon it
a half pint of water, either hot or cold (only let it be taken cool.)
A wine glass full of this mixture in the above proportions, taken
every half hour, will he found quite efficacious in curing dysentery.
If the stomach be nauseated, a wine-glass full taken every hour will
suffice. For a child, the quantity should be a teaspoonful of salt and
one of vinegar in a teacupful of water.
DROPSY.--Take the leaves of a currant bush and make into tea, drink
it.
CURE FOR DRUNKENNESS.--- The following singular means of curing
habitual drunkenness is employed by a Russian physician. Dr.
Schreiber, of Brzese Litewski: It consists in confining the drunkard
in a room, and in furnishing him at discretion with his favorite
spirit diluted with two-thirds of water; as much wine, beer and coffee
as he desires, but containing one-third of spirit: all the food--the
bread, meat, and the legumes are steeped in spirit and water. The poor
devil is continually drunk and dort. On the fifth day of this regime
he has an extreme disgust for spirit; he earnestly requests other
diet: but his desire must not be yielded to until the poor wretch
no longer desires to eat or drink: he is then certainly cured of his
penchant for drunkenness. He acquires such a disgust for brandy or
other spirits that he is ready to vomit at the very sight of it.
CURE FOR DYSPEPSIA.--1. Take bark of white poplar root, boil it thick,
and add a little spirit, and then lay it on the stomach.
2. Take wintergreen and black cherry-tree bark and yellow dock: put
into two quarts of water; boil down to three pints; take two or three
glasses a day.
Here are two remedies for dyspepsia, said by those who "have tried
them" to be infallible. 1. Eat onions. 2. Take two parts of well-dried
and pounded pods of red pepper, mixed with one part of ground mustard,
and sift it over everything you eat or drink.
HOW TO CURE EARACHE.--Take a small piece of cotton batting or cotton
wool, make a depression in the center with the finger, and then fill
it up with as much ground pepper as will rest on a five-cent piece;
gather it into a ball and tie it up; dip the ball into sweet oil and
insert it in the ear, covering the latter with cotton wool, and use a
bandage or cap to retain it in its place. Almost instant relief will
be experienced; and the application is so gentle that an infant, will
not get injured by it, but experience relief as well as adults. Roast
a piece of lean mutton, squeeze out the juice and drop it info the ear
as hot as it can be borne. Roast an onion and put into the ear as hot
as it can be borne.
HOW TO CURE ERYSIPELAS.--Dissolve five ounces of salt in one pint of
good brandy and take two tablespoonfuls three times per day.
CURE FOR INFLAMED EYES.--Pour boiling water on alder flowers, and steep
them like tea; when cold, put three or four drops of laudanum into a
small glass of the alder-tea, and let the mixture run into the eyes two
or three times a day, and the eyes will become perfectly strong in the
course of a week.
CURE FOR WEEPING EYES.--Wash the eyes in chamomile tea night and
morning.
EYES, GRANULAR INFLAMMATION.--A prominent oculist says that the
contagious Egyptian or granular inflammation of the eyes is spreading
throughout the country, and that he has been able in many, and indeed
in a majority of cases, to trace the disease to what are commonly
called rolling towels. Towels of this kind are generally found in
country hotels and the dwellings of the working classes, and, being
thus used by nearly every one, are made the carriers of one of the
most troublesome diseases of the eye. This being the case, it
is urgently recommended that the use of these rolling towels be
discarded, and thus one of the special vehicles for the spread of
a most dangerous disorder of the eyes--one by which thousands of
workingmen are annually deprived of their means of support--will no
longer exist.
CURE FOR STY IN EYE.--Bathe frequently with warm water. When the sty
bursts, use an ointment composed of one part of citron ointment and
four of spermaceti, well rubbed together, and smear along the edge of
the eye-lid.
CURE FOR FELONS.--1. Stir one-half teaspoonful of water into an ounce
of Venice turpentine until the mixture appears like granulated honey.
Wrap a good coating of it around the finger with a cloth. If the felon
is only recent, the pain will be removed in six hours.
2. As soon as the part begins to swell, wrap it with a cloth saturated
thoroughly with the tincture of lobelia. An old physician says, that
he has known this to cure scores of cases, and that it never fails if
applied in season.
CURE FOR FEVER AND AGUE.--Take of cloves and cream of tartar each
one-half ounce, and one ounce of Peruvian bark. Mix in a small
quantity of tea, and take it on well days, in such quantities as the
stomach will bear.
CURE FOR FEVER SORES.--Take of hoarhound, balm, sarsaparilla, loaf
sugar, aloes, gum camphor, honey, spikenard, spirits of turpentine,
each two ounces. Dose, one tablespoonful, three mornings, missing
three; and for a wash, make a strong tea of sumach, washing the
affected parts frequently, and keeping the bandage well wet.
CURE FOR FITS.--Take of tincture of fox-glove, ten drops at each time
twice a day, and increase one drop at each time as long as the stomach
will bear it, or it causes a nauseous feeling.
GLYCERINE CREAM.--Receipt for chapped lips: Take of spermaceti, four
drachms; white wax, one drachm; oil of almonds, two troy ounces;
glycerine, one troy ounce. Melt the spermaceti, wax and oil together,
and when cooling stir in glycerine and perfume.
GLYCERINE LOTION.--For softening the skin of the face and hands,
especially during the commencement of cold weather, and also for
allaying the irritation caused by the razor: Triturate, four and a
half grains of cochineal with one and a half fluid ounces of boiling
water, adding gradually; then add two and a half fluid ounces of
alcohol. Also make an emulsion of eight drops of ottar of roses with
thirty grains of gum arabic and eight fluid ounces of water; then
add three fluid ounces of glycerine, and ten fluid drachms of quince
mucilage. Mix the two liquids.
FLESHWORMS.--These specks, when they exist in any number, are a cause
of much unsightliness. They are minute corks, if we may use the term,
of coagulated lymp, which close the orifices of some of the pores or
exhalent vessels of the skin. On the skin immediately adjacent to them
being pressed with the finger nails, these bits of coagulated lymph
will come from it in a vermicular form. They are vulgarly called
"flesh worms," many persons fancying them to be living creatures.
These may be got rid of and prevented from returning, by washing with
tepid water, by proper friction with a towel, and by the application
of a little cold cream. The longer these little piles are permitted
to remain in the skin the more firmly they become fixed; and after a
time, when they lose their moisture they are converted into long bony
spines as dense as bristles, and having much of that character.
They are known by the name of spotted achne. With regard to local
treatment, the following lotions are calculated to be serviceable: 1.
Distilled rose water, 1 pint; sulphate of zinc, 20 to 60 grains.
Mix. 2. Sulphate of copper, 20 grains; rosewater, 4 ounces; water, 12
ounces. Mix. 3. Oil of sweet almonds, 1 ounce; fluid potash, 1 drachm.
Shake well together and then add rose-water, 1 ounce; pure water, 6
ounces. Mix. The mode of using these remedies is to rub the pimples
for some minutes with a rough towel, and then dab them with the
lotion. 4. Wash the face twice a day with warm water, and rub dry with
a coarse towel. Then with a soft towel rub in a lotion made of two
ounces of white brandy, one ounce of cologne, and one-half ounce of
liquor potassa.
HOW TO REMOVE FRECKLES.--Freckles; so persistently regular in their
annual return, have annoyed the fair sex from time immemorial, and
various means have been devised to eradicate them, although thus far
with no decidedly satisfactory results. The innumerable remedies in
use for the removal of these vexatious intruders, are either simple
and harmless washes, such as parsley or horseradish water, solutions
of borax, etc., or injurious nostrums, consisting principally of lead
and mercury salts.
If the exact cause of freckles were known, a remedy for them might
be found. A chemist in Moravia, observing the bleaching effect
of mercurial preparations, inferred that the growth of a local
parasitical fungus was the cause of the discoloration of the skin,
which extended and ripened its spores in the warmer season. Knowing
that sulpho-carbolate of zinc is a deadly enemy to all parasitic
vegetation (itself not being otherwise injurious), he applied this
salt for the purpose of removing the freckles. The compound consists
of two parts of sulpho-carbolate of zinc, twenty-five parts of
distilled glycerine, twenty-five parts of rose-water, and five parts
of scented alcohol, and is to be applied twice daily for from half an
hour to an hour, then washed off with cold water. Protection against
the sun by veiling and other means is recommended, and in addition,
for persons of pale complexion, some mild preparation of iron.
GRAVEL.--1. Make a strong tea of the low herb called heart's ease,
and drink freely. 2. Make of Jacob's ladder a strong tea, and drink
freely. 3. Make of bean leaves a strong tea, and drink freely.
WASH FOR THE HAIR.--Castile soap, finely shaved, one teaspoonful;
spirits of hartshorn, one drachm; alcohol, five ounces; cologne water
and bay rum, in equal quantities enough to make eight ounces. This
should be poured on the head, followed by warm water (soft water); the
result will be, on washing, a copious lather and a smarting sensation
to the person operated on. Rub this well into the hair. Finally, rinse
with warm water, and afterwards with cold water. If the head is very
much clogged with dirt, the hair will come out plentifully, but the
scalp will become white and perfectly clean.
HAIR RESTORATIVE.--Take of castor oil, six fluid ounces; alcohol,
twenty-six fluid ounces. Dissolve. Then add tincture of cantharides
(made with strong alcohol), one fluid ounce; essence of jessamine (or
other perfume), one and a half fluid ounces.
CURE FOR HEARTBURN.--Sal volatile combined with camphor is a splendid
remedy.
SICK HEADACHE.--Take a teaspoonful of powdered charcoal in molasses
every morning, and wash it down with a little tea, or drink half a
glass of raw rum or gin, and drink freely of mayweed tea.
HEADACHE.--Dr. Silvers, of Ohio, in the Philadelphia _Medical and
Surgical Reporter_, recommends ergot in headache, especially the
nervous or sick headache. He says it will cure a larger proportion
of cases than any other remedy. His theory of its action is that it
lessens the quantity of blood in the brain by contracting the muscular
fibres of the arterial walls. He gives ten to twenty drops of the
fluid extract, repeated every half hour till relief is obtained, or
four or five doses used. In other forms of disease, where opium
alone is contra-indicated, its bad effects are moderated, he says, by
combining it with ergot.
HEADACHE DROPS.--For the cure of nervous, sun, and sick headache,
take two quarts of alcohol, three ounces of Castile soap, one ounce
camphor, and two ounces ammonia. Bathe forehead and temples.
HIVE SYRUP.--Put one ounce each of squills and seneca snake-root into
one pint of water; boil down to one-half and strain. Then add
one-half pound of clarified honey containing twelve grains tartrate of
antimony. Dose for a child, ten drops to one teaspoonful, according to
age. An excellent remedy for croup.
HOW TO CLEAN THE HAIR.--From the too frequent use of oils in the hair,
many ladies destroy the tone and color of their tresses. The Hindoos
have a way of remedying this. They take a hand basin filled with cold
water, and have ready a small quantity of pea flour. The hair is in
the first place submitted to the operation of being washed in cold
water, a handful of the pea flour is then applied to the head and
rubbed into the hair for ten minutes at least, the servant adding
fresh water at short intervals, until it becomes a perfect lather.
The whole head is then washed quite clean with copious supplies of the
aqueous fluid, combed, and afterwards rubbed dry by means of coarse
towels. The hard and soft brush is then resorted to, when the hair
will be found to be wholly free from all encumbering oils and other
impurities, and assume a glossy softness, equal to the most delicate
silk. This process tends to preserve the tone and natural color of
the hair, which is so frequently destroyed by the too constant use of
caustic cosmetics.
HOW TO SOFTEN HANDS.--After cleansing the hands with soap, rub them
well with oatmeal while wet.
HOW TO REMOVE STAINS FROM HANDS.--Damp the hands first in water, then
rub them with tartaric acid, or salt of lemons, as you would with
soap; rinse them and rub them dry. Tartaric acid, or salt of lemons,
will quickly remove stains from white muslin or linen. Put less than
half a teaspoonful of salt or acid into a tablespoonful of water; wet
the stain with it, and lay it in the sun for an hour; wet it once or
twice with cold water during the time; if this does not quite remove
it, repeat the acid water, and lay it in the sun.
HOW TO WHITEN HANDS.--1. Stir 1/4 of a pound of Castile soap, and
place it in a jar near the fire, pour over it 1/2 pint of alcohol;
when the soap is dissolved and mixed with the spirit, add 1 ounce of
glycerine, the same of oil of almonds, with a few drops of essence of
violets, or ottar of roses, then pour it into moulds to cool for use.
2. A wineglassful of eau-de-cologne, and one of lemon-juice, two cakes
of broken Windsor soap, mixed well together, when hard, will form an
excellent substance.
HOW TO CURE SCURF IN THE HEAD.--A simple and effectual remedy. Into a
pint of water drop a lump of fresh quick lime, the size of a walnut;
let it stand all night, then pour the water off clear from the
sediment or deposit, add 1/4 of a pint of the best vinegar, and wash
the head with the mixture. Perfectly harmless; only wet the roots of
the hair.
HOW TO CURE CHAPPED LIPS.--Take 2 ounces of white wax, 1 ounce of
spermaceti, 4 ounces of oil of almonds, 2 ounces of honey, 1/4 of an
ounce of essence of bergamot, or any other scent. Melt the wax and
spermaceti; then add the honey, and melt all together, and when hot add
the almond oil by degrees, stirring till cold. 2. Take oil of almonds 3
ounces; spermaceti 1/2 ounce; virgin rice, 1/2 ounce. Melt these
together over a slow fire, mixing with them a little powder of alkane
root to color it. Keep stirring till cold, and then add a few drops of
the oil of rhodium. 3. Take oil of almonds, spermaceti, white wax, and
white sugar candy, equal parts. These form a good, white lip salve.
HOW TO REMOVE MOTH PATCHES.--Wash the patches with solution of common
bicarbonate of soda and water several times during the day for two
days, or until the patches are removed, which will usually be in
forty-eight hours. After the process wash with some nice toilet soap,
and the skin will be left nice, smooth and clear of patches. HOW TO
TAKE CARE OF THE NAILS.--The nails should be kept clean by the daily
use of the nail brush and soap and water. After wiping the hands, but
while they are still soft from the action of the water, gently push
back the skin which is apt to grow over the nails, which will not only
preserve them neatly rounded, but will prevent the skin from cracking
around their roots (nail springs), and becoming sore. The points of
the nail should be pared at least once a week; biting them should be
avoided.
HOW TO CURE HICCOUGH.--A convulsive motion of the diaphragm and parts
adjacent. The common causes are flatuency, indigestion, acidity
and worms. It may usually be removed by the exhibition of warm
carminatives, cordials, cold wafer, weak spirits, camphor julep,
or spirits of sal volatile. A sudden fright or surprise will often
produce the like effect. An instance is recorded of a delicate young
lady that was troubled with hiccough for some months, and who
was reduced to a state of extreme debility from the loss of sleep
occasioned thereby, who was cured by a fright, after medicines and
topical applications had failed. A pinch of snuff, a glass of
cold soda-water, or an ice-cream, will also frequently remove this
complaint.
HOW TO CURE HOARSENESS.--Make a strong tea of horse-radish and yellow
dock root, sweetened with honey and drink freely.
REMEDIES FOR HOARSENESS.--Take one drachm of freshly scraped
horse-radish root, to be infused with four ounces of water in a
close vessel for three hours, and made into a syrup, with double its
quantity of vinegar. A teaspoonful has often proved effectual.
HOW TO CURE HUMORS.--Take equal parts of saffron and seneca snake
root, make a strong tea, drink one half-pint a day, and this will
drive out all humors from the system.
HOW TO CURE HYSTERICS.--Take the leaves of motherwort and
thoroughwort, and the bark of poplar root; equal parts. Mix them in
molasses, and take four of them when the first symptoms of disorder
are felt, and they will effectually check it.
HOW TO CURE BARBER'S ITCH.--Moisten the parts affected with saliva
(spittle) and rub it over thoroughly three times a day with the ashes of
a good Havana cigar. This is a simple remedy, yet it has cured the most
obstinate cases.
ITCH OINTMENT.--1. Take lard, one pound; suet, one pound; sugar of
lead, eight ounces; vermillion, two ounces. Mix. Scent with a little
bergamot. 2. Take bichloride of mercury, one ounce; lard, one pound;
suet, one pound; hydrochloride acid, one and a half ounces. Melt and
well mix, and when perfectly cold, stir in essence of lemon, four
drachms; essence of bergamot, one drachm. 3. Take powdered chloride of
lime, one ounce; lard, one pound. Mix well, then add essence of lemon,
two drachms. 4. Take bichloride of mercury, one part; lard, fifteen
parts. Mix well together. 5. Take white precipitate, one part; lard,
twelve parts. Mix. A portion of either of these ointments must be well
rubbed on the parts affected, night and morning.
HOW TO CURE SEVEN-YEAR ITCH.--1. Use plenty of castile soap and water,
and then apply freely iodide of sulphur ointment; or take any given
quantity of simple sulphur ointment and color it to a light brown or
chocolate color with the subcarbonate of iron, and then perfume it.
Apply this freely, and if the case should be a severe one, administer
mild alteratives in conjunction with the outward application. 2.
The sulphur bath is a good remedy for itch or any other kind of skin
diseases. Leprosy (the most obstinate of all) has been completely
cured by it, and the common itch only requires two or three
applications to completely eradicate it from the system. 3. Benzine,
it is said, will effect a complete cure for scabies in the course of
half to three-quarters of an hour, after which the patient should take
a warm bath from twenty to thirty minutes.
HOW TO CURE JAUNDICE.--1. Take the whites of two hen's eggs, beat them
up well in a gill of water; take of this a little every morning; it
will soon do good. It also creates an appetite, and strengthens the
stomach. 2. Take of black cherry-tree bark, two ounces; blood root and
gold thread, each half an ounce; put in a pint of brandy. Dose, from a
teaspoonful to a tablespoonful morning and night.
HOW TO CURE STIFFENED JOINTS.--Take of the bark of white oak and sweet
apple trees, equal parts; boil them down to a thick substance,
and then add the same quantity of goose-grease or oil, simmer all
together, and then rub it on the parts warm.
HOW TO CURE KIDNEY DISEASE.--Equal parts of the oil of red cedar and
the oil of spearmint.
HOW TO CURE LAME BACK.--Take the berries of red cedar and allow them
to simmer in neatsfoot oil, and use as an ointment.
HOW TO KILL LICE.--All kinds of lice and their nits may be got rid
of by washing with a simple decoction of stavesacre (_Delphinium
staphisagria_), or with a lotion made with the bruised seed in
vinegar, or with the tincture, or by rubbing in a salve made with
the seeds and four times their weight of lard very carefully beaten
together. The acetic solution and the tincture are the cleanliest
and most agreeable preparations, but all are equally efficacious in
destroying both the creatures and their eggs, and even in relieving
the intolerable itching which their casual presence leaves behind on
many sensitive skins. The alkaloid delphinia may also be employed, but
possesses no advantage except in the preparation of an ointment, when
from any reason that form of application should be preferred.
RHEUMATIC LINIMENT.--Olive oil, spirits of camphor and chloroform, of
each two ounces; sassafras oil, 1 drachm. Add the oil of sassafras
to the olive oil, then the spirits of camphor, and shake well before
putting in the chloroform; shake when used, and keep it corked, as
the chloroform evaporates very fast if it is left open. Apply three or
four times daily, rubbing in well, and always toward the body.
SORE THROAT LINIMENT.--Gum camphor, two ounces; castile soap, shaved
fine, one drachm; oil of turpentine and oil of origanum, each one-half
ounce; opium, one-fourth of an ounce; alcohol, one pint. In a week or
ten days they will be fit for use. Bathe the parts freely two or three
times daily until relief is obtained.
A WONDERFUL LINIMENT.--Two ounces oil of spike, two ounces origanum,
two ounces hemlock, two ounces wormwood, four ounces sweet oil, two
ounces spirit of ammonia, two ounces gum camphor, two ounces spirits
turpentine. Add one quart strong alcohol. Mix well together, and
bottle tight. This is an unequaled horse liniment, and of the best
ever made for human ailments such as rheumatism, sprains, etc.
HOW TO CURE SORE LIPS.--Wash the lips with a strong tea, made from the
bark of the white oak.
LIVER COMPLAINT.--Make a strong tea of syrup of burdock, wormwood and
dandelion, equal parts, and drink freely.
LOCK JAW.--It is said that the application of warm lye, made of ashes
as strong as possible, to a wounded part, will prevent a locked jaw;
if a foot or hand, immerse in it; if another part of the body, bathe
with flannels wrung out of the warm lye.
MUMPS.--This disease, most common among children, begins with soreness
and stiffness in the side of the neck. Soon a swelling of the parotid
gland takes place, which is painful, and continues to increase for
four or five days, sometimes making it difficult to swallow, or open
the mouth. The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a time, but
commonly upon both. There is often heat, and sometimes fever, with a
dry skin, quick pulse, furred tongue, constipated bowls, and scanty
and high-colored urine. The disease is contagious. The treatment
is very simple--a mild diet, gentle laxative, occasional hot
fomentations, and wearing a piece of flannel round the throat.
HOW TO PREVENT INGROWING NAILS.--If the nail of your toe be hard, and
apt to grow round, and into the corners of your toe, take a piece of
broken glass and scrape the top very thin; do this whenever you cut
your nails, and by constant use it makes the corners fly up and grow
flat, so that it is impossible they should give you any pain.
HOW TO WHITEN NAILS.--The best wash for whitening the nails is two
drachms of diluted sulphuric acid, one drachm of tincture of myrrh,
added to four ounces of spring water; first cleanse the hands, and
then apply the wash.
SURE CURE FOR NEURALGIA.--1. Fill a tight-top thimble with cotton
wool, and drop on it a few drops of strong spirits of hartshorn. The
open mouth of the thimble is then applied over the seat of pain for
a minute or two, until the skin is blistered. The skin is then
rubbed off, and upon the denuded surface a small quantity of morphia
(one-fourth grain) is applied. This affords almost instant relief. A
second application of the morphia, if required, is to be preceded by
first rubbing off the new formation that has sprung up over the former
blistered surface.
2. Dr. J. Knox Hodge recommends the following as an application which
will relieve facial or any other neuralgia almost instantaneously:
Albumen of egg, one drachm; rhigolene, four ounces; oil of peppermint,
two ounces; colodion and chloroform, each one ounce. Mix. Agitate
occasionally for twenty-four hours, and by gelatinization a beautiful
and semi-solidified, opodeldoc-looking compound results, which will
retain its consistency and hold the ingredients intimately blended for
months. Apply by smart friction with the hand, or gently with a soft
brush or mop along the course of the nerve involved.
3. Mix one and one-half drachms iodide of potash, fifteen grains of
quinine and one ounce ginger syrup, and two and a half ounces water.
Dose, a tablespoonful every three hours.
4. OF THE STOMACH.--Take of distilled water of cherry laurel, five
parts; muriate of morphia, one-tenth part. Mix and dissolve. One drop
on a lump of sugar immediately before meals.
OINTMENT FOR SORE NIPPLES.--Glycerine, rose water and tannin, equal
weights, rubbed together into an ointment, is very highly recommended
for sore or cracked nipples.
GLYCERINE OINTMENT.--Melt together spermaceti, two drachms; white
wax, one-half drachm; oil of sweet almonds, two ounces, and then
add glycerine, one ounce, and stir briskly until cool. An admirable
application for chapped hands, etc.
OINTMENT FOR ITCH.--White precipitate, fifteen grains; saltpetre,
one-half drachm; flour of sulphur, one drachm; Mix well with lard, two
ounces. Long celebrated for the cure of itch.
SULPHUR OINTMENT.--Flour of sulphur, eight ounces; oil of bergamot,
two drachms; lard, one pound. Rub freely three times a day, for itch.
OINTMENT FOR PILES.--Tannin, two drachms; water, two fluid drachms;
triturate together, and add lard, one and a half drachms. An excellent
application for piles.
OINTMENT FOR HEMORRHOIDS.--Sulphate of morphia, three grains; extract
of stramonia, thirty grains; olive oil, one drachm; carbonate of lead,
sixty grains; lard, three drachms.
PAINS.--1. Steep marigold in good cider vinegar and frequently wash
the affected parts. This will afford speedy relief.
2. Take half a pound of tar and the same quantity of tobacco, and boil
them down separately to a thick substance; then simmer them together.
Spread a plaster and apply it to the affected parts, and it will
afford immediate relief.
PAINTERS' COLIC.--Make of tartaric acid a syrup similar to that of
lemon syrup; add a sufficient quantity of water, and drink two or
three glasses a day.
INSTANTANEOUS PAIN-KILLER.--Another and even more instant cure of pain
is made as follows: Take aqua-ammonia, sulphuric ether and alcohol,
equal parts, and apply over the pain.
HOW TO CURE PIMPLES.--Take a teaspoonful of the tincture of gum
guaiacum and one teaspoonful of vinegar; mix well and apply to the
affected parts.
POOR MAN'S PLASTER.--Melt together beeswax, one ounce; tar, three
ounces; resin, three ounces, and spread on paper or muslin.
RHEUMATIC PLASTER.--One-fourth pound of resin and one-fourth pound of
sulphur; melt by a slow fire, and add one ounce of Cayenne pepper
and one-fourth of an ounce of camphor gum; stir well till mixed, and
temper with neatsfoot oil.
STRENGTHENING PLASTER.--Litharge plasters, twenty-four parts; white
resin, six parts; yellow wax and olive oil, of each three parts, and
red oxide of iron, eight parts. Let the oxide be rubbed with the
oil, and the other ingredients added melted, and mix the whole well
together. The plaster, after being spread over the leather, should be
cut into strips two inches wide and strapped firmly around the joint.
MUSTARD PLASTERS.--It is stated that in making a mustard plaster, no
water whatever should be used, but the mustard mixed with the white of
an egg; the result will be a plaster that will "draw" perfectly, but
will not produce a blister even upon the skin of an infant, no matter
how long it is allowed to remain upon the part.
BREAD AND MILK POULTICE.--Take stale bread in crumbs, pour boiling
sweet milk, or milk and water over it, and simmer till soft, stirring
it well; then take it from the fire, and gradually stir in a little
glycerine or sweet oil, so as to render the poultice pliable when
applied.
LINSEED POULTICE.--Take of linseed, powdered, four ounces; hot
water sufficient, mix and stir well with a spoon, until of suitable
consistence. A little oil should be added, and some smeared over
the surface as well, to prevent its getting hard. A very excellent
poultice, suitable for many purposes.
SPICE POULTICE.--Powdered cinnamon, cloves and Cayenne pepper, of each
two ounces; rye meal, or flour, spirits and honey, of each sufficient
to make of suitable consistence.
QUINSY.--This is an inflammation
of the tonsils, or common inflammatory sore throat; commences with
a slight feverish attack, with considerable pain and swelling of the
tonsils, causing some difficulty in swallowing; as the attack advances
these symptoms become more intense, there is headache, thirst, a
painful sense of tension, and acute darting pains in the ears. The
attack is generally brought on by exposure to cold, and lasts from
five to seven days, when it subsides naturally, or an abscess may
form in tonsils and burst, or the tonsil may remain enlarged, the
inflammation subsiding.
TREATMENT.--The patient should remain in a warm room, the diet chiefly
milk and good broths, some cooling laxative and diaphoretic medicine
may be given; but the greatest relief will be found in the frequent
inhalation of the steam of hot water through an inhaler, or in the
old-fashioned way, through the spout of a teapot.
OTHER REMEDIES FOR RHEUMATISM.--1. Bathe the parts affected with
water in which potatoes have been boiled, as hot as can be borne,
just before going to bed; by morning it will be much relieved, if
not removed. One application of this simple remedy has cured the most
obstinate of rheumatic pains. 2. Half an ounce of pulverized salt
petre put in half a pint of sweet oil; bathe the parts affected, and
a sound cure will be speedily effected. 3. Rheumatism has frequently
been cured by a persistent use of lemon juice, either undiluted or
in the form of lemonade. Suck half a lemon every morning before
breakfast, and occasionally during the day, and partake of lemonade
when thirsty in preference to any other drink. If severely afflicted
a physician should be consulted, but, in all cases, lemon juice will
hasten the cure. 4. By the valerian bath, made simply by taking one
pound of valerian root, boiling it gently for about a quarter of an
hour in one gallon of water, straining and adding the strained liquid
to about twenty gallons of water in an ordinary bath. The temperature
should be about ninety-eight degrees, and the time of immersion from
twenty minutes to half an hour. Pains must be taken to dry the patient
perfectly upon getting out of the bath. If the inflammation remain
refractory in any of the joints, linseed meal poultices should be
made with a strong decoction of valerian root and applied.
HOW TO CURE RING-WORM.--To one part sulphuric acid, add sixteen to
twenty parts water. Use a brush and feather, and apply it to the parts
night and morning. A few dressings will generally cure. If the solution
is too strong and causes pain, dilute it with water, and if the
irritation is excessive, rub on a little oil or other softening
application, but always avoid the use of soap.
Or, wash the head with soft soap every morning, and apply the
following lotion every night: One-half drachm of sub-carbonate of soda
dissolved in one gill of vinegar.
HEALING SALVE.--Sweet oil, three quarts; resin, three ounces; beeswax,
three ounces. Melt together; then add powdered red lead, two pounds;
heat all these together and when nearly cold add a piece of camphor as
large as a nutmeg. Good for burns, etc.
SALT RHEUM.--1. Make a strong tea of elm root bark; drink the tea
freely, and wash the affected part in the same. 2. Take one ounce of
blue flag root, steep it in half a pint of gin; take a teaspoonful
three times a day, morning, noon and night, and wash with the same. 3.
Take one ounce of oil of tar, one drachm of oil of checker berry; mix.
Take from five to twenty drops morning and night as the stomach will
bear.
BLEEDING OF THE STOMACH.--Take a teaspoonful of camomile tea every ten
minutes until the bleeding stops.
SICKNESS OF STOMACH.--Drink three or four times a day of the steep
made from the bark of white poplar roots.
SUNBURN AND TAN.--1. Take two drachms of borax, one drachm of Roman
alum, one drachm of camphor, half an ounce of sugar candy, and a pound
of ox-gall. Mix, and stir well for ten minutes or so, and repeat this
stirring three or four times a day for a fortnight, till it appears
clear and transparent. Strain through blotting paper, and bottle up for
use. 2. Milk of almonds made thus: Take of blanched bitter almonds half
an ounce, soft water half a pint; make an emulsion by beating the
almonds and water together, strain through a muslin cloth, and it is
made. 3. A preparation composed of equal parts of olive oil and lime
water is also an excellent remedy for sunburn.
TO PRODUCE SWEAT.--Take of nitre, one-half drachm; snake's head (herb),
saffron, camphor, snake-root, seneca, bark of sassafras root, each one
ounce; ipecac, and opium, each one half ounce; put the above in three
quarts of Holland gin, and take a tablespoonful in catnip tea every few
minutes, till a sweat is produced.
TEETHING.--Young children whilst cutting their first set of teeth
often suffer severe constitutional disturbance. At first there is
restlessness and peevishness, with slight fever, but not infrequently
these are followed by convulsive fits, as they are commonly called,
which depends on the brain becoming irritated; and sometimes under
this condition the child is either cut off suddenly, or the foundation
of serious mischief to the brain is laid. The remedy, or rather the
safeguard, against these frightful consequences is trifling, safe, and
almost certain, and consists merely in lancing the gum covering the
tooth which is making its making its way through. When teething is
about it may be known by the spittle constantly driveling from the
mouth and wetting the frock. The child has its fingers in its month,
and bites hard any substance it can get hold of. If the gums be
carefully looked at, the part where the tooth is pressing up is
swollen and redder than usual; and if the finger be pressed on it the
child shrinks and cries, showing that the gum is tender. When these
symptoms occur, the gum should be lanced, and sometimes the tooth
comes through the next day, if near the surface; but if not so far
advanced the cut heals and a scar forms, which is thought by some
objectionable, as rendering the passage of the tooth more difficult.
This, however, is untrue, for the scar will give way much more easily
than the uncut gum. If the tooth does not come through after two or
three days, the lancing may be repeated; and this is more especially
needed if the child be very fractious, and seems in much pain. Lancing
the gums is further advantageous, because it empties the inflamed part
of its blood, and so relieves the pain and inflammation. The relief
children experience in the course of two or three hours from the
operation is often very remarkable, as they almost immediately become
lively and cheerful.
WASH FOR TEETH AND GUMS.--The teeth should be washed night and
morning, a moderately small and soft brush being used; after the
morning ablution, pour on a second tooth-brush, slightly dampened, a
little of the following lotion: Carbolic acid, 20 drops; spirits of
wine, 2 drachms; distilled water, 6 ounces. After using this lotion a
short time the gums become firmer and less tender, and impurity of the
breath (which is most commonly caused by bad teeth), will be removed.
It is a great mistake to use hard tooth-brushes, or to brush the teeth
until the gums bleed.
TETTER.--After a slight feverish attack, lasting two or three days,
clusters of small, transparent pimples, filled sometimes with a
colorless, sometimes with a brownish lymph, appear on the cheeks or
forehead, or on the extremities, and at times on the body. The pimples
are about the size of a pea, and break after a few days, when a brown
or yellow crust is formed over them, which falls off about the tenth
day, leaving the skin red and irritable. The eruption is attended with
heat; itching, tingling, fever, and restlessness, especially at night.
Ringworm is a curious form of tetter, in which the inflamed patches
assume the form of a ring.
TREATMENT--Should consist of light diet, and gentle laxatives. If the
patient be advanced in life, and feeble, a tonic will be desirable.
For a wash, white vitriol, 1 drachm; rose-water, 3 ounces, mixed; or
an ointment made of alder-flower ointment, 1 ounce; oxide of zinc,
1 drachm.
TO REMOVE TAN.--Tan may be removed from the face by mixing
magnesia in soft water to the consistency of paste, which should then
be spread on the face and allowed to remain a minute or two. Then wash
off with Castile soap suds, and rinse with soft water.
CARE OF THE TEETH.--The mouth has a temperature of 98 degrees, warmer
than is ever experienced in the shade in the latitude of New England.
It is well known that if beef, for example, be exposed in the shade
during the warmest of our summer days, it will very soon decompose. If
we eat beef for dinner, the particles invariably find their way into
the spaces between the teeth. Now, if these particles of beef are
not removed, they will frequently remain till they are softened by
decomposition. In most mouths this process of decomposition is in
constant progress. Ought we to be surprised that the gums and teeth
against which these decomposing or putrefying masses lie should become
subjects of disease?
How shall our teeth be preserved? The answer is very simple--keep
them very clean. How shall they be kept clean? Answer--By a toothpick,
rinsing with water, and the daily use of a brush.
The toothpick should be a quill, not because the metalic picks injure
the enamel, but because the quill pick is so flexible it fits into all
the irregularities between the teeth. Always after using the toothpick
the mouth should be thoroughly rinsed. If warm water be not at hand,
cold may be used, although warm is much better. Closing the lips, with
a motion familiar to all, everything may be thoroughly rinsed from the
mouth.
Every morning (on rising), and every evening (on going to bed), the
tooth-brush should be used, and the teeth, both outside and inside,
thoroughly brushed.
Much has been said _pro_ and _con_., upon the use of soap with the
tooth-brush. My own experience and the experience of members of my
family is highly favorable to the regular morning and evening use of
soap. Castile or other good soap will answer this purpose. (Whatever is
good for the hands and face is good for the teeth.) The slightly
unpleasant taste which soap has when we begin to use it will soon be
unnoticed.
TOOTH POWDERS.--Many persons, while laudably attentive to the
preservation of their teeth, do them harm by too much officiousness.
They daily apply to them some dentifrice powder, which they rub so
hard as not only to injure the enamel by excessive friction, but
to hurt the gums even more than by the abuse of the toothpick. The
quality of some of the dentifrice powders advertised in newspapers is
extremely suspicious, and there is reason to think that they are not
altogether free from a corrosive ingredient. One of the safest
and best compositions for the purpose is a mixture of two parts of
prepared chalk, one of Peruvian bark, and one of hard soap, all finely
powdered, which is calculated not only to clean the teeth without
hurting them, but to preserve the firmness of the gums.
Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their use in mastication,
a proper attention to their treatment conduces not a little to the
sweetness of the breath. This is, indeed, often affected by other
causes existing in the lungs, the stomach, and sometimes even in the
bowels, but a rotten state of the teeth, both from the putrid smell
emitted by carious bones and the impurities lodged in their cavities,
never fails of aggravating an unpleasant breath wherever there is a
tendency of that kind.
REMEDIES FOR TOOTHACHE.--1. One drachm of alum reduced to an
impalpable powder, three drachms of nitrous spirits of ether--mix,
and apply them to the tooth on cotton. 2. Mix a little salt and alum,
equal portions, grind it fine, wet a little lock of cotton, fill it
with the powder and put it in your tooth. One or two applications
seldom fail to cure. 3. To one drachm of collodion add two drachms of
Calvert's carbolic acid. A gelatinous mass is precipitated, a
small portion of which, inserted in the cavity of an aching tooth,
invariably gives immediate relief. 4. Saturate a small bit of
clean cotton wool with a strong solution of ammonia, and apply it
immediately to the affected tooth. The pleasing contrast immediately
produced in some cases causes fits of laughter, although a moment
previous extreme suffering and anguish prevailed. 5. Sometimes a sound
tooth aches from sympathy of the nerves of the face with other nerves.
But when toothache proceeds from a decayed tooth either have it taken
out, or put hot fomentations upon the face, and hot drinks into the
mouth, such as tincture of cayenne.
TO CURE WARTS.--Warts are formed by the small arteries, veins, and
nerves united together, taking on a disposition to grow by extending
themselves upward, carrying the scarf-skin along with them, which,
thickening, forms a wart. Corns are a similar growth, brought about
by the friction of tight boots and shoes. 1. Take a piece of diachylon
plaster, cut a hole in the centre the size of the wart, and stick it
on, the wart protruding through. Then touch it daily with aquafortis,
or nitrate of silver. They may be removed by tying a string tightly
around them. 2. Take a blacksmith's punch, heat it red hot and burn
the warts with the end of it. When the burn gets well the warts will
be gone forever. 3. Scrape down enough dry cobwebs to make a ball
large enough to, or a little more than, cover the wart and not touch
the flesh around the same; lay it on top of the wart, ignite it and
let it be until it is all burnt up. The wart will turn white, and in
a few days come out. 4. Pass a pin through the wart; apply one end
of the pin to the flame of a lamp; hold it there until the wart
fries under the action of the heat. A wart so treated will leave. 5.
Dissolve as much common washing soda as the water will take up; wash
the warts with this for a minute or two, and let them dry without
wiping. Keep the water in a bottle and repeat the washing often, and
it will take away the largest warts. 6. They may be cured surely by
paring them down until the blood comes slightly and then rubbing them
with lunar caustic. It is needless to say this hurts a little, but it
is a sure cure. The hydrochlorate of lime applied in the same way will
cure after several applications and some patience; so will strong
good vinegar, and so it is said will milk weed. The cures founded
upon superstitious practices, such as muttering some phrases over the
excrescence, stealing a piece of beef, rubbing the wart therewith and
then burying it under the leaves to await its decay, etc., etc.,
are all the remnants of a past state of ignorance and are of no use
whatever. Warts are generally only temporary and disappear as their
possessors grow up.
HOW TO CURE WHITE SWELLING.--Draw a blister on the inside of the leg
below the knee; keep it running with ointment made of hen manure,
by simmering it in hog's lard with onions; rub the knee with the
following kind of ointment: Bits of peppermint, oil of sassafras,
checkerberry, juniper, one drachm each; simmer in one-half pint
neatsfoot oil, and rub on the knee three times a day.
HOW TO CURE WOUNDS.--Catnip steeped, mixed with fresh butter and
sugar.
HOW TO CURE WHOOPING-COUGH.--Take a quart of spring water, put in it
a large handful of chin-cups that grow upon moss, a large handful of
unset hyssop; boil it to a pint, strain it off, and sweeten it with
sugar-candy. Let the child, as often as it coughs, take two spoonfuls
at a time.
HOW TO CURE WORMS IN CHILDREN.--1. Take one ounce of powdered
snake-head (herb), and one drachm each of aloes and prickly ash
bark; powder these, and to one-half teaspoonful of this powder add a
teaspoonful of boiling water and a teaspoonful of molasses. Take
this as a dose, night or morning, more or less, as the symptoms may
require. 2. Take tobacco leaves, pound them up with honey, and lay
them on the belly of the child or grown person, at the same time
administering a dose of some good physic. 3. Take garden parsley,
make it into a tea and let the patient drink freely of it. 4. Take the
scales that will fall around the blacksmith's anvil, powder them fine,
and put them in sweetened rum. Shake when you take them, and give a
teaspoonful three times a day.
SCALDING OF THE URINE.--Equal parts of the oil of red cedar, and the
oil of spearmint.
URINARY OBSTRUCTIONS.--Steep pumpkin seeds in gin, and drink about
three glasses a day; or, administer half a drachm uva ursi every
morning, and a dose of spearmint.
FREE PASSAGE OF URINE.--The leaves of the currant bush made into a
tea, and taken as a common drink.
VENEREAL COMPLAINTS.--Equal parts of the oil of red cedar, combined
with sarsaparilla, yellow dock and burdock made into a syrup; add to
a pint of this syrup an ounce of gum guiaicum. Dose, from a
tablespoonful to a wine-glass, as best you can bear.
HOW TO CURE SORE THROAT.--"One who has tried it" communicates the
following sensible item about curing sore throat: Let each one of your
half million readers buy at any drug store one ounce of camphorated
oil and five cents' worth of chloride of potash. Whenever any soreness
appears in the throat, put the potash in half a tumbler of water, and
with it gargle the throat thoroughly; then rub the neck thoroughly
with the camphorated oil at night before going to bed, and also pin
around the throat a small strip of woolen flannel. This is a simple,
cheap and sure remedy.
* * * * *
LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Acacia--Concealed love.
Adonis Vernalis--Sorrowful remembrances.
Almond--Hope.
Aloe--Religious superstition.
Alyssum, Sweet--Worth beyond beauty.
Ambrosia--Love returned.
Apple Blossom--Preference.
Arbor Vitae--Unchanging friendship.
Bachelor's button--Hope in love.
Balsam--Impatience.
Begonia--Deformity.
Bellflower--Gratitude.
Belvidere, Wild (Licorice)--I declare against you.
Blue Bell--I will be constant.
Box--Stoical indifference.
Briers--Envy.
Burdock--Touch me not.
Cactus--Thou leavest not.
Camellia--Pity.
Candytuft--Indifference.
Canterbury Bell--Gratitude.
Cape Jessamine--Ecstasy; transport.
Calla Lily--Feminine beauty.
Carnation (Yellow)--Disdain.
Cedar--I live for thee.
China Aster--I will see about it.
Chrysanthemum Rose--I love.
Cowslip--Pensiveness.
Cypress--Mourning.
Crocus--Cheerfulness.
Cypress and Marigold--Despair.
Daffodil--Chivalry.
Dahlia--Forever thine.
Daisy (Garden)--I partake your sentiment.
Daisy (Wild)--I will think of it.
Dandelion--Coquetry.
Dead Leaves--Sadness.
Dock--Patience.
Dodder--Meanness.
Dogwood--Am I indifferent to you?
Ebony--Hypocrisy.
Eglantine--I wound to heal.
Elder--Compassion.
Endive--Frugality.
Evening Primrose--Inconstancy.
Evergreen--Poverty.
Everlasting--Perpetual remembrance.
Fennel--Strength.
Filbert--Reconciliation.
Fir-tree--Elevation.
Flux--I feel your kindness.
Forget-me-not--True love; remembrance.
Fox-glove--Insincerity.
Furze--Anger.
Fuchsia--Taste.
Gentian--Intrinsic worth.
Geranium, Ivy--Your hand for the next dance.
Geranium, Nutmeg--I expect a meeting.
Geranium, Oak--Lady, deign to smile.
Geranium, Rose--Preference.
Geranium, Silver leaf--Recall.
Gilliflower--Lasting beauty.
Gladiolus--Ready; armed.
Golden Rod--Encouragement.
Gorse--Endearing affection.
Gass--Utility.
Harebell--Grief.
Hawthorn--Hope.
Hazel--Recollection.
Hartsease--Think of me.
Heliotrope--Devotion.
Henbane--Blemish.
Holly--Foresight.
Hollyhock--Fruitfulness.
Hollyhock, White--Female ambition.
Honeysuckle--Bond of Love.
Honeysuckle, Coral--The color of my fate.
Hyacinth--Jealousy.
Hyacinth, Blue--Constancy.
Hyacinth, Purple--Sorrow.
Hydrangea--Heartlessness.
Ice plant--Your looks freeze me.
Iris--Message.
Ivy--Friendship; matrimony.
Jessamine, Cape--Transient joy; ecstasy.
Jessamine, White--Amiability.
Jessamine, Yellow--Grace; elegance.
Jonquil--I desire a return of affection.
Juniper--Asylum; shelter.
Justitia--Perfection of loveliness.
Kalmia (Mountain Laurel)--Treachery.
Kannedia--Mental beauty.
Laburnum--Pensive beauty.
Lady's Slipper--Capricious beauty.
Larch--Boldness.
Larkspur--Fickleness.
Laurel--Glory.
Lavender--Distrust.
Lettuce--Cold-hearted.
Lilac--First emotion of love.
Lily--Purity; modesty.
Lily of the Valley--Return of happiness.
Lily, Day--Coquetry,
Lily, Water--Eloquence.
Lily, Yellow--Falsehood.
Locust--Affection beyond the grave.
Love in a Mist--You puzzle me.
Love Lies Bleeding--Hopeless, not heartless.
Lupine--Imagination.
Mallow--Sweetness; mildness.
Maple--Reserve.
Marigold--Cruelty.
Marjoram--Blushes.
Marvel of Peru (Four O'clocks)--Timidity.
Mint--Virtue.
Mignonette--Your qualities surpass your charms.
Mistletoe--I surmount all difficulties.
Mock Orange (Syringa)--Counterfeit.
Morning Glory--Coquetry.
Maiden's Hair--Discretion.
Magnolia, Grandiflora--Peerless and proud.
Magnolia, Swamp--Perseverance.
Moss--Maternal love.
Motherwort--Secret love.
Mourning Bride--Unfortunate attachment.
Mulberry, Black--I will not survive you.
Mulberry, White--Wisdom.
Mushroom--Suspicion.
Musk-plant--Weakness.
Myrtle--Love faithful in absence.
Narcissus--Egotism.
Nasturtium--Patriotism.
Nettle--Cruelty; slander.
Night Blooming Cereus--Transient beauty.
Nightshade--Bitter truth.
Oak--Hospitality.
Oats--Music.
Oleander--Beware.
Olive-branch--Peace.
Orange-flower--Chastity.
Orchis--Beauty.
Osier--Frankness.
Osmunda--Dreams.
Pansy--Think of me.
Parsley--Entertainment; feasting.
Passion-flower--Religious fervor; susceptibility.
Pea, Sweet--Departure.
Peach Blossom--This heart is thine.
Peony--Anger.
Pennyroyal--Flee away.
Periwinkle--Sweet remembrances.
Petunia--Less proud than they deem thee.
Phlox--Our souls are united.
Pimpernel--Change.
Pink--Pure affection.
Pink, Double Red--Pure, ardent love.
Pink, Indian--Aversion.
Pink, Variegated--Refusal.
Pink, White--You are fair.
Pomegranite--Fully.
Poppy--Consolation.
Primrose--Inconstancy.
Rhododendron--Agitation.
Rose, Austrian--Thou art all that's lovely.
Rose, Bridal--Happy love.
Rose, Cabbage--Ambassador of love.
Rose, China--Grace.
Rose, Damask--Freshness.
Rose, Jacqueminot--Mellow love.
Rose, Maiden's Blush--If you _do_ love me, you will find me out.
Rose, Moss--Superior merit.
Rose, Moss Rosebud--Confession of love.
Rose, Sweet-briar--Sympathy.
Rose, Tea--Always lovely.
Rose, White--I am worthy of you.
Rose, York and Lancaster--War.
Rose, Wild--Simplicity.
Rue--Disdain.
Saffron--Excess is dangerous.
Sardonia--Irony.
Sensitive Plant--Timidity.
Snap-Dragon--Presumption.
Snowball--Thoughts of Heaven.
Snowdrop--Consolation.
Sorrel--Wit ill (poorly) timed.
Spearmint--Warm feelings.
Star of Bethlehem--Reconciliation.
Strawberry--Perfect excellence.
Sumac--Splendor.
Sunflower, Dwarf--Your devout admirer.
Sunflower, Tall--Pride.
Sweet William--Finesse.
Syringa--Memory.
Tansy--I declare against you.
Teazel--Misanthropy.
Thistle--Austerity.
Thorn Apple--Deceitful charms.
Touch-me-not--Impatience.
Trumpet-flower--Separation.
Tuberose--Dangerous pleasures.
Tulip--Declaration of love.
Tulip, Variegated--Beautiful eyes.
Tulip, Yellow--Hopeless love.
Venus' Flytrap--Have I caught you at last.
Venus' Looking-glass--Flattery.
Verbena--Sensibility.
Violet, Blue--Love.
Violet, White--Modesty.
Wallflower--Fidelity.
Weeping Willow--Forsaken.
Woodbine--Fraternal love.
Yew--Sorrow.
Zennae--Absent friends.
* * * * *
MASTERPIECES OF ELOQUENCE
The following masterpieces of elegiac eloquence are unsurpassed in
the repertory of the English classics, for lofty and noble sentiment,
exquisite pathos, vivid imagery, tenderness of feeling, glowing power
of description, brilliant command of language, and that immortal and
seldom attained faculty of painting in the soul of the listener or
reader a realistic picture whose sublimity of conception impresses
the understanding with awe and admiration, and impels the mind to
rise involuntarily for the time to an elevation out of and above the
inconsequent contemplation of the common and sordid things of life.
AT HIS BROTHER'S GRAVE.
The following grand oration was delivered by Hon. Robert G. Ingersoll
on the occasion of the funeral of his brother, Hon. Eben C. Ingersoll,
in Washington, June 2:
"My friends, I am going to do that which the dead oft promised he
would do for me. The loved and loving brother, husband, father,
friend, died where manhood's morning almost touches noon, and while
the shadows were still falling towards the west. He had not passed on
life's highway the stone that marks the highest point, but being weary
for a moment he lay down by the wayside, and using his burden for a
pillow fell into that dreamless sleep that kisses down the eyelids.
Still, while yet in love with life and raptured with the world, he
passed to silence and pathetic dust. Yet, after all, it may be best,
just in the happiest, sunniest hour of all the voyage, while eager
winds are kissing every sail, to dash against the unseen rock and in
an instant to hear the billows roar, 'A sunken ship;' for whether in
mid-sea or among the breakers of the farther shore, a wreck must mark
at last the end of each and all, and every life, no matter if its
every hour is rich with love, and every moment jeweled with a joy,
will at its close become a tragedy as sad and deep and dark as can be
woven of the warp and woof of mystery and death. This brave and tender
man in every storm of life was oak and rock, but in the sunshine he
was vine and flower. He was the friend of all heroic souls. He
climbed the heights and left all superstitions far below, while on
his forehead fell the golden dawning of a grander day. He loved the
beautiful, and was with color, form and music touched to tears. He
sided with the weak, and with a willing hand gave alms. With loyal
heart, and with the purest hand he faithfully discharged all public
trusts. He was a worshiper of liberty and a friend of the oppressed.
A thousand times I have heard him quote the words, 'For Justice all
place temple, and all seasons summer.' He believed that happiness
was the only good, reason the only torch, justice the only worshiper,
humanity the only religion, and love the priest. He added to the sum
of human joy, and were everyone for whom he did some loving service
to bring a blossom to his grave, he would sleep to-night beneath a
wilderness of flowers. Life is a narrow vale between the cold and
barren peaks of two eternities. We strive in vain to look beyond the
heights. We cry aloud, and the only answer is the echo of our wailing
cry. From the voiceless lips of the unreplying dead there comes no
word, but the light of death. Hope sees a star, and listening love can
hear the rustic of a wing, he who sleeps here when dying, mistaking
the approach of death for the return of health, whispered with his
latest breath, 'I am better now.' Let us believe, in spite of doubts
and dogmas, and tears and fears, that these dear words are true of all
the countless dead. And now, to you who have been chosen from among
the many men he loved to do the last sad office for the dead, we give
his sacred dust. Speech cannot contain our love. There was, there is,
no gentler, stronger, manlier man."
AT THE GRAVE OF A CHILD.
Colonel Ingersoll upon one occasion was one of a little party of
sympathizing friends who had gathered in a drizzling rain to assist
the sorrowing friends of a young boy--a bright and stainless flower,
cut off in the bloom of its beauty and virgin purity by the ruthless
north winds from the Plutonian shades--in the last sad office of
committing the poor clay to the bosom of its mother earth. Inspired
by that true sympathy of the great heart of a great man, Colonel
Ingersoll stepped to the side of the grave and spoke as follows:
"My friends, I know how vain it is to gild grief with words, and yet I
wish to take from every grave its fear. Here in this world, where life
and death are equal king, all should be brave enough to meet what all
the dead have met. The future has been filled with fear, stained and
polluted by the heartless past. From the wondrous tree of life the buds
and blossoms fall with ripened fruit, and in the common bed of earth the
patriarchs and babes sleep side by side. Why should we fear that which
will come to all that is? We cannot tell; we do not know which is the
greater blessing--life or death. We cannot say that death is not a good;
we do not know whether the grave is the end of this life or the door of
another, or whether the night here is not somewhere else a dawn. Neither
can we tell which is the more fortunate, the child dying in its mother's
arms, before its lips have learned to form a word, or he who journeys
all the length of life's uneven road, taking the last slow steps
painfully with staff and crutch. Every cradle asks us 'whence,' and
every coffin 'whither?' The poor barbarian, weeping above his dead, can
answer these questions as intelligently and satisfactorily as the robed
priest of the most authentic creed. The tearful ignorance of the one is
just as good as the learned and unmeaning words of the other. No man,
standing where the horizon of life has touched a grave, has any right to
prophesy a future filled with pain and tears. It may be that death gives
all there is of worth to live. If those we press and strain against our
hearts could never die, perhaps that love would wither from the earth.
May be this common fate treads from out the paths between our hearts the
weeds of selfishness and hate, and I had rather live and love where
death is king, than have eternal life where love is not. Another life is
naught, unless we know and love again the ones who love us here. They
who stand with breaking hearts around this little grave need have no
fear. The larger and the nobler faith in all that is and is to be, tells
us that death, even at its worst, is only perfect rest. We know that
through the common wants of life, the needs and duties of each hour,
their grief will lessen day by day, until at last these graves will be
to them a place of rest and peace, almost of joy. There is for them this
consolation, the dead do not suffer. If they live again, their lives
will surely be as good as ours. We have no fear; we are all the children
of the same mother, and the same fate awaits us all. We, too, have our
religion, and it is this: 'Help for the living; hope for the dead.'"
* * * * *
SUNDRY BRIEF ITEMS OF INTEREST.
In 1492 America was discovered.
In 1848 gold was found in California.
Invention of telescopes, 1590.
Elias Howe, Jr., invented sewing machines, in 1846.
In 1839 envelopes came into use.
Steel pens first made in 1830.
The first watch was constructed in 1476.
First manufacture of sulphur matches in 1829.
Glass windows introduced into England in the eighth century.
First coaches introduced into England in 1569.
In 1545 needles of the modern style first came into use.
In 1527 Albert Durer first engraved on wood.
1559 saw knives introduced into England.
In the same year wheeled carriages were first used in France.
In 1588 the first newspaper appeared in England.
In 1629 the first printing press was brought to America.
The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652.
England sent the first steam engine to this continent in 1703.
The first steamboat in the United States ascended the Hudson in 1807.
Locomotive first used in the United States in 1830.
First horse railroad constructed in 1827.
In 1830 the first iron steamship was built.
Coal oil first used for illuminating purposes in 1836.
Looms introduced as a substitute for spinning wheels in 1776.
The velocity of a severe storm is 36 miles an hour; that of a
hurricane, 80 miles an hour.
National ensign of the United States formally adopted by Congress in
1777.
A square acre is a trifle less than 209 feet each way.
Six hundred and forty acres make a square mile.
A "hand" (employed in measuring horses' height) is four inches.
A span is 10-7/8 inches.
Six hundred pounds make a barrel of rice.
One hundred and ninety-six pounds make a barrel of flour.
Two hundred pounds make a barrel of pork.
Fifty-six pounds make a firkin of butter.
The number of languages is 2,750.
The average duration of human life is 31 years.
* * * * *
PHYSICIANS' DIGESTION TABLE.
SHOWING THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DIGESTION OF THE ORDINARY
ARTICLES OF FOOD.
Soups.--Chicken, 3 hours; mutton, 3-1/2 hours; oyster, 3-1/2 hours;
vegetable, 4 hours.
Fish.--Bass, broiled, 3 hours; codfish, boiled, 2 hours; oysters, raw,
3 hours; oysters, roasted, 3-1/4 hours; oysters, stewed, 3-1/2 hours;
salmon (fresh), boiled, 1-3/4 hours; trout, fried, 1-1/2 hours.
Meats.--Beef, roasted, 3 hours; beefsteak, broiled, 3 hours; beef
(corned), boiled, 4-1/4 hours; lamb, roast, 2-1/2 hours; lamb, boiled,
3 hours; meat, hashed, 2-1/2 hours; mutton, broiled, 3 hours; mutton,
roast, 3-1/4 hours; pig's feet, soused, 1 hour; pork, roast, 5-1/4
hours; pork, boiled, 4-1/2 hours; pork, fried, 4-1/4 hours; pork,
broiled, 3-1/4 hours; sausage, fried, 4 hours; veal, broiled, 4 hours;
veal, roast, 4-1/2 hours.
Poultry and game.--Chicken, fricasseed, 3-3/4 hours; duck (tame),
roasted, 4 hours; duck (wild), roasted, 4-3/4 hours; fowls (domestic),
roasted or boiled, 4 hours; goose (wild), roasted, 2-1/2 hours; goose
(tame), roasted, 2-1/4 hours; turkey, boiled or roasted, 2-1/2 hours;
venison, broiled or roasted, 1-1/2 hours.
Vegetables.--Asparagus, boiled, 2-1/2 hours; beans (Lima), boiled,
2-1/2 hours, beans (string), boiled, 3 hours; beans, baked (with
pork), 4-1/2 hours; beets (young), boiled, 3-3/4 hours; beets (old)
boiled, 4 hours; cabbage, raw, 2 hours; cabbage, boiled, 4-1/2 hours;
cauliflower, boiled, 2-1/2 hours; corn (green), boiled, 4 hours;
onions, boiled, 3 hours; parsnips, boiled, 3 hours; potatoes, boiled
or baked, 3-1/2 hours; rice, boiled, 1 hour; spinach, boiled, 2-1/2
hours; tomatoes, raw or stewed, 2-1/2 hours; turnips, boiled, 3-1/2
hours.
Bread, Eggs, Milk, etc.--Bread, corn, 3-1/4 hours; bread, wheat, 3-1/2
hours; eggs, raw, 2 hours; cheese, 3-1/2 hours; custard, 2-3/4 hours;
eggs, soft-boiled, 3 hours; eggs, hard-boiled or fried, 3-1/2 hours;
gelatine, 2-1/2 hours; tapioca, 2 hours.
* * * * *
THEMES FOR DEBATE.
Following are one hundred and fifty topics for debate. The more
usual form in their presentation is that of a direct proposit 
Burroughs' Encyclopaedia of Astounding Facts and Useful Information, 1889 / Burroughs, Barkham