The Nuttall Encyclopaedia Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge / Orczy, Emmuska, Baroness, 1865-1947

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Title: The Nuttall Encyclopaedia
       Being a Concise and Comprehensive Dictionary of General Knowledge

Author: Edited by Rev. James Wood

Release Date: May 14, 2004 [EBook #12342]

Language: English

Character set encoding: ASCII

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUTTALL ENCYCLOPAEDIA ***




Produced by Jonathan Ingram and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.









THE NUTTALL ENCYCLOPAEDIA



BEING

A CONCISE AND COMPREHENSIVE DICTIONARY

OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE




CONSISTING OF

OVER 16,000 TERSE AND ORIGINAL ARTICLES ON NEARLY ALL SUBJECTS
DISCUSSED IN LARGER ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, AND SPECIALLY DEALING

WITH SUCH AS COME UNDER THE CATEGORIES

OF

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION,
SCIENCE, AND ART



EDITED BY THE


REV. JAMES WOOD

EDITOR OF "NUTTALL'S STANDARD DICTIONARY" AND COMPILER OF THE
"DICTIONARY OF QUOTATIONS"


_THE SIXTY-FIRST THOUSAND_

1907



PREFACE

"The NUTTALL ENCYCLOPAEDIA" is the fruit of a project to provide, in a
concise and condensed form, and at a cheap rate, an epitome of the kind
of information given in the larger Encyclopaedias, such as may prove
sufficient for the ordinary requirements, in that particular, of the
generality of people, and especially of such as have not the means for
purchasing or the leisure for studying the larger.

An Encyclopaedia is now recognised to be as indispensable a book of
reference as a dictionary; for while the latter explains and defines the
vehicle of _thought_, the former seeks to define the subject-matter. Now
the rapid increase in the vocabulary of a nation, which makes the
possession of an up-to-date dictionary almost one of the necessaries of
life, is evidently due to the vast increase in the number of _facts_
which the language has to describe or interpret; and if it is difficult
to keep pace with the growth in the language, it is obviously more
difficult to attain even a working knowledge of the array of facts which
in this age come before us for discussion. No man can now peruse even a
daily newspaper without being brought face to face with details about
questions of the deepest interest to _him_; and he is often unable to
grasp the meaning of what he reads for want of additional knowledge or
explanation. In short, it becomes more and more a necessity of modern
life to know something of everything. A little knowledge is not dangerous
to those who recognise it to be little, and it may be sufficient to
enable those who possess it to understand and enjoy intelligently what
would otherwise only weigh as a burdensome reflection upon their
ignorance. Even a comparatively exhaustive treatment of the multitudinous
subjects comprehended under the term universal knowledge would demand a
library of large volumes, hence the extent and heavy cost of the great
Encyclopaedias. But it is doubtful whether the mass of information
contained in those admirable and bulky works does not either go beyond,
or, more frequently than not, fall short of the requirements of those who
refer to them. For the special student there is too little, for the
general reader too much. Detailed knowledge of any subject in this age of
specialisation can be acquired only by study of the works specifically
devoted to it. What is wanted in a popular Encyclopaedia is succinct
information--the more succinct the better, so long as it gives what is
required by the inquiry, leaving it to the authorities in each subject to
supply the information desired by those intent on pursuing it further.
The value of an Encyclopaedia of such small scope must depend, therefore,
upon the careful selection of its materials, and in this respect it is
hoped the one now offered to the public will be found adequate to any
reasonable demands made upon it. If the facts given here are the facts
that the great majority are in search of when they refer to its pages, it
may be claimed for "The Nuttall Encyclopaedia" that, in one respect at all
events it is more valuable for instant reference than the best
Encyclopaedia in many volumes; for "The Nuttall" can lie on the desk for
ready-to-hand reference, and yields at a glance the information wanted.

Within the necessary limits of a single volume the Editor persuades
himself he has succeeded in including a wide range of subjects, and he
trusts that the information he has given on these will meet in some
measure at least the wants of those for whom the book has been compiled.
To the careful Newspaper Reader; to Heads of Families, with children at
school, whose persistent questions have often to go without an answer; to
the Schoolmaster and Tutor; to the student with a shallow purse; to the
Busy Man and Man of Business, it is believed that this volume will prove
a solid help.

The subjects, as hinted, are various, and these the Editor may be
permitted to classify in a general way under something like the following
rubrics:--

1. Noted people, their nationality, the time when they flourished, and
what they are noted for.

2. Epochs, important movements, and events in history, with the dates and
their historical significance.

3. Countries, provinces, and towns, with descriptions of them, their
sizes, populations, etc., and what they are noted for.

4. Heavenly bodies, especially those connected with the solar system,
their sizes, distances, and revolutions.

5. Races and tribes of mankind, with features that characterise them.

6. Mythologies, and the account they severally give of the divine and
demonic powers, supreme and subordinate, that rule the world.

7. Religions of the world, with their respective credos and objects and
forms of worship.

8. Schools of philosophy, with their theories of things and of the
problems of life and human destiny.

9. Sects and parties, under the different systems of belief or polity,
and the specialities of creed and policy that divide them.

10. Books of the world, especially the sacred ones, and the spiritual
import of them; in particular those of the Bible, on each of which a note
or two is given.

11. Legends and fables, especially such as are more or less of world
significance.

12. Characters in fiction and fable, both mediaeval and modern.

13. Fraternities, religious and other, with their symbols and
shibboleths.

14. Families of note, especially such as have developed into dynasties.

15. Institutions for behoof of some special interest, secular or sacred,
including universities.

16. Holidays and festivals, with what they commemorate, and the rites and
ceremonies connected with them.

17. Science, literature, and art in general, but these chiefly in
connection with the names of those distinguished in the cultivation of
them.

Such, in a general way, are some of the subjects contained in the book,
while there is a number of others not reducible to the classification
given, and among these the Editor has included certain subjects of which
he was able to give only a brief definition, just as there are doubtless
others which in so wide an area of research have escaped observation and
are not included in the list. In the selection of subjects the Editor
experienced not a little embarrassment, and he was not unfrequently at a
loss to summarise particulars under several of the heads. Such as it is,
the Editor offers the book to the public, and he hopes that with all its
shortcomings it will not be unfavourably received.




NOTES.

(1) The figures in brackets following Geographical names indicate the
number of _thousands of population_.

(2) The figures in brackets given in Biographical references indicate the
_dates_ of birth and death where both are given.





THE NUTTALL ENCYCLOPAEDIA




A


A'ALI PASHA, an eminent reforming Turkish statesman (1815-1871).


AACHEN. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.


AALBORG (19), a trading town on the Liimfiord, in the N. of Jutland.


AAR, a large Swiss river about 200 m. long, which falls into the
Rhine as it leaves Switzerland.


AARGAU, a fertile Swiss canton bordering on the Rhine.


AARHUUS (33), a port on the E. of Jutland, with a considerable
export and import trade, and a fine old Gothic cathedral.


AARON, the elder brother of Moses, and the first high-priest of the
Jews, an office he held for forty years.


ABACA, Manila hemp, or the plant, native to the Philippines, which
yield it in quantities.


ABACUS, a tablet crowning a column and its capital.


ABADDON, the bottomless pit, or the angel thereof.


ABARIM, a mountain chain in Palestine, NE. of the Dead Sea, the
highest point being Mount Nebo.


ABATEMENT, a mark of disgrace in a coat of arms.


ABAUZIT, FIRMIN, a French Protestant theologian and a mathematician,
a friend of Newton, and much esteemed for his learning by Rousseau and
Voltaire (1679-1767).


ABBADIE, two brothers of French descent, Abyssinian travellers in
the years 1837-1848; also a French Protestant divine (1658-1727).


ABBAS, uncle of Mahomet, founder of the dynasty of the Abbasides
(566-652).


ABBAS PASHA, the khedive of Egypt, studied five years in Vienna,
ascended the throne at eighteen, accession hailed with enthusiasm; shows
at times an equivocal attitude to Britain; _b_. 1874.


ABBAS THE GREAT, shah of Persia, of the dynasty of the Sophis, great
alike in conquest and administration (1557-1628).


ABBAS-MIRZA, a Persian prince, a reformer of the Persian army, and a
leader of it, unsuccessfully, however, against Russia (1783-1833).


ABBASIDES, a dynasty of 37 caliphs who ruled as such at Bagdad from
750 to 1258.


AB`BATI, NICCOLO DELL', an Italian fresco-painter (1512-1571).


ABBE, name of a class of men who in France prior to the Revolution
prepared themselves by study of theology for preferment in the Church,
and who, failing, gave themselves up to letters or science.


ABBEVILLE (19), a thriving old town on the Somme, 12 m. up, with an
interesting house architecture, and a cathedral, unfinished, in the
Flamboyant style.


ABBOT, head of an abbey. There were two classes of abbots: Abbots
Regular, as being such in fact, and Abbots Commendatory, as guardians and
drawing the revenues.


ABBOT, GEORGE, archbishop of Canterbury in the reigns of James I.
and Charles I., and one of the translators of King James's Bible; an
enemy of Laud's, who succeeded him (1562-1633).


ABBOT OF MISRULE, a person elected to superintend the Christmas
revelries.


ABBOTSFORD, the residence of Sir Walter Scott, on the Tweed, near
Melrose, built by him on the site of a farm called Clarty Hole.


ABBOTT, EDWIN, a learned Broad Church theologian and man of letters;
wrote, besides other works, a volume of sermons "Through Nature to
Christ"; esteemed insistence on miracles injurious to faith; _b_. 1838.


ABDAL`LAH, the father of Mahomet, famed for his beauty (545-570);
also a caliph of Mecca (622-692).


ABDALRAH`MAN, the Moorish governor of Spain, defeated by Charles
Martel at Tours in 732.


ABDALS (lit. servants of Allah), a set of Moslem fanatics in
Persia.


ABD-EL-KA`DIR, an Arab emir, who for fifteen years waged war against
the French in N. Africa, but at length surrendered prisoner to them in
1847. On his release in 1852 he became a faithful friend of France
(1807-1883).


ABDE`RA, a town in ancient Thrace, proverbial for the stupidity of
its inhabitants.


ABDICATIONS, of which the most celebrated are those of the Roman
Dictator Sylla, who in 70 B.C. retired to Puteoli; of Diocletian, who in
A.D. 305 retired to Salone; of Charles V., who in 1556 retired to the
monastery St. Yuste; of Christina of Sweden, who in 1654 retired to Rome,
after passing some time in France; of Napoleon, who in 1814 and 1815
retired first to Elba and then died at St. Helena; of Charles X. in 1830,
who died at Goritz, in Austria; and of Louis Philippe, who in 1848
retired to end his days in England.


ABDIEL, one of the seraphim, who withstood Satan in his revolt
against the Most High.


ABDUL-AZIZ, sultan of Turkey from 1861, in succession to
Abdul-Medjid (1830-1876).


ABDUL-AZIZ, sultan of Morocco, was only fourteen at his accession;
_b_. 1880.


ABDUL-HA`MID II., sultan of Turkey in 1876, brother to Abdul-Aziz,
and his successor; under him Turkey has suffered serious dismemberment,
and the Christian subjects in Armenia and Crete been cruelly massacred;
_b_. 1842.


ABD-UL-MED`JID, sultan, father of the two preceding, in whose
defence against Russia England and France undertook the Crimean war
(1823-1861).


ABDUR-RAH`MAN, the ameer of Afghanistan, subsidised by the English;
_b_. 1830.


A'BECKET, GILBERT, an English humourist, who contributed to _Punch_
and other organs; wrote the "Comic Blackstone" and comic histories of
England and Rome (1811-1856).


A'BECKET, A. W., son of the preceding, a litterateur and journalist;
_b_. 1844.


ABEL, the second son of Adam and Eve; slain by his brother. The
death of Abel is the subject of a poem by Gessner and a tragedy by
Legouve.


ABEL, SIR F. A., a chemist who has made a special study of
explosives; _b_. 1827.


ABEL, HENRY, an able Norwegian mathematician, who died young
(1802-1828).


AB`ELARD, PETER, a theologian and scholastic philosopher of French
birth, renowned for his dialectic ability, his learning, his passion for
Heloise, and his misfortunes; made conceivability the test of
credibility, and was a great teacher in his day (1079-1142).


ABELLI, a Dominican monk, the confessor of Catharine de Medici
(1603-1691).


ABENCERRA`GES, a powerful Moorish tribe in Grenada, whose fate in
the 15th century has been the subject of interesting romance.


ABEN-EZ`RA, a learned Spanish Jew and commentator on the Hebrew
scriptures (1090-1168).


ABERA`VON (6), a town and seaport in Glamorganshire, with copper and
iron works.


ABERCROMBIE, SIR RALPH, a distinguished British general of Scottish
birth, who fell in Egypt after defeating the French at Aboukir Bay
(1731-1801).


ABERDEEN (124), the fourth city in Scotland, on the E. coast,
between the mouths of the Dee and Don; built of grey granite, with many
fine public edifices, a flourishing university, a large trade, and
thriving manufactures. Old Aberdeen, on the Don, now incorporated in the
municipality, is the seat of a cathedral church, and of King's College,
founded in 1404, united with the university in the new town.


ABERDEEN, EARL OF, a shrewd English statesman, Prime Minister of
England during the Crimean war (1784-1860).--Grandson of the preceding,
Gov.-Gen. of Canada; _b_. 1847.


ABERDEENSHIRE (281), a large county in NE. of Scotland; mountainous
in SW., lowland N. and E.; famed for its granite quarries, its fisheries,
and its breed of cattle.


ABERNETHY, a small burgh in S. Perthshire, with a Pictish round
tower, and once the capital of the Pictish kingdom.


ABERRATION OF LIGHT, an apparent motion in a star due to the earth's
motion and the progressive motion of light.


ABERYST`WITH (16), a town and seaport in Cardiganshire, Wales, with
a university.


AB`GAR XIV., a king of Edessa, one of a dynasty of the name, a
contemporary of Jesus Christ, and said to have corresponded with Him.


ABHORRERS, the Royalist and High Church party in England under
Charles II., so called from their abhorrence of the principles of their
opponents.


ABIGAIL, the widow of Nabal, espoused by David.


ABICH, W. H., a German mineralogist and traveller (1806-1886).


ABINGDON (6), a borough in Berks, 6 m. S. of Oxford.


ABIOGENESIS, the doctrine of spontaneous generation.


ABIPONES, a once powerful warlike race in La Plata, now nearly all
absorbed.


ABLE MAN, man with "a heart to resolve, a head to contrive, and a
hand to execute" (Gibbon).


ABNER, a Hebrew general under Saul; assassinated by Joab.


ABO, the old capital of Finland and seat of the government, on the
Gulf of Bothnia.


AB`OMEY, the capital of Dahomey, in W. Africa.


ABOU`KIR, village near Alexandria, in Egypt, on the bay near which
Nelson destroyed the French fleet in 1799; where Napoleon beat the Turks,
1799; and where Abercrombie fell, 1801.


ABOUT, EDMOND, spirited French litterateur and journalist
(1828-1885).


ABRAHAM, the Hebrew patriarch, ancestor of the Jews, the very type
of an Eastern pastoral chief at once by his dignified character and
simple faith.


ABRAHAM, THE PLAINS OF, a plain near Quebec.


ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of lunatics allowed out of restraint, at one
time, to roam about and beg; a set of impostors who wandered about the
country affecting lunacy.


ABRAN`TES, a town in Portugal, on the Tagus; taken by Marshal Junot,
1807, and giving the title of Duke to him.


ABRAXAS STONES, stones with cabalistic figures on them used as
talismans.


ABRUZ`ZI, a highland district in the Apennines, with a pop. of
100,000.


ABSALOM, a son of David, who rebelled against his father, and at
whose death David gave vent to a bitter wail of grief. A name given by
Dryden to the Duke of Monmouth, son of Charles II.


ABSOLUTE, THE, the philosophical name for the uncreated Creator, or
creating cause of all things, dependent on nothing external to itself.


ABSYRTUS, a brother of Medea, whom she cut in pieces as she fled
with Jason, pursued by her father, throwing his bones behind her to
detain her father in his pursuit of her by stopping to pick them up.


ABT, FRANZ, a German composer of song-music (1819-1885).


ABU, a mountain (6000 ft.) in Rajputana, with a footprint of Vishnu
on the top, and two marble temples half-way up, held sacred by the Jains.


AB`UBEKR, as the father of Ayesha, the father-in-law of Mahomet, the
first of the caliphs and the founder of the Sunnites; _d_. 634.


AB`U-KLEA, in the Soudan, where the Mahdi's forces were defeated by
Sir H. Stewart in 1885.


A`BUL-FARAJ, a learned Armenian Jew, who became bishop of Aleppo,
and wrote a history of the world from Adam onwards (1226-1286).


ABUL-FAZEL, the vizier of the great Mogul emperor Akbar, and who
wrote an account of his reign and of the Mogul empire; he was
assassinated in 1604.


ABUL-FEDA, a Moslem prince of Hamat in Syria, who in his youth took
part against the Crusaders, and wrote historical works in Arabic
(1273-1331).


ABU-THA`LEB, uncle of Mahomet, and his protector against the plots
of his enemies the Koreish.


ABY`DOS, a town on the Asiatic side of the Hellespont, famous as the
home of Leander, who swam the Hellespont every night to visit Hero in
Sestos, and as the spot where Xerxes built his bridge of boats to cross
into Europe in 480 B.C.; also a place of note in Upper Egypt.


ABYSSIN`IA, a mountainous country SE. of Nubia, with an area of
200,000 sq. m., made up of independent states, and a mixed population of
some four millions, the Abyssinians proper being of the Semite stock. It
is practically under the protectorate of Italy.


ACACIA, a large group of trees with astringent and gum-yielding
properties, natives of tropical Africa and Australia.


ACADEMY, a public shady park or place of groves near Athens, where
Plato taught his philosophy and whence his school derived its name, of
which there are three branches, the _Old_, the _Middle_, and the _New_,
represented respectively by Plato himself, Arcesilaos, and Carneades. The
_French Academy_, of forty members, was founded by Richelieu in 1635,
and is charged with the interests of the French language and literature,
and in particular with the duty of compiling an authoritative dictionary
of the French language. Besides these, there are in France other four
with a like limited membership in the interest of other departments of
science and art, all now associated in the _Institute of France_, which
consists in all of 229 members. There are similar institutions in other
states of Europe, all of greater or less note.


ACADIA, the French name for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.


ACANTHUS, a leaf-like ornament on the capitals of the columns of
certain orders of architecture.


ACAPUL`CO, a Mexican port in the Pacific, harbour commodious, but
climate unhealthy.


ACARNA`NIA, a province of Greece N. of Gulf of Corinth; its pop.
once addicted to piracy.


ACCA`DIANS, a dark, thick-lipped, short-statured Mongol race in
Central Asia, displaced by the Babylonians and Assyrians, who were
Semitic.


ACCA-LAURENTIA, the wife of Faustulus, shepherd of Numitor, who
saved the lives of Romulus and Remus.


ACCIAIOLI, a Florentine family of 15th century, illustrious in
scholarship and war.


ACCOLADE, a gentle blow with a sword on the shoulder in conferring
knighthood.


ACCOL`TI, a Tuscan family, of 15th century, famous for their
learning.


ACCOR`SO, the name of a Florentine family, of 12th and 13th
centuries, great in jurisprudence.


ACCRA (16), capital and chief port in British Gold Coast colony.


ACCRINGTON (39), a manufacturing town 22 m. N. of Manchester.


ACCUM, FRIEDRICH, a German chemist, the first promoter of
gas-lighting (1769-1838).


ACCUMULATOR, a hydraulic press for storing up water at a high
pressure; also a device for storing up electric energy.


ACERRA (14), an ancient city 9 m. NE. of Naples; is in an unhealthy
district.


ACETIC ACID, the pure acid of vinegar; the salts are called
_acetates_.


ACETONE, a highly inflammable liquid obtained generally by the dry
distillation of acetates.


ACET`YLENE, a malodorous gaseous substance from the incomplete
combustion of hydro-carbons.


ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of 12 towns in the Peloponnesus,
formed especially against the influence of the Macedonians.


ACHAE`ANS, the common name of the Greeks in the heroic or Homeric
period.


ACHAI`A, the N. district of the Peloponnesus, eventually the whole
of it.


ACHARD, a Prussian chemist, one of the first to manufacture sugar
from beetroot (1753-1821).


ACHARD`, LOUIS AMEDEE, a prolific French novelist (1814-1876).


ACHA`TES, the attendant of AEneas in his wandering after the fall of
Troy, remarkable for, and a perennial type of, fidelity.


ACHELO`UeS, a river in Greece, which rises in Mt. Pindus, and falls
into the Ionian Sea; also the god of the river, the oldest of the sons of
Oceanus, and the father of the Sirens.


ACHEN, an eminent German painter (1556-1621).


ACHENWALL, a German economist, the founder of statistic science
(1719-1772).


ACH`ERON, a river in the underworld; the name of several rivers in
Greece more or less suggestive of it.


ACH`ERY, a learned French Benedictine of St. Maur (1609-1685).


ACH`ILL, a rocky, boggy island, sparsely inhabited, off W. coast of
Ireland, co. Mayo, with a bold headland 2222 ft. high.


ACHILLE`ID, an unfinished poem of Statius.


ACHIL`LES, the son of Peleus and Thetis, king of the Myrmidons, the
most famous of the Greek heroes in the Trojan war, and whose wrath with
the consequences of it forms the subject of the Iliad of Homer. He was
invulnerable except in the heel, at the point where his mother held him
as she dipt his body in the Styx to render him invulnerable.


ACHILLES OF GERMANY, Albert, third elector of Brandenburg, "fiery,
tough old gentleman, of formidable talent for fighting in his day; a very
blazing, far-seen character," says Carlyle (1414-1486).


ACHILLES TENDON, the great tendon of the heel, where Achilles was
vulnerable.


ACHMED PASHA, a French adventurer, served in French army, condemned
to death, fled, and served Austria; condemned to death a second time,
pardoned, served under the sultan, was banished to the shores of the
Black Sea (1675-1747).


ACH`MET I., sultan of Turkey from 1603 to 1617; A. II., from
1691 to 1695; A. III., from 1703 to 1730, who gave asylum to Charles
XII. of Sweden after his defeat by the Czar at Pultowa.


ACHIT`OPHEL, name given by Dryden to the Earl of Shaftesbury of his
time.


ACHROMATISM, transmission of light, undecomposed and free from
colour, by means of a combination of dissimilar lenses of crown and flint
glass, or by a single glass carefully prepared.


ACIERAGE, coating a copper-plate with steel by voltaic electricity.


A`CI-REA`LE (38), a seaport town in Sicily, at the foot of Mount
Etna, in NE. of Catania, with mineral waters.


A`CIS, a Sicilian shepherd enamoured of Galatea, whom the Cyclops
Polyphemus, out of jealousy, overwhelmed under a rock, from under which
his blood has since flowed as a river.


ACK`ERMANN, R., an enterprising publisher of illustrated works in
the Strand, a native of Saxony (1764-1834).


ACLAND, SIR HENRY, regius professor of medicine in Oxford,
accompanied the Prince of Wales to America in 1860, the author of several
works on medicine and educational subjects, one of Ruskin's old and tried
friends (1815).


ACLINIC LINE, the magnetic equator, along which the needle always
remains horizontal.


ACNE, a skin disease showing hard reddish pimples; ACNE
ROSACEA, a congestion of the skin of the nose and parts adjoining.


ACOEMETAE, an order of monks in the 5th century who by turns kept up
a divine service day and night.


ACONCA`GUA, the highest peak of the Andes, about 100 m. NE. of
Valparaiso, 22,867 ft. high; recently ascended by a Swiss and a
Scotchman, attendants of Fitzgerald's party.


ACONITE, monk's-hood, a poisonous plant of the ranunculus order with
a tapering root.


ACONITINE, a most virulent poison from aconite, and owing to the
very small quantity sufficient to cause death, is very difficult of
detection when employed in taking away life.


ACORN-SHELLS, a crustacean attached to rocks on the sea-shore,
described by Huxley as "fixed by its head," and "kicking its food into
its mouth with its legs."


ACOUSTICS, the science of sound as it affects the ear, specially of
the laws to be observed in the construction of halls so that people may
distinctly hear in them.


ACRASIA, an impersonation in Spenser's "Faerie Queen," of
intemperance in the guise of a beautiful sorceress.


ACRE, ST. JEAN D' (7), a strong place and seaport in Syria, at the
foot of Mount Carmel, taken, at an enormous sacrifice of life, by Philip
Augustus and Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191, held out against Bonaparte in
1799; its ancient name Ptolemais.


ACRES, BOB, a coward in the "Rivals" whose "courage always oozed out
at his finger ends."


ACROAMATICS, esoteric lectures, i. e. lectures to the initiated.


ACROLEIN, a light volatile limpid liquid obtained by the destructive
distillation of fats.


ACROLITHS, statues of which only the extremities are of stone.


ACROP`OLIS, a fortified citadel commanding a city, and generally the
nucleus of it, specially the rocky eminence dominating Athens.


ACROTE`RIA, pedestals placed at the middle and the extremities of a
pediment to support a statue or other ornament, or the statue or ornament
itself.


ACTA DIURNA, a kind of gazette recording in a summary way daily
events, established at Rome in 131 B.C., and rendered official by Caesar
in 50 B.C.


ACTA SANCTORUM, the lives of the saints in 62 vols. folio, begun in
the 17th century by the Jesuits, and carried on by the Bollandists.


ACTAEON, a hunter changed into a stag for surprising Diana when
bathing, and afterwards devoured by his own dogs.


ACTINIC RAYS, "non-luminous rays of higher frequency than the
luminous rays."


ACTINISM, the chemical action of sunlight.


ACTINOMYCOSIS, a disease of a fungous nature on the mouth and lower
jaw of cows.


ACTIUM, a town and promontory at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf
(Arta), in Greece, where Augustus gained his naval victory over Antony
and Cleopatra, Sept. 2, 31 B.C.


ACTON, an adventurer of English birth, who became prime minister of
Naples, but was driven from the helm of affairs on account of his
inveterate antipathy to the French (1737-1808).


ACTON, LORD, a descendant of the former, who became a leader of the
Liberal Catholics in England, M.P. for Carlow, and made a peer in 1869;
a man of wide learning, and the projector of a universal history by
experts in different departments of the field; _b_. 1834.


ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, a narrative account in the New Testament of
the founding of the Christian Church chiefly through the ministry of
Peter and Paul, written by Luke, commencing with the year 33, and
concluding with the imprisonment of Paul in Rome in 62.


ACUN`HA, TRISTRAM D', a Portuguese navigator, companion of
Albuquerque; NUNA D', his son, viceroy of the Indies from 1528 to
1539; RODRIQUE D', archbishop of Lisbon, who in 1640 freed Portugal
from the Spanish domination, and established the house of Braganza on the
throne.


ACUPRESSURE, checking hemorrhage in arteries during an operation by
compressing their orifices with a needle.


ACUPUNCTURE, the operation of pricking an affected part with a
needle, and leaving it for a short time in it, sometimes for as long as
an hour.


ADAIR, SIR ROBERT, a distinguished English diplomatist, and
frequently employed on the most important diplomatic missions
(1763-1855).


ADAL, a flat barren region between Abyssinia and the Red Sea.


ADALBE`RON, the archbishop of Rheims, chancellor of Lothaire and
Louis V.; consecrated Hugh Capet; _d_. 998.


ADALBERT, a German ecclesiastic, who did much to extend Christianity
over the North (1000-1072).


ADALBERT, ST., bishop of Prague, who, driven from Bohemia, essayed
to preach the gospel in heathen Prussia, where the priests fell upon him,
and "struck him with a death-stroke on the head," April 27, 997, on the
anniversary of which day a festival is held in his honour.


ADA`LIA (30), a seaport on the coast of Asia Minor, on a bay of the
same name.


ADAM (i. e. man), the first father, according to the Bible, of the
human race.


ADAM, ALEX., a distinguished Latin scholar, rector for 40 years of
the Edinburgh High School, Scott having been one of his pupils
(1741-1809).


ADAM, LAMBERT, a distinguished French sculptor (1700-1759).


ADAM, ROBERT, a distinguished architect, born at Kirkcaldy,
architect of the Register House and the University, Edinburgh
(1728-1792).


ADAM BEDE, George Eliot's first novel, published anonymously in
1859, took at once with both critic and public.


ADAM KADMON, primeval man as he at first emanated from the Creator,
or man in his primeval rudimentary potentiality.


ADAM OF BROMEN, distinguished as a Christian missionary in the 11th
century; author of a celebrated Church history of N. Europe from 788 to
1072, entitled _Gesta Hammenburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum_.


ADAMAS`TOR, the giant spirit of storms, which Camoens, in his
"Luciad," represents as rising up before Vasco de Gama to warn him off
from the Cape of Storms, henceforth called, in consequence of the
resultant success in despite thereof, the Cape of Good Hope.


ADAMAWA, a region in the Lower Soudan with a healthy climate and a
fertile soil, rich in all tropical products.


ADAMITES, visionaries in Africa in the 2nd century, and in Bohemia
in the 14th and 15th, who affected innocence, rejected marriage, and went
naked.


ADAMNAN, ST., abbot of Iona, of Irish birth, who wrote a life of St.
Columba and a work on the Holy Places, of value as the earliest written
(625-704).


ADAMS, DR. F., a zealous student and translator of Greek medical
works (1797-1861).


ADAMS, JOHN, the second president of the United States, and a chief
promoter of their independence (1739-1826).


ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, his eldest son, the sixth president (1767-1848).


ADAMS, JOHN COUCH, an English astronomer, the discoverer
simultaneously with Leverrier of the planet Neptune (1819-1892).


ADAMS, PARSON, a country curate in Fielding's "Joseph Andrews," with
a head full of learning and a heart full of love to his fellows, but in
absolute ignorance of the world, which in his simplicity he takes for
what it professes to be.


ADAMS, SAMUEL, a zealous promoter of American independence, who
lived and died poor (1722-1803).


ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of coral reefs and sandbanks connecting
Ceylon with India.


ADAM'S PEAK, a conical peak in the centre of Ceylon 7420 ft. high,
with a foot-like depression 5 ft. long and 21/2 broad atop, ascribed to
Adam by the Mohammedans, and to Buddha by the Buddhists; it was here, the
Arabs say, that Adam alighted on his expulsion from Eden and stood doing
penance on one foot till God forgave him.


ADA`NA (40), a town SE. corner of Asia Minor, 30 m. from the sea.


ADANSON, MICHEL, a French botanist, born in AIX, the first to
attempt a natural classification of plants (1727-1806).


AD`DA, an affluent of the Po, near Cremona; it flows through Lake
Como; on its banks Bonaparte gained several of his famous victories over
Austria.


ADDINGTON, HENRY, Lord Sidmouth, an English statesman was for a
short time Prime Minister, throughout a supporter of Pitt (1757-1844).


ADDISON, JOSEPH, a celebrated English essayist, studied at Oxford,
became Fellow of Magdalen, was a Whig in politics, held a succession of
Government appointments, resigned the last for a large pension; was
pre-eminent among English writers for the purity and elegance of his
style, had an abiding, refining, and elevating influence on the
literature of the country; his name is associated with the _Tatler,
Spectator_, and _Guardian_, as well as with a number of beautiful hymns
(1672-1749).


A`DELAAR, the name of honour given to Cort Sivertsen, a famous Norse
seaman, who rendered distinguished naval services to Denmark and to
Venice against the Turks (1622-1675).


ADELAIDE (133), the capital of S. Australia, on the river Torrens,
which flows through it into St. Vincent Gulf, 7 m. SE. of Port Adelaide;
a handsome city, with a cathedral, fine public buildings, a university,
and an extensive botanical garden; it is the great emporium for S.
Australia; exports wool, wine, wheat, and copper ore.


ADELAIDE, eldest daughter of Louis XV. of France (1732-1806).


ADELAIDE, PORT, the haven of Adelaide, a port of call, with a
commodious harbour.


ADELAIDE, QUEEN, consort of William IV. of England (1792-1849).


ADELAIDE OF ORLEANS, sister of Louis Philippe, his Egeria
(1771-1841).


ADELBERG, a town of Carniola, 22 m. from Trieste, with a large
stalactite cavern, besides numerous caves near it.


ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH, a distinguished German philologist and
lexicographer, born in Pomerania (1732-1806).


A`DEN (42), a fortified town on a peninsula in British territory S.
of Arabia, 105 m. E. of Bab-el-Mandeb; a coaling and military station, in
a climate hot, but healthy.


AD`HERBAL, son of Micipsa, king of Numidia, killed by Jugurtha, 249
B.C.


ADI GRANTH, the sacred book of the Sikhs.


ADIAPH`ORISTS, Lutherans who in 16th century maintained that certain
practices of the Romish Church, obnoxious to others of them, were matters
of indifference, such as having pictures, lighting candles, wearing
surplices, and singing certain hymns in worship.


AD`IGE, a river of Italy, which rises in the Rhetian Alps and falls
into the Adriatic after a course of 250 m.; subject to sudden swellings
and overflowings.


ADIPOCERE, a fatty, spermaceti-like substance, produced by the
decomposition of animal matter in moist places.


ADIPOSE TISSUE, a tissue of small vesicles filled with oily matter,
in which there is no sensation, and a layer of which lies under the skin
and gives smoothness and warmth to the body.


ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, a high-lying, picturesque, granite range in
the State of New York; source of the Hudson.


ADJUTANT, a gigantic Indian stork with an enormous beak, about 5 ft.
in height, which feeds on carrion and offal, and is useful in this way,
as storks are.


ADLER, HERMANN, son and successor of the following, born in Hanover;
a vigorous defender of his co-religionists and their faith, as well as
their sacred Scriptures; was elected Chief Rabbi in 1891; _b_. 1839.


ADLER, NATHAN MARCUS, chief Rabbi in Britain, born in Hanover
(1803-1890).


ADLERCREUTZ, a Swedish general, the chief promoter of the revolution
of 1808, who told Gustavus IV. to his face that he ought to retire
(1759-1815).


ADME`TUS, king of Pherae in Thessaly, one of the Argonauts, under
whom Apollo served for a time as neat-herd. _See_ ALCESTIS.


ADMIRABLE DOCTOR, a name given to Roger Bacon.


ADMIRAL, the chief commander of a fleet, of which there are in
Britain three grades--admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals, the
first displaying his flag on the main mast, the second on the fore, and
the third on the mizzen.


ADMIRALTY, BOARD OF, board of commissioners appointed for the
management of naval affairs.


ADMIRALTY ISLAND, an island off the coast of Alaska.


ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group NE. of New Guinea, in the Pacific, which
belong to Germany.


ADOLF, FRIEDRICH, king of Sweden, under whose reign the nobles
divided themselves into the two factions of the Caps, or the peace-party,
and the Hats, or the war-party (1710-1771).


ADOLPH, ST., a Spanish martyr: festival, Sept. 27.


ADOLPH OF NASSAU, Kaiser from 1291 to 1298, "a stalwart but
necessitous Herr" Carlyle calls him; seems to have been under the pay of
Edward Longshanks.


ADOLPHUS, JOHN, an able London barrister in criminal cases, and a
voluminous historical writer (1766-1845).


ADONA`I, the name used by the Jews for God instead of Jehovah, too
sacred to be pronounced.


ADONA`IS, Shelley's name for Keats.


ADO`NIS, a beautiful youth beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), but
mortally wounded by a boar and changed by her into a flower the colour of
his blood, by sprinkling nectar on his body.


ADOPTIONISTS, heretics who in the 8th century maintained that Christ
was the son of God, not by birth, but by adoption, and as being one with
Him in character and will.


ADOR`NO, an illustrious plebeian family in Genoa, of the Ghibelline
party, several of whom were Doges of the republic.


ADOUR, a river of France, rising in the Pyrenees and falling into
the Bay of Biscay.


ADOWA`, a highland town in Abyssinia, and chief entrepot of trade.


ADRAS`TUS, a king of Argos, the one survivor of the first expedition
of the Seven against Thebes, who died of grief when his son fell in the
second.


ADRETS, BARON DES, a Huguenot leader, notorious for his cruelty;
died a Catholic (1513-1587).


A`DRIA, an ancient town between the Po and the Adige; a flourishing
seaport at one time, but now 14 m. from the sea.


A`DRIAN, name of six popes: A. I., from 772 to 795, did much to
embellish Rome; A. II., from 867 to 872, zealous to subject the
sovereigns of Europe to the Popehood; A. III., from 884 to 885;
A. V., from 1054 to 1059, the only Englishman who attained to the
Papal dignity; A. V., in 1276; A. VI., from 1222 to 1223.
See BREAKSPEARE.


ADRIAN, ST., the chief military saint of N. Europe for many ages,
second only to St. George; regarded as the patron of old soldiers, and
protector against the plague.


ADRIANO`PLE (60), a city in European Turkey, the third in
importance, on the high-road between Belgrade and Constantinople.


ADRIA`TIC, THE, a sea 450 m. long separating Italy from Illyria,
Dalmatia, and Albania.


ADULLAM, David's hiding-place (1 Sam. xxii. 1), a royal Canaanitish
city 10 m. NW. of Hebron.


ADULLAMITES, an English political party who in 1866 deserted the
Liberal side in protest against a Liberal Franchise Bill then introduced.
John Bright gave them this name. See 1 Sam. xxii.


ADUMBLA, a cow, in old Norse mythology, that grazes on hoar-frost,
"licking the rime from the rocks--a Hindu cow transported north,"
surmises Carlyle.


ADVOCATE, LORD, chief counsel for the Crown in Scotland, public
prosecutor of crimes, and a member of the administration in power.


ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, body of lawyers qualified to plead at the
Scottish bar.


ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, a library belonging to the Faculty of Advocates
in Edinburgh, founded in 1632; it alone of Scotch libraries still holds
the privilege of receiving a copy of every book entered at Stationers'
Hall.


ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, the devil's advocate, a functionary in the Roman
Catholic Church appointed to show reason against a proposed canonization.


AEACUS, a Greek king renowned as an administrator of distributive
justice, after death appointed one of the three judges in Hades. _See_
MINOS and RHADAMANTHUS.


AEDILES, magistrates of ancient Rome who had charge of the public
buildings and public structures generally.


AEE`TIS, king of Colchis and father of Medea.


AEGE`AN SEA, the Archipelago.


AEGEUS, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into the AEgean Sea,
so called after him, in the mistaken belief that his son, who had been to
slay the Minotaur, had been slain by him.


AEGI`NA, an island 20 m. SW. of Athens, in a gulf of the same name.


AEGIR, the god of the sea in the Norse mythology.


AEGIS (lit. a goat's skin), the shield of Zeus, made of the hide of the
goat AMALTHEA (q. v.), representing originally the storm-cloud in which
the god invested himself when he was angry; it was also the attribute of
Athena, bearing in her case the Gorgon's head.


AEGIS`THUS. See AGAMEMNON.


AEL`FRIC, a Saxon writer of the end of the 10th century known as the
"Grammarian."


AELIA`NUS, CLAUDIUS, an Italian rhetorician who wrote in Greek, and
whose extant works are valuable for the passages from prior authors which
they have preserved for us.


AEMI`LIUS PAULUS, the Roman Consul who fell at Cannae, 216 B.C.; also
his son, surnamed Macedonicus, so called as having defeated Perseus at
Pydna, in Macedonia.


AENE`AS, a Trojan, the hero of Virgil's "AEneid," who in his various
wanderings after the fall of Troy settled in Italy, and became, tradition
alleges, the forefather of the Julian Gens in Rome.


AENEAS SILVIUS. See PICCOLOMINI.


AE`NEID, an epic poem by Virgil, of which AEneas is the hero.


AENESIDEMUS, a sceptical philosopher, born in Crete, who flourished
shortly after Cicero, and summed up under ten arguments the contention
against dogmatism in philosophy. See "SCHWEGLER," translated by
Dr. Hutchison Stirling.


AEOLIAN ACTION, action of the wind as causing geologic changes.


AEOLIAN ISLANDS, the LIPARI ISLANDS (q. v.).


AEO`LIANS, one of the Greek races who, originating in Thessaly,
spread north and south, and emigrated into Asia Minor, giving rise to the
AEolic dialect of the Greek language.


AEOLOTROPY, a change in the physical properties of bodies due to a
change of position.


AE`OLUS, the Greek god of the winds.


AEON, among the Gnostics, one of a succession of powers conceived as
emanating from God and presiding over successive creations and
transformations of being.


AEPYOR`NIS, a gigantic fossil bird of Madagascar, of which the egg is
six times larger than that of an ostrich.


AE`QUI, a tribe on NE. of Latium, troublesome to the Romans until
subdued in 302 B.C.


AERATED BREAD, bread of flour dough charged with carbonic acid gas.


AERATED WATERS, waters aerated with carbonic acid gas.


AES`CHINES, a celebrated Athenian orator, rival of Demosthenes, who
in the end prevailed over him by persuading the citizens to believe he
was betraying them to Philip of Macedon, so that he left Athens and
settled in Rhodes, where he founded a school as a rhetorician
(389-314 B.C.).


AES`CHYLUS, the father of the Greek tragedy, who distinguished
himself as a soldier both at Marathon and Salamis before he figured as a
poet; wrote, it is said, some seventy dramas, of which only seven are
extant--the "Suppliants," the "Persae," the "Seven against Thebes," the
"Prometheus Bound," the "Agamemnon," the "Choephori," and the
"Eumenides," his plays being trilogies; born at Eleusis and died in
Sicily (525-456 B.C.).


AESCULA`PIUS, a son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis, whom, for
restoring Hippolytus to life, Zeus, at the prayer of Pluto, destroyed
with a thunderbolt, but afterwards admitted among the gods as god of
medicine and the healing art; the cock, the emblem of vigilance, and the
serpent, of prudence, were sacred to him.


AESON, the father of Jason, was restored to youth by Medea.


AE`SOP, a celebrated Greek fabulist of the 6th century B.C., of
whose history little is known except that he was originally a slave,
manumitted by Iadmon of Samos, and put to death by the Delphians,
probably for some witticism at their expense.


AESO`PUS, a celebrated Roman actor, a friend of Pompey and Cicero.


AESTHETICS, the science of the beautiful in nature and the fine arts.


AE`TIUS, a Roman general, who withstood the aggressions of the
Barbarians for twenty years, and defeated Attila at Chalons, 451;
assassinated out of jealousy by the Emperor Valentinian III., 454.


AETO`LIA, a country of ancient Greece N. of the Gulf of Corinth.


AFFRE, archbishop of Paris, suffered death on the barricades, as,
with a green bough in his hand, he bore a message of peace to the
insurgents (1793-1848).


AFGHAN`ISTAN` (5,000), a country in the centre of Asia, between
India on the east and Persia on the west, its length about 600 m. and its
breadth about 500 m., a plateau of immense mountain masses, and high,
almost inaccessible, valleys, occupying 278,000 sq. m., with extremes of
climate, and a mixed turbulent population, majority Afghans. The country,
though long a bone of contention between England and Russia, is now
wholly under the sphere of British influence.


AF`GHANS, THE, a fine and noble but hot-tempered race of the
Mohammedan faith inhabiting Afghanistan. The Afghans proper are called
PATHANS in India, and call themselves Beni Israel (sons of Israel),
tracing their descent from King Saul.


AFRA`NIUS, a Latin comic poet who flourished 100 B.C.; also a Roman
Consul who played a prominent part in the rivalry between Caesar and
Pompey, 60 B.C.


AFRICA, one of the five great divisions of the globe, three times
larger than Europe, seven-tenths of it within the torrid zone, and
containing over 200,000,000 inhabitants of more or less dark-skinned
races. It was long a _terra incognita_, but it is now being explored in
all directions, and attempts are everywhere made to bring it within the
circuit of civilisation. It is being parcelled out by European nations,
chiefly Britain, France, and Germany, and with more zeal and appliance of
resource by Britain than any other.


AFRICA`NUS, JULIUS, a Christian historian and chronologist of the
3rd century.


AFRIDIS, a treacherous tribe of eight clans, often at war with each
other, in a mountainous region on the North-Western frontier of India W.
of Peshawar.


AFRIKAN`DER, one born in S. Africa of European parents.


AFRIT`, a powerful evil spirit in the Mohammedan mythology.


AGA`DES, a once important depot of trade in the S. of the Sahara,
much decayed.


AGAG, a king of the Amalekites, conquered by Saul, and hewn in
pieces by order of Samuel.


AGAMEM`NON, a son of Atreus, king of Mycenae and general-in-chief of
the Greeks in the Trojan war, represented as a man of stately presence
and a proud spirit. On the advice of the soothsayer Calchas sacrificed
his daughter IPHIGENIA (q. v.) for the success of the enterprise
he conducted. He was assassinated by AEgisthus and Clytaemnestra, his wife,
on his return from the war. His fate and that of his house is the subject
of AEschylus' trilogy "Oresteia."


AGAMOGENESIS, name given to reproduction without sex, by fission,
budding, &c.


AGANIPPE, a fountain in Boeotia, near Helicon, dedicated to the
Muses as a source of poetic inspiration.


AG`APE, love-feasts among the primitive Christians in commemoration
of the Last Supper, and in which they gave each other the kiss of peace
as token of Christian brotherhood.


AGAR-AGAR, a gum extracted from a sea-weed, used in bacteriological
investigations.


AGA`SIAS, a sculptor of Ephesus, famous for his statue of the
"Gladiator."


AGASS`IZ, a celebrated Swiss naturalist, in the department
especially of ichthyology, and in connection with the glaciers; settled
as a professor of zoology and geology in the United States in 1846
(1807-1873).


AG`ATHE, ST., a Sicilian virgin who suffered martyrdom at Palermo
under Decius in 251; represented in art as crowned with a long veil and
bearing a pair of shears, the instruments with which her breast were cut
off. Festival, Feb. 5.


AGA`THIAS, a Byzantine poet and historian (536-582).


AGATH`OCLES, the tyrant of Syracuse, by the massacre of thousands of
the inhabitants, was an enemy of the Carthaginians, and fought against
them; was poisoned in the end (361-289 B.C.).


AG`ATHON, an Athenian tragic poet, a rival of Euripides
(447-400 B.C.).


AG`ATHON, ST., pope from 676 to 682.


AG`DE (6), a French seaport on the Herault, 3 m. from the
Mediterranean.


A`GEN (21), a town on the Garonne, 84 m. above Bordeaux.


AGES, in the Greek mythology four--the Golden, self-sufficient; the
Silver, self-indulgent; the Brazen, warlike; and the Iron, violent;
together with the Heroic, nobly aspirant, between the third and fourth.
In archeology, three--the Stone Age, the Bronze, and the Iron. In
history, the Middle and Dark, between the Ancient and the Modern. In
Fichte, five--of Instinct, of Law, of Rebellion, of Rationality, of
Conformity to Reason. In Shakespeare, seven--Infancy, Childhood, Boyhood,
Adolescence, Manhood, Age, Old Age.


AGESAN`DER, a sculptor of Rhodes of the first century, who wrought
at the famous group of the Laocoon.


AGESILA`US, a Spartan king, victorious over the Persians in Asia and
over the allied Thebans and Athenians at Coronea, but defeated by
Epaminondas at Mantinea after a campaign in Egypt; _d_. 360 B.C., aged
84.


AGGAS, RALPH, a surveyor and engraver of the 16th century, who first
drew a plan of London as well as of Oxford and Cambridge.


AGGLUTINATE LANGUAGES, languages composed of parts which are words
glued together, so to speak, as cowherd.


AGINCOURT`, a small village in Pas-de-Calais, where Henry V. in a
bloody battle defeated the French, Oct. 25, 1415.


A`GIS, the name of several Spartan kings, of whom the most famous
were Agis III. and IV., the former famous for his resistance to the
Macedonian domination, _d_. 330 B.C.; and the latter for his attempts to
carry a law for the equal division of land, _d_. 240 B.C.


AGLAIA. See GRACES.


AG`NADEL, a Lombard village, near which Louis XII. defeated the
Venetians in 1509, and Vendome, Prince Eugene in 1705.


AGNA`NO, LAKE OF, a lake near Naples, now drained; occupied the
crater of an extinct volcano, its waters in a state of constant
ebullition.


AGNELLO, COL D', passage by the S. of Monte Viso between France and
Italy.


AGNES, an unsophisticated maiden in Moliere's _L'Ecole des Femmes_,
so unsophisticated that she does not know what love means.


AGNES, ST., a virgin who suffered martyrdom, was beheaded because
the flames would not touch her body, under Diocletian in 303; represented
in art as holding a palm-branch in her hand and a lamb at her feet or in
her arms. Festival, Jan. 21.


AGNES DE MERANIE, the second wife of Philip Augustus by a marriage
in 1193, declared null by the Church, who, being dismissed in
consequence, died broken-hearted in 1201.


AGNES SOREL, surnamed _Dame de beaute_, mistress of Charles VII. of
France (1409-1450).


AGNE`SI, MARIA GAETANA, a native of Milan, a woman of extraordinary
ability and attainments, prelected for her father in mathematics in the
University of Bologna under sanction of the Pope; died a nun at her
birthplace (1718-1799).


AG`NI, the god of fire in the Vedic mythology, begets the gods,
organises the world, produces and preserves universal life, and
throughout never ceases to be fire. One of the three terms of the Vedic
trinity, Soma and Indra being the other two.


AGNOLO, a Florentine artist, friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael,
distinguished for his carvings in wood (1460-1543).


AGNOSTICISM, the doctrine which disclaims all knowledge of the
supersensuous, or denies that we know or can know the absolute, the
infinite, or God.


AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross as a symbol of
Christ, or a medal with this device; also a prayer in the Mass beginning
with the words, "Lamb of God."


AGONIC LINE, line along which the needle points due north and south.


AGORA, the forum of a Grecian town.


AGOS`TA, a city on east coast of Sicily.


AGOULT, COUNTESS OF, a French authoress under the pseudonym of
Daniel Stern (1805-1876).


AGOUST, CAPT. DE, a "cast-iron" captain of the Swiss Guards, who on
May 4, 1788, by order of the Court of Versailles, marched the Parliament
of Paris out of the Palais de Justice and carried off the key. See
CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION," BK. I. CHAP. VIII.


AGOU`TI, a rodent, native of Brazil, Paraguay, and Guiana; very
destructive to roots and sugar-canes.


A`GRA (168), a handsome city on the Jumna, in NW. Province of India,
famous for, among other monuments, the Taj Mahal, a magnificent mausoleum
erected near it by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favourite
wife; it is a centre of trade, and seat of manufactures of Indian wares.


AG`RAM, (37), a Hungarian town, the capital of Croatia, with a fine
Gothic cathedral and a university; is subject to earthquakes.


AGRARIAN LAWS, laws among the Romans regulating the division of
lands.


AGRIC`OLA, a Roman general, father-in-law of Tacitus, who conquered
Great Britain in 80, recalled by the Emperor Domitian in 87, and retired
into private life (37-93).


AGRICOLA, JOHANN, a follower and friend of Luther, who became his
antagonist in the matter of the binding obligation of the law on
Christians (1492-1566).


AGRICOLA, RUDOLPHUS, a learned and accomplished Dutchman, much
esteemed by Erasmus, and much in advance of his time; his most important
work, "Dialectics," being an attack on the scholastic system (1442-1485).


AGRIGEN`TUM, an ancient considerable city, now Girgenti, on the S.
of Sicily, of various fortune, and still showing traces of its ancient
grandeur.


AGRIPPA, H. CORNELIUS, a native of Cologne, of noble birth, for some
time in the service of Maximilian, but devoted mainly to the study of the
occult sciences, which exposed him to various persecutions through life
(1486-1535).


AGRIPPA, HEROD. See HEROD.


AGRIP`PA, M. VIPSANIUS, a Roman general, the son-in-law and
favourite of Augustus, who distinguished himself at the battle of Actium,
and built the Pantheon of Rome (63-12 B.C.).


AGRIPPI`NA, the daughter of Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, and thus
the granddaughter of Augustus; married Germanicus, accompanied him in his
campaigns, and brought his ashes to Rome on his death, but was banished
from Rome by Tiberius, and _d_. in 33.


AGRIPPINA, the daughter of Germanicus and the former, born at
Cologne, and the mother of Nero. Her third husband was her uncle, the
Emperor Claudian, whom she got to adopt her son, and then poisoned him,
in order to place her son on the throne; but the latter, resenting her
intolerable ascendancy, had her put to death in 59.


AGTELEK, a village NE. of Pesth, in Hungary with vast stalactite
caverns, some of them of great height.


AGUA`DO, A. M., an enormously wealthy banker of Spanish-Jewish
descent, born in Seville, and naturalised in France (1784-1842).


AGUAS CALIENTES (31), a high-lying inland trading town in Mexico.


AGUE-CHEEK, SIR ANDREW, a silly squire in "Twelfth Night."


AGUESSEAU`, D', a French magistrate under Louis XIV. and Louis XV.,
of unimpeachable integrity and unselfish devotion, a learned jurist and
law reformer, and held high posts in the administration of justice
(1668-1751).


AGUILAR, GRACE, a Jewess, born at Hackney; authoress of "Magic
Wreath," "Home Influence," "Vale of Cedars"; of a delicate constitution,
died young (1816-1847).


A`GULHAS, CAPE (i. e. the Needles), the most southerly point of
Africa, 100 m. ESE. of the Cape, and along with the bank of the whole
south coast, dangerous to shipping.


A`HAB, a king of Israel fond of splendour, and partial to the
worship of Baal (918-896 B.C.).


AHASUE`RUS, a traditionary figure known as the Wandering Jew; also
the name of several kings of Persia.


AHAZ, a king of Judah who first brought Judea under tribute to
Assyria.


AHLDEN, CASTLE OF, a castle in Lueneburg Heath, the nearly lifelong
prison-house of the wife of George I. and the mother of George II. and of
Sophie Dorothea of Prussia.


AHMADABAD (148), a chief town of Guzerat, in the Bombay Presidency,
a populous city and of great splendour in the last century, of which
gorgeous relics remain.


AHMED, a prince in the "Arabian Nights," noted for a magic tent
which would expand so as to shelter an army, and contract so that it
could go into one's pocket.


AH`MED SHAH, the founder of the Afghan dynasty and the Afghan power
(1724-1773).


AHMEDNUG`AR (41), a considerable Hindu town 122 m. E. of Bombay.


AHOLIBAH, prostitution personified. See EZEK. XXIII.


AHOLIBAMAH, a grand daughter of Cain, beloved by a seraph, who at
the Flood bore her away to another planet.


AH`RIMAN, the Zoroastrian impersonation of the evil principle, to
whom all the evils of the world are ascribed.


AIDAN, ST., the archbishop of Lindisfarne, founder of the monastery,
and the apostle of Northumbria, sent thither from Iona on the invitation
of King Oswald in 635.


AIGNAN, St., the bishop of Orleans, defended it against Attila and
his Huns in 451.


AIGUILLON, DUKE D', corrupt minister of France, previously under
trial for official plunder of money, which was quashed, at the corrupt
court of Louis XV., and the tool of Mme. Du Barry, with whom he rose and
fell (1720-1782).


AIKIN, DR. JOHN, a popular writer, and author, with Mrs. Barbauld,
his sister, of "Evenings at Home" (1747-1822).


AIKMAN, W., an eminent Scotch portrait-painter (1682-1731).


AILLY, PIERRE D', a cardinal of the Romish Church, and eminent as a
theologian, presided at the council of Constance which condemned Huss
(1350-1420).


AILSA CRAIG, a rocky islet of Ayrshire, 10 m. NW. of Girvan, 2 m. in
circumference, which rises abruptly out of the sea at the mouth of the
Firth of Clyde to a height of 1114 ft.


AIMARD, GUSTAVE, a French novelist, born in Paris; died insane
(1818-1883).


AIME, ST., archbishop of Sens, in France; _d_. 690; festival, 13th
Sept.


AIN, a French river, has its source in the Jura Mts., and falls into
the Rhone; also a department of France between the Rhone and Savoy.


AINMILLER, a native of Muenich, the reviver of glass-painting in
Germany (1807-1870).


AI`NOS, a primitive thick-set, hairy race, now confined to Yezo and
the islands N. of Japan, aboriginal to that quarter of the globe, and
fast dying out.


AINSWORTH, R., an English Latin lexicographer (1660-1743).


AINSWORTH, W. H., a popular English novelist, the author of
"Rookwood" and "Jack Sheppard," as well as novels of an antiquarian and
historical character (1805-1882).


AIN-TAB (20), a Syrian garrison town 60 m. NE. of Aleppo; trade in
hides, leather, and cotton.


AIRD, THOMAS, a Scottish poet, author of the "Devil's Dream," the
"Old Bachelor," and the "Old Scotch Village"; for nearly 30 years editor
of the _Dumfries Herald_ (1802-1876).


AIRDRIE (19), a town in Lanarkshire, 11 m. E. of Glasgow, in a
district rich in iron and coal; is of rapid growth; has cotton-mills,
foundries, etc.


AIRDS MOSS, a moor in Ayrshire, between the rivers Ayr and Lugar.


AIRE, a Yorkshire river which flows into the Ouse; also a French
river, affluent of the Aisne.


AIRY, SIR G. B., an eminent English astronomer, mathematician, and
man of science, astronomer-royal from 1836 to 1881, retired on a pension;
was the first to enunciate the complete theory of the rainbow.


AISNE, a French river which, after a course of 150 m., falls into
the Oise near Compiegne; also a department in the N. of France.


AISSE, MLLE., a Circassienne brought to France about 1700; left
letters on French society in the eighteenth century, sparkling with wit
and full of interest.


AITON, WM., a botanist, born in Lanarkshire, the first director of
the Royal Gardens at Kew (1731-1793).


AITZEMA, LEO, historian of Friesland (1600-1669).


AIX (22), a town, the ancient capital of Provence, 20 m. N. of
Marseilles, the seat of an archbishop and a university; founded by the
Romans 123 B.C.; near it Marius defeated the Teutons.


AIX, ISLE OF, island in the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Charente.


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE` (103), in Rhenish Prussia, one of the oldest cities
in Germany, made capital of the German empire by Charlemagne; derives its
name from its mineral springs; is a centre of manufacturing industries
and an important trade; is celebrated for its octagonal cathedral (in the
middle of which is a stone marking the burial-place of Charlemagne), for
treaties of peace in 1668 and 1748, and for a European congress in 1818.


AIX-LES-BAINS`, a small town near Chambery, in the dep. of Savoy,
and much frequented by invalids for its waters and baths.


AJAC`CIO (18), the capital of Corsica, the birthplace of the
Bonaparte family, of Cardinal Fesch, and Bacciochi.


AJALON, VALLEY OF, in Palestine, scene of a battle between Joshua
and five Canaanitish kings, during which the sun and moon stood still at
the prayer of Joshua, to enable him to finish his victory.


A`JAN COAST, a district on the E. coast of Africa, from Cape
Guardafui to the mouth of the Juba, under the protectorate of Germany.


A`JAX the name of two Greek heroes in the Trojan war, and the
synonym of a fiery and impetuous warrior: AJAX, the son of Telamon
of Sparta, one of the bravest of the Greeks, who, on the death of
Achilles, contended with Ulysses for his arms, but was defeated, in
consequence of which he lost his reason and put an end to his life; and
AJAX, the son of Oileus, swift of foot, like Achilles, who suffered
shipwreck on his homeward voyage, as a judgment for an outrage he
perpetrated on the person of Cassandra in the temple of Athena in Troy.


AJMERE` (68), a city in a small territory in the heart of Rajputana,
under the rule of the Viceroy; well built, and contains some famous
edifices.


AJODHYA, an ancient city of Oudh, 77 m. E. of Lucknow, once, on
religious grounds, one of the largest and most magnificent cities of
India, now in ruins; the modern town is an insignificant place, but has
an annual fair, attended by often 600,000 pilgrims.


AK`ABA, a gulf forming the NE. inlet of the Red Sea.


AKAKIA, DOCTOR, a satire of a very biting nature by Voltaire,
directed against pretentious pedants of science in the person of
Maupertuis, the President of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin,
which so excited the anger of Frederick the Great, the patron of the
Academy, that he ordered it to be burnt by the common hangman, after
30,000 copies of it had been sold in Paris!


AKAKIA, MARTIN, physician of Francis I., born at Chalons-sur-Marne,
his real name being Sans-Malice; _d_. 1551.


AK`BAR, the great Mogul emperor of India, who, after a minority of a
few years, assumed the reins of government at the age of eighteen, and in
ten or twelve years, such was his power of conquest, had the whole of
India north of the Vindhya Mts. subject to his rule. He was wise in
government as well as powerful in war, and one of the most large-minded
and largest-hearted rulers recorded in history. He reigned half a century
(1542-1605).


AKENSIDE, MARK, an English physician, who wrote, among other
productions and pieces, the "Hymn to the Naiads," especially a poem
entitled the "Pleasures of Imagination," much quoted from at one time,
and suggested by the study of Addison on the Imagination in the
_Spectator_ (1721-1770).


AKERS, B. P., an able American sculptor (1825-1861).


AKERMAN` (55), a fortified town in Bessarabia, at the mouth of the
Dniester.


AKIBA, BEN JOSEPH, a famous Jewish rabbi of the 2nd century, a great
authority in the matter of Jewish tradition, flayed alive by the Romans
for being concerned in a revolt in 135.


AKKAS, a wandering race of negro dwarfs in Central Africa, with
large heads and slender necks, who live by hunting.


AKRON (27), a town in Ohio, U.S., seat of manufactures and centre
of traffic.


AKSAKOF`, a Russian litterateur and advocate of Panslavism
(1823-1886).


AKSU (20), a trading town in E. Turkestan, 250 m. NE. of Yarkand.


AK`YAB (37), the capital of Aracan, in British Burmah, 90 m. SE. of
Calcutta.


AL RAKIM, the dog that guarded the SEVEN SLEEPERS (q. v.),
and that stood by them all through their long sleep.


ALABA`MA (1,513), one of the United States of N. America, traversed
by a river of the name, a little larger than England, highly fertile and
a great cotton-growing country, and abounding in iron, coal, and marble,
bounded on the W. by the Mississippi, on the N. by Tennessee, and the E.
by Georgia.


ALABAMA, THE, a vessel built in Birkenhead for the Confederates in
the late American Civil War, for the devastation done by which, according
to the decision of a court of arbitration, the English Government had to
pay heavy damages of three millions of money.


ALACOQUE, MARIE, a French nun of a mystic tendency, the founder of
the devotion of the Sacred Heart (1647-1690).


ALAD`DIN, one of the chiefs of the Assassins in the 13th century,
better known by the name of the Old Man of the Mountain.


ALADDIN, a character in the "Arabian Nights," who became possessed
of a wonderful lamp and a wonderful ring, by rubbing which together he
could call two evil genii to do his bidding.


ALADINISTS, free-thinkers among the Mohammedans.


ALAGO`AS (397), a maritime province of Brazil, N. of Pernambuco,
with tropical products as well as fine timber and dye-woods.


ALAIN DE L'ISLE, a professor of theology in the University of Paris,
surnamed the _Doctor universel_ (1114-1203).


ALAINS. See ALANS.


ALAIS` (18), a town at the foot of the Cevennes, in the centre of a
mining district; once the stronghold of French Protestantism.


ALAMAN`NI, LUIGI, an Italian poet and diplomatist, born at Florence
(1495-1556).


ALAND ISLES, a group of 300 small islands in the Gulf of Bothnia, of
which 80 are inhabited; fortified by Russia.


ALANS, a barbarous horde from the East, who invaded W. Europe in the
4th and 5th centuries, but were partly exterminated and partly ousted by
the Visigoths.


ALAR`CON Y MENDO`ZA, JUAN RUIZ DE, a Spanish dramatist born in
Mexico, who, though depreciated by his contemporaries, ranks after 200
years of neglect among the foremost dramatic geniuses of Spain, next even
to Cervantes and Lope de Vega; he was a humpback, had an offensive air of
conceit, and was very unpopular; he wrote at least twenty dramas, some of
which have been translated into French; _d_. in 1639.


AL`ARIC I., the king of the Visigoths, a man of noble birth, who, at
the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century, ravaged Greece,
invaded Italy, and took and pillaged Rome; died at Cosenza, in Calabria,
in 412, at the early age of thirty-four.


ALARIC II., king of the Visigoths, whose dominions included all Gaul
and most of Spain; defeated by the Franks at Poitiers, and killed by the
hand of Clovis, their king, in 567.


ALARIC COTIN, Voltaire's nickname for Frederick the Great, the
former in recognition of him as a warrior, the latter as a would-be
litterateur, after an indifferent French poet of the name of Cotin.


ALAS`CO, JOHN, the uncle of Sigismund, king of Poland, and a zealous
promoter in Poland of the Reformation, the friend of Erasmus and
Zwinglius (1499-1560).


ALAS`KA (32), an immense territory belonging to the U.S. by
purchase from Russia, extending from British N. America to Behring
Strait; it is poor in resources, and the inhabitants, who are chiefly
Indians and Eskimos, live by hunting and fishing, and by the export of
salmon; seal fishery valuable, however.


ALASNAM, a hero related of in the "Arabian Nights" as having erected
eight statues of gold, and in quest of a statue for a ninth unoccupied
pedestal, finding what he wanted in the person of a beautiful woman for a
wife.


ALAS`TOR, an avenging spirit, given to torment families whose
history has been stained by some crime.


A`LAVA (97), the southernmost of the three Basque provinces of
Spain, largest, but least populous; rich in minerals, and fertile in
soil.


ALAVA, RICARDO DE, a Spanish general, born in Vittoria, joined the
national party, and was aide-de-camp to the Duke of Wellington, and
became eventually ambassador to London and Paris (1771-1843).


ALBA LONGA, a city of Latium older than Rome.


ALBACETE (229), a province in Spain, with a capital (30) of same
name, 173 m. SE. of Madrid.


ALBAN LAKE, near Alban Mount, 6 m. in circuit, occupying the basin
of an extinct volcano, its surface 961 ft. above the sea-level.


ALBAN MOUNT, a small mountain overlooking Alba Longa.


ALBAN, ST., the first martyr in Britain to the Christian faith in
303; represented in art as carrying his head between his hands, having
been beheaded.


ALBA`NI, an Italian painter, a disciple of Caracci, born at Bologna;
surnamed the Anacreon of painting; his pictures more distinguished for
grace than vigour.


ALBA`NI, an illustrious Roman family, members of which attained the
highest dignities in the Church, one, Clement XI., having been Pope.


ALBANI, MME., _nee_ Emma la Jeunesse, a well-known and highly
popular operatic singer of French-Canadian descent; _b_. 1847.


ALBA`NIA, a region in Balkan peninsula, on the Adriatic, extending
from Servia to Greece.


ALBANO, LAKE OF, a small crater-like lake 15 m. SE. of Rome, near
which rises the Castel Gandolfo, where the Pope has a villa.


ALBANY, the old Celtic name for the Scottish highlands.


ALBANY, a town in W. Australia, on King George Sound, 261 m. SE. of
Perth, a port of call for Australian liners; also the capital (94) of the
State of New York, on the Hudson River, a well-appointed city; seat of
justice for the State, with a large trade and numerous manufactures.


ALBANY, COUNTESS OF, wife of English pretender, Prince Charles
Stuart, a dissolute woman (1753-1824).


ALBANY, THE DUKE OF, a title formerly given to a member of the royal
family, and revived in the present reign.


ALBANY, DUCHESS OF, daughter of Prince Waldeck Pyrmont and widow of
Prince Leopold of England; _b_. 1861, widow since 1884.


ALBATEGNI, a distinguished Arabian astronomer, born in Mesopotamia
in the 9th or 10th century of our era; his observations extended over 50
years; he so improved the methods and instruments of observation as to
earn the title of the Ptolemy of the Arabs.


ALBATROSS, the largest and strongest of sea-birds, that ranges over
the southern seas, often seen far from land; it is a superstition among
sailors that it is disastrous to shoot one.


ALBERO`NI, an Italian of humble birth, became a Cardinal of the
Church and Prime Minister to Philip V. of Spain, wrought hard to restore
Spain to its ancient grandeur, was defeated in his project by the
quadruple alliance of England, France, Austria, and Holland, and obliged
to retire (1664-1752).


ALBERT, archbishop of Mainz, a dignity granted him by Pope Leo X. at
the ransom of L15,000, which he was unable to pay, and which, as the
Pope needed it for building St. Peter's, he borrowed, the Pope granting
him the power to sell indulgences in order to repay the loan, in which
traffic Tetzel was his chief salesman, a trade which roused the wrath of
Luther, and provoked the German Reformation (1450-1545).


ALBERT, the last Grandmaster of the Teutonic knights, who being
"religious in an eminent degree and shaken in his belief" took zealously
to Protestantism and came under the influence of Luther, who advised him
to declare himself Duke of Prussia, under the wing of Sigismund of
Poland, in defiance of the Teutonic order as no longer worthy of bed and
board on the earth, and so doing, became founder of the Prussian State
(1490-1568).


ALBERT, markgrave of Brandenburg, defined by Carlyle "a failure of a
Fritz," with "features" of a Frederick the Great in him, "but who burnt
away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able
editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it
wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of
fortune he underwent" (1522-1557).


ALBERT, PRINCE, second son of Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
born Aug. 26, 1819, an accomplished man with a handsome presence, who
became the consort of Queen Victoria in 1840, and from his prudence and
tact was held in the highest honour by the whole community, but died at
Windsor of typhoid fever, Dec. 14, 1861, to the unspeakable sorrow of
both Queen and country.


ALBERT, ST., bishop of Liege, was assassinated by the emissaries of
the Emperor Henry VI. in 1195. Festival, Nov. 21.


ALBERT EDWARD. See WALES, PRINCE OF.


ALBERT I., emperor of Germany from 1298 to 1308, eldest son of
Rudolf of Hapsburg, "a most clutching, strong-fisted, dreadfully hungry,
tough, and unbeautiful man, whom his nephew at last had to assassinate,
and did assassinate, as he crossed the river Reuss with him in a boat,
May 1, 1308."


ALBERT II., a successor, "who got three crowns--Hungary, Bohemia,
and the Imperial--in one year, and we hope a fourth," says the old
historian, "which was a heavenly and eternal one," for he died the next
year, 1439.


ALBERT III., elector of Brandenburg. See ACHILLES OF GERMANY.


ALBERT MEDAL, a medal of gold and of bronze, instituted in 1866,
awarded to civilians for acts of heroism by sea or land.


ALBERT THE BEAR, markgrave of Brandenburg, called the Bear, "not
from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the
cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a
strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked
things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day,
got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a
conspicuous country ever since," says Carlyle, "and which grows more so
in our late times" (1100-1175).


ALBERT NYAN`ZA, a lake in Equatorial Africa, in the Nile basin,
discovered by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, 150 m. long by 40 broad, and 2500
feet above sea-level.


ALBER`TA (26), a fertile region with large forests in British
America, on the E. slope of the Rocky Mountains, the south abounding in
cattle ranches, and the mountainous districts in minerals.


ALBERTI, an illustrious Florentine family, rivals of the Medicis and
the Albrizzi.


ALBER`TUS MAGNUS, one of the greatest of the scholastic philosophers
and theologians of the Middle Ages, teacher of Thomas Aquinas, supreme in
knowledge of the arts and sciences of the time, and regarded by his
contemporaries in consequence as a sorcerer (1190-1280).


ALBI, a town of some antiquity and note in S. of France, 22 m. NE.
of Toulouse.


ALBIGEN`SES, a religious sect, odious, as heretical, to the Church,
which sprung up about Albi, in the S. of France, in the 12th century,
against which Pope Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade, which was carried
on by Simon de Montfort in the 13th century, and by the Inquisition
afterwards, to their utter annihilation.


ALBINOS, persons or animals with preternaturally pale skin and fair
hair, also with pupils of a red or pink colour, and eyes too weak to bear
full light.


ALBINUS, an able professor of anatomy and therapeutics at Leyden
(1696-1770).


ALBION, a white cliff, the ancient name of Great Britain.


ALBOIN, king of the Lombards in the 6th century, from 561 to 573;
invaded Italy as far as the Tiber, and set up his capital in Pavia;
incurred the resentment of his wife, who had him assassinated for forcing
her to drink wine out of the skull of her father.


ALBORAK, a wonderful horse of Mahomet, an impersonation of the
lightning as his steed.


ALBOR`NOZ, a Spanish statesman, archbishop of Toledo, a bold
defender of the faith against the Moor and a plain-spoken man in the
interest of Christianity (1310-1367).


ALBRECHT. See ALBERT.


ALBRIZZI, a powerful Florentine family, rivals of the Medicis and
the Alberti.


ALBUE`RA, a Spanish village 12 m. SE. of Badajoz, scene of a victory
(May 16, 1811) of General Beresford over Marshal Soult.


ALBUFE`RA, a lake on the coast of Spain, 7 m. S. of Valencia, near
which Marshal Suchet gained a victory over the English in 1811.


AL`BULA, Swiss mountain pass in the canton of Grisons, 7595 ft.
high.


ALBUMEN, a glairy substance a constituent of plants and animals, and
found nearly pure in the white of an egg or in the serum of the blood.


ALBUQUERQUE`, ALFONSO D', a celebrated Portuguese patriot and
navigator, the founder of the Portuguese power in India, who, after
securing a footing in India for Portugal that he sought for, settled in
Goa, where his recall at the instance of jealous rivals at home gave him
such a shock that he died of a broken heart just as he was leaving. The
Indians long remembered his benign rule, and used to visit his tomb to
pray him to deliver them from the oppression of his successors
(1453-1513).


ALBYN, ancient Celtic name of Scotland.


ALCAE`US OF MITYLENE, a Greek lyric poet, an aristocrat by birth, a
contemporary and an alleged lover of Sappho, and much admired by Horace;
flourished about 600 B.C.


ALCA`LA DE HENA`RES (14), a town in Spain, the birthplace of
Cervantes, 21 m. E. of Madrid, long the seat of a famous university
founded by Cardinal Ximenes.


ALCAN`TARA, a town of Spain, on the Tagus, near Portugal, with a
bridge of six arches, 670 ft. long and 210 ft. high, built in honour of
Trajan in 104. The Order of Alcantara, a religious and military order,
was established in 1176 here, for defence against the Moors, and was
suppressed in 1835.


ALCESTE, the chief character in Moliere's _Misanthrope_.


ALCES`TIS, the wife of Admetus, who gave herself up to death to save
her husband. Hercules descended to the lower world and brought her back.
She is the subject of one of the tragedies of Euripides.


ALCHEMY, the early analysis of substances which has in modern times
developed into chemistry, and which aimed chiefly at the discovery of the
philosopher's stone, of a universal solvent, and of the elixir of life;
it has been defined to be "an art without art, which has its beginning in
falsehood, its middle in toil, and its end in poverty."


ALCIBI`ADES, an Athenian of high birth, and related to Pericles,
possessed of a handsome person, brilliant abilities, and great wealth,
but was of a wayward temper and depraved, whom Socrates tried hard to win
over to virtue, but failed. He involved his country in a rash expedition
against Sicily, served and betrayed it by turns in the Peloponnesian war,
and died by assassination in exile (450-404 B.C.).


ALCI`DES, the grandson of Alcaeus, a patronymic of Hercules.


ALCIN`OUS, a king of the Phaeacians, the father of Nausicaa, who
figures in the Odyssey as the host of Ulysses, who had been shipwrecked
on his shore.


ALCI`RA (18), a walled town in Spain, on an island 22 m. SW. of
Valencia.


ALCMAN, an early Greek lyric poet, born at Sardis.


ALCME`NE, the wife of Amphitryon and the mother of Hercules.


ALCMEONIDAE, a powerful Athenian family, of which Pericles and
Alcibiades were members, who professed to be descended from Alcmaeon, the
grandson of Nestor.


ALCOCK, JOHN, an eminent ecclesiastic of the reign of Edward IV.,
distinguished for his love of learning and learned men; _d_. 1500.


ALCOHOL, pure or highly rectified spirit obtained from fermented
saccharine solutions by distillation, and the intoxicating principle of
all spirituous liquors.


ALCOHOLISM, the results, acute or chronic, of the deleterious action
of alcohol on the human system.


ALCORAN`. See KORAN.


ALCOTT, LOUISA MARY, a popular American authoress, who acted as a
nurse to the wounded during the Civil War; her works mostly addressed to
the young (1832-1888).


ALCOY (30), a town in Spain, N. of Alicanti; staple manufacture,
paper.


AL`CUIN, a learned Englishman, a disciple of Bede; invited by
Charlemagne to introduce scholarly culture into the empire and establish
libraries and schools of learning; was one of those men whose work lies
more in what they influence others to do than in what they do themselves
(735-804).


ALCY`ONE, daughter of AEolus, who threw herself into the sea after
her husband, who had perished in shipwreck, and was changed into the
kingfisher.


ALDE`BARAN, the bull's-eye, a star of the first magnitude in the eye
of the constellation Taurus; it is the sun in the Arabian mythology.


ALDEHYDE, a limpid, very volatile liquid, of a suffocating odour,
obtained from the oxidation of alcohol.


AL`DERNEY (2), one of the Channel Islands, 3 or 4 m. long by 2
broad, celebrated for its breed of cows; separated from Cape de la Hogue
by the dangerous Race of Alderney.


AL`DERSHOT, a permanent camp, established in 1855, for instruction
in military manoeuvres, on a moorland 35 m. SW. of London.


ALDINE EDITIONS, editions, chiefly of the classics, issued from the
press of Aldus Manutius in Venice in the 16th century, and remarkable for
the correctness of the text and the beauty and clearness of the printing.


ALDINGAR, SIR, legendary character, the steward of Eleanor, wife of
Henry II., who accused her of infidelity, and offered to substantiate the
charge by combat, when an angel in the form of a child appeared and
certified her innocence.


ALDOBRANDINI, a Florentine jurisconsult (1500-1558).


AL`DRED, bishop of Worcester in the reign of Edward the Confessor,
made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, became archbishop of York, and crowned
the last of the Saxon and the first of the Norman kings of England; _d_.
1063.


AL`DRICH, dean of Oxford, an accomplished ecclesiastic; was a
skilful musician, and composed many services for the Church; wrote a
system of logic, long in use in Oxford University (1647-1710).


ALDROVAN`DI, ULYSSES, a famous Italian naturalist of Bologna, who
collected an immense body of interesting facts in natural history,
published partly in his lifetime and partly after his death (1522-1607).


ALDUS MANUTIUS, or ALDO MANUZIO, an Italian printer, born at
Bassano, established a printing-office in Venice in 1488, issued the
celebrated Aldine Editions of the classics, and invented the italic type,
for the exclusive use of which for many years he obtained a patent,
though the honour of the invention is more probably due to his
typefounder, Franciso de Bologna, than to him (1447-1515).


ALEC`TO, one of the three Eumenides or Furies.


ALEMAN`, a Spanish novelist, author of the celebrated romance
_Guzman de Alfarache_, which in 6 years ran through 26 editions, was
translated several times into French; died in Mexico in 1610.


ALEMAN`NI, a confederacy of tribes which appeared on the banks of
the Rhine in the 3rd cent., and for long gave no small trouble to Rome,
but whose incursions were arrested, first by Maximinus, and finally by
Clovis in 496, who made them subject to the Franks, hence the modern
names in French for Germany and the Germans.


ALEMTE`JO (369), a southern province of Portugal; soil fertile to
the east.


ALENCON (17), a town in the dep. of Orne, 105 m. W. of Paris, once
famous for its lace.


ALENCON, COUNTS AND DUKES OF, a title borne by several members of
the house of Valois--e. g. CHARLES OF VALOIS, who fell at Crecy
(1346); JEAN IV., who fell at Agincourt (1415).


ALEP`PO (130), a city in Northern Syria, one of the finest in the
East, once one of the greatest trading centres in the world.


ALE`SIA, a strong place in the E. of Gaul, which, as situated on a
hill and garrisoned by 80,000 Gauls, cost Caesar no small trouble to take.


ALESIUS, or ALANE, a noted Reformer, born in Edinburgh,
converted to Protestantism by Patrick Hamilton; was driven first from
Scotland and then from England, till he settled as a theological
professor in Germany, and took an active part in the Reformation there
(1500-1563).


ALESSANDRIA (78), a strongly fortified and stirring town on the
Tenaro, in Northern Italy, the centre of 8 railways, 55 m. SE. of Turin.


ALESSI, architect, born at Perugia, architect of the monastery and
church of the ESCURIAL, q. v. (1500-1572).


ALETSCH GLACIER, THE, the largest of the glaciers of the Alps, which
descends round the south of the Jungfrau into the valley of the Upper
Rhone.


ALEU`TIAN ISLANDS (2) a chain of volcanic islands, 150 in number,
stretching over the N. Pacific from Alaska in N. America, to Kamchatka,
in Asia.


ALEXANDER THE GREAT, the king of Macedonia, son of Philip by
Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus; born at Pella,
356 B.C.; had the philosopher Aristotle for tutor, and being instructed
by him in all kinds of serviceable knowledge, ascended the throne on the
death of his father, at the age of 20; after subduing Greece, had himself
proclaimed generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians, and in 2
years after his accession crossed the Hellespont, followed by 30,000 foot
and 5000 horse; with these conquered the army of Darius the Persian at
Granicus in 334 and at Issus in 333; subdued the principal cities of
Syria, overran Egypt, and crossing the Euphrates and Tigris, routed the
Persians at Arbela; hurrying on farther, he swept everything before him,
till the Macedonians refusing to advance, he returned to Babylon, when he
suddenly fell ill of fever, and in eleven days died at the early age of
32. He is said to have slept every night with his Homer and his sword
under his pillow, and the inspiring idea of his life, all unconsciously
to himself belike, is defined to have been the right of Greek
intelligence to override and rule the merely glittering barbarity of the
East.


ALEXANDER, ST., patriarch of Alexandria from 311 to 326, contributed
to bring about the condemnation of Arius at the Council of Nice;
festival, Feb 26.


ALEXANDER, SOLOMON, first Protestant bishop of Jerusalem, of Jewish
birth, cut off during a journey to Cairo (1799-1845).


ALEXANDER III., pope, successor to Adrian IV., an able man, whose
election Barbarossa at first opposed, but finally assented to; took the
part of Thomas a Becket against Henry II. and canonised him, as also St.
Bernard. Pope from 1159 to 1181.


ALEXANDER VI., called Borgia from his mother, a Spaniard by birth,
obtained the popehood by bribery in 1492 in succession to Innocent VIII.,
lived a licentious life and had several children, among others the
celebrated Lucretia and the infamous Caesar Borgia; _d_. in 1503, after a
career of crime, not without suspicion of poison. In addition to
Alexanders III. and VI., six of the name were popes: Alexander I., pope
from 108 to 117; Alexander II., pope from 1061 to 1073; Alexander IV.,
pope from 1254 to 1261; Alexander V., pope from 1409 to 1410; Alexander
VII., pope from 1653 to 1667, who was forced to kiss his hand to Louis
XIV.; Alexander VIII., pope from 1689 to 1691.


ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret,
sister of Edgar Atheling, a vigorous prince, surnamed on that account
_The Fierce_; subdued a rising in the North, and stood stoutly in defence
of the independent rights of both Crown and Church against the claim of
supremacy over both on the part of England; _d_. 1124.


ALEXANDER II., of Scotland, successor of William the Lion, his
father, a just and wise ruler, aided the English barons against John, and
married Joan, the sister of Henry III.; _d_. 1249.


ALEXANDER III., son of the preceding, married a daughter of Henry
III., sided with him against the barons, successfully resisted the
invasion of Haco, king of Norway, and on the conclusion of peace gave his
daughter in marriage to Haco's successor Eric; accidentally killed by
falling over a cliff near Kinghorn when hunting in 1285.


ALEXANDER I., emperor of Russia, son and successor of Paul I., took
part in the European strife against the encroachments of Napoleon, was
present at the battle of Austerlitz, fought the French at Pultusk and
Eylau, was defeated at Friedland, had an interview with Napoleon at
Tilsit in 1813, entered into a coalition with the other Powers against
France, which ended in the capture of Paris and the abdication of
Napoleon in 1814. Under his reign Russia rose into political importance
in Europe (1777-1825).


ALEXANDER II., emperor of Russia, son and successor of Nicholas I.,
fell heir to the throne while the siege of Sebastopol was going on; on
the conclusion of a peace applied himself to reforms in the state and the
consolidation and extension of the empire. His reign is distinguished by
a ukase decreeing in 1861 the emancipation of the serfs numbering 23
millions, by the extension of the empire in the Caucasus and Central
Asia, and by the war with Turkey in the interest of the Slavs in 1877-78,
which was ended by the peace of San Stephano, revised by the treaty of
Berlin. His later years were clouded with great anxiety, owing to the
spread of Nihilism, and he was killed by a bomb thrown at him by a
Nihilist (1818-1881).


ALEXANDER III., emperor of Russia, son of the preceding, followed in
the footsteps of his father, and showed a marked disposition to live on
terms of peace with the other Powers; his reign not distinguished by any
very remarkable event. The present Czar is his son and successor
(1845-1894).


ALEXANDER I., king of Servia, _b_. 1876.


ALEXANDER NEVSKY, grand-duke of Russia, conquered the Swedes, the
Danes, and the Teutonic Knights on the banks of the Neva, freed Russia
from tribute to the Mongols, is one of the saints of the Russian Church.


ALEXANDER OF HALES, the _Doctor irrefragabilis_ of the Schools, an
English ecclesiastic, a member of the Franciscan order, who in his "Summa
Universae Theologiae" formulated, by severe rigour of Aristotelian logic,
the theological principles and ecclesiastical rites of the Romish Church;
_d_. in 1222.


ALEXANDER OF PARIS, a Norman poet of the 16th century, who wrote a
poem on Alexander the Great in twelve-syllabled lines, called after him
Alexandrines.


ALEXANDER OF THE NORTH, Charles XII. of Sweden.


ALEXANDER SEVE`RUS, a Roman emperor, a wise, virtuous, and pious
prince, conquered Artaxerxes, king of Persia, in an expedition against
him, but setting out against the Germans, who were causing trouble on the
frontiers of the empire, fell a victim, along with his mother, to an
insurrection among his troops not far from Mainz (205-235).


ALEXAN`DRIA (230), a world-famous city, the chief port of Egypt,
founded by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., at one time a great centre
of learning, and in possession of the largest library of antique
literature in the world, which was burned by the Caliph Omar in 640; at
one time a place of great commerce, but that has very materially decayed
since the opening of the Suez Canal. Alexandria, from its intimate
connection with both East and West, gave birth in early times to a
speculative philosophy which drew its principles from eastern as well as
western sources, which was at its height on the first encounter of these
elements.


ALEXANDRIA (14), a town on the Potomac, 7 m. S. of Washington,
accessible to vessels of the largest size; also a thriving town (7) on
the river Leven, 3 m. N. of Dumbarton.


ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, an MS. on parchment of the Septuagint Scriptures
in Greek in uncial letters, which belonged to the library of the
patriarchs of Alexandra.


ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, the library burned by the Caliph Omar in 642,
said to have contained 700,000 volumes.


ALEXANDRI`NA LAKE, a lake in Australia into which the river Murray
flows.


ALEXANDRINE PHILOSOPHY, a Gnostic philosophy, combining eastern with
western forms of thought.


ALEXANDRINES. See ALEXANDER OF PARIS.


ALEXAN`DROPOL (22), the largest town in the Erivan district of
Russian Armenia, and a fortress of great strength.


ALEXIS, ST., the patron saint of beggars and pilgrims, represented
in art with a staff and in a pilgrim's habit; sometimes lying on a mat,
with a letter in his hand, dying.


ALEXIS MICHAELOVITCH, czar of Russia, the father of Peter the Great,
the first czar who acted on the policy of cultivating friendly relations
with other European states (1630-1677).


ALEXIS PETROVITCH, son of Peter the Great, conspired against his
father as he had broken the heart of his mother, was condemned to death;
after his trial by secret judges he was found dead in prison (1695-1718).


ALEXIUS COMNE`NUS, emperor of the East, began life as a soldier, was
a great favourite with the soldiers, who, in a period of anarchy, raised
him to the throne at the period of the first crusade, when the empire was
infested by Turks on the one hand and Normans on the other, while the
crusaders who passed through his territory proved more troublesome than
either. He managed to hold the empire together in spite of these
troubles, and to stave off the doom that impended all through his reign
of thirty-seven years (1048-1118).


ALFA, an esparto grass valuable for making paper.


AL`FADUR, the All-Father or uncreated supreme in the Norse
mythology.


ALFARA`BI, an Arabian philosopher of the 10th century, had Avicenna
for a disciple, wrote on various subjects, and was the first to attempt
an encyclopedic work.


ALFIE`RI, an Italian dramatist, spent his youth in dissipation
before he devoted himself to the dramatic art; on the success of his
first drama "Cleopatra," met at Florence with the Countess of Albany, the
wife of Charles Edward Stuart, on whose death he married her; was at
Paris when the Revolution broke out, and returned to Florence, where he
died and was buried. Tragedy was his _forte_ as a dramatist (1749-1803).


ALFONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables drawn up at Toledo by order of
Alfonso X. in 1252 to correct the anomalies in the Ptolemaic tables; they
divided the year into 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 16 seconds.


ALFONSO I., the "Conqueror," founder of the kingdom of Portugal, was
the first king, originally only count, as his father before him; in that
capacity took up arms against the Moors, and defeating them had himself
proclaimed king on the field of battle, a title confirmed to him by the
Pope and made good by his practically subjecting all Portugal to his sway
(1110-1185).


ALFONSO X., the Wise, or the Astronomer, king of Castile and Leon,
celebrated as an astronomer and a philosopher; after various successes
over the Moors, first one son and then another rose against him and drove
him from the throne; died of chagrin at Seville two years later. His fame
connects itself with the preparation of the Alfonsine Tables, and the
remark that "the universe seemed a crank machine, and it was a pity the
Creator had not taken advice." It was a saying of his, "old wood to burn,
old books to read, old wine to drink, and old friends to converse with"
(1226-1284).


ALFONSO III., surnamed the Great, king of Asturias, ascended the
throne in 866, fought against and gained numerous victories over the
Moors; the members of his family rose against him and compelled him to
abdicate, but on a fresh incursion of the Moors he came forth from his
retreat and triumphantly beat them back; died in Zamora, 910.


ALFORD, HENRY, vicar of Wymeswold and afterwards Dean of Canterbury;
his works and writings were numerous, and included poems and hymns. His
great work, however, was an edition of the Greek New Testament, with
notes, various readings, and comments (1810-1871).


ALFORD, MICHAEL, a learned English Jesuit, left two great works,
"Britannia Illustrata" and "Annales Ecclesiastici et Civiles
Britannorum."


ALFRED, DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA, son of Prince Albert and
Queen Victoria; _b_. 1844.


ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Saxons, and the most celebrated
and greatest of all the Saxon kings. His troubles were with the Danes,
who at the time of his accession infested the whole country north of the
Thames; with these he fought nine battles with varied success, till after
a lull of some years he was surprised by Gunthrum, then king, in 878, and
driven to seek refuge on the island of Athelney. Not long after this he
left his retreat and engaged Gunthrum at Edington, and after defeating
him formed a treaty with him, which he never showed any disposition to
break. After this Alfred devoted himself to legislation, the
administration of government, and the encouragement of learning, being a
man of letters himself. England owes much to him both as a man and a
ruler, and it was he who in the creation of a fleet laid the first
foundation of her greatness as monarch of the deep. His literary works
were translations of the "General History" of Orosius, the
"Ecclesiastical History" of Bede, Boethius's "Consolations of
Philosophy," and the "Cura Pastoralis" of Pope Gregory, all executed for
the edification of his subjects (849-901).


ALGAE, sea-weeds and plants of the same order under fresh water as
well as salt; they are flowerless, stemless, and cellular throughout.


ALGAR`DI, an Italian sculptor of note, born at Bologna; his greatest
work is an alto-relievo, the largest existing, of Pope Leo restraining
Attila from marching on Rome (1602-1654).


ALGARO`TTI, FRANCESCO, a clever Italian author, born at Venice,
whom, for his wit, Frederick the Great was attached to and patronised,
"one of the first _beaux esprits_ of the age," according to Wilhelmina,
Frederick's sister. Except his wit, it does not appear Frederick got much
good out of him, for the want of the due practical faculty, all the
faculty he had having evaporated in talk (1712-1764).


ALGAR`VE (240), the southernmost province of Portugal, hilly, but
traversed with rich valleys, which yield olives, vines, oranges, &c.


ALGEBRA, a universal arithmetic of Arabian origin or Arabian
transmission, in which symbols are employed to denote operations, and
letters to represent number and quantity.


ALGE`RIA, in the N. of Africa, belongs to France, stretches between
Morocco on the W. and Tripoli and Tunis on the E., the country being
divided into the Tell along the sea-coast, which is fertile, the Atlas
Highlands overlooking it on the S., on the southern slopes of which are
marshy lakes called "shotts," on which alfa grows wild, and the Sahara
beyond, rendered habitable here and there by the creation of artesian
wells; its extent nearly equal in area to that of France, and the
population numbers about four millions, of which only a quarter of a
million is French. The country is divided into Departments, of which
Algiers, Oran, and Constantine are the respective capitals. It has been
successively under the sway of the Carthaginians, the Romans, the
Vandals, the Arabs, the Byzantines, and the Berbers, which last were in
the 16th century supplanted by the Turks. At the end of this period it
became a nest of pirates, against whom a succession of expeditions were
sent from several countries of Europe, but it was only with the conquest
of it by the French in 1830 that this state of things was brought to an
end.


ALGESI`RAS (12), a town and port in Spain on the Bay of Gibraltar, 5
m. across the bay; for centuries a stronghold of the Moors, but taken
from them by Alfonso IX. after a siege of twenty months.


ALGIERS` (75), the capital of Algeria, founded by the Arabs in 935,
called the "silver city," from the glistening white of its buildings as
seen sloping up from the sea, presenting a striking appearance, was for
centuries under its Bey the head-quarters of piracy in the Mediterranean,
which only began to cease when Lord Exmouth bombarded the town and
destroyed the fleet in the harbour. Since it fell into the hands of the
French the city has been greatly improved, the fortifications
strengthened, and its neighbourhood has become a frequent resort of
English people in winter.


ALGINE, a viscous gum obtained from certain sea-weeds, used as size
for textile fabrics, and for thickening soups and jellies.


ALGO`A BAY, an inlet at the E. of Cape Colony, 20 m. wide, on which
Port Elizabeth stands, 425 m. E. of the Cape of Good Hope.


AL`GOL, a double star in the constellation Perseus, of changing
brightness.


ALGONQUINS, one of the three aboriginal races of N. American
Indians, originally occupying nearly the whole region from the Churchill
and Hudson Bay southward to N. Carolina, and from the E. of the Rocky
Mts. to Newfoundland; the language they speak has been divided into five
dialects.


ALHAM`BRA (Red Castle), an ancient palace and stronghold of the
Moorish kings of Granada, founded by Muhammed II. in 1213, decorated with
gorgeous arabesques by Usuf I. (1345), erected on the crest of a hill
which overlooks Granada; has suffered from neglect, bad usage, and
earthquake.


A`LI, the cousin of Mahomet, and one of his first followers at the
age of sixteen, "a noble-minded creature, full of affection and fiery
daring. Something chivalrous in him; brave as a lion; yet with a grace, a
truth and affection worthy of Christian knighthood." Became Caliph in
656, died by assassination in the Mosque at Bagdad; the Sheiks yearly
commemorate his death. See Carlyle's "Heroes."


ALI BABA. See BABA, ALI.


A`LI PASHA, pasha of Janina, a bold and crafty Albanian, able man,
and notorious for his cruelty as well as craft; alternately gained the
favour of the Porte and lost it by the alliances he formed with hostile
powers, until the Sultan sentenced him to deposition, and sent Hassan
Pasha to demand his head; he offered violent resistance but being
overpowered at length surrendered, when his head was severed from his
body and sent to Constantinople (1741-1822).


ALICAN`TE (40), the third seaport-town in Spain, with a spacious
harbour and strongly fortified, in a province of the same name on the
Mediterranean.


ALIGARH` (61), a town with a fort between Agra and Delhi, the
garrison of which mutinied in 1857.


ALIGHIE`RI, the family name of Dante.


AL`IMA, an affluent on the right bank of the Congo, in French
territory.


ALIMENTARY CANAL, a passage 5 or 6 times the length of the body,
lined throughout with mucous membrane, extends from the mouth to the
anus, and includes mouth, fauces, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and small
and large intestines.


ALISON, ARCHIBALD, an Episcopal clergyman in Edinburgh, of which he
was a native, best known for his "Essay on the Nature and Principles of
Taste" (1757-1839).


ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD, son of the preceding, a lawyer who held
several prominent legal appointments, and a historian, his great work
being a "Modern History of Europe from the French Revolution to the Fall
of Napoleon," afterwards extended to the "Accession of Louis Napoleon"
(1792-1867).


ALISON, W. PULTENEY, brother of the preceding, professor of medicine
in Edinburgh University, and a philanthropist (1790-1859).


ALIWAL`, a village in the Punjab, on the Sutlej, where Sir Harry
Smith gained a brilliant victory over the Sikhs, who were provided with
forces in superior numbers, in 1846.


AL`KAHEST, the presumed universal solvent of the alchemists.


ALKALIES, bodies which, combining with acids form salts, are soluble
in water, and properly four in number, viz., potash, soda, lithia, and
ammonia.


ALKALINE EARTHS, earths not soluble in water, viz., lime, magnesia,
strontia, and baryta.


ALKALOIDS, bodies of vegetable origin, similar in their properties,
as well as toxicologically, to alkalies; contain as a rule carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; many of them are poisonous and invaluable
in medicine.


ALKMAAR` (14), the capital of N. Holland, 25 m. NW. of Amsterdam,
with a large trade in cattle, grain, and cheese.


ALKMER, HENRIK VAN, the reputed author of the first German version
of "Reynard the Fox."


ALL THE TALENTS, ADMINISTRATION OF, a ministry formed by Lord
Grenville on the death of Pitt in 1806.


AL`LAH, the Adorable, the Arab name for God, adopted by the
Mohammedans as the name of the one God.


ALLAHABAD` (175), the City of God, a central city of British India,
on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, 550 m. from Calcutta, and
on the railway between that city and Bombay.


ALLAN, DAVID, a Scottish portrait and historical painter, born at
Alloa; illustrated Ramsay's "Gentle Shepherd"; his greatest work is the
"Origin of Painting," now in the National Gallery at Edinburgh
(1744-1796).


ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished Scottish historical painter,
born at Edinburgh, many of his paintings being on national subjects; he
was a friend of Scott, who patronised his work, and in succession to
Wilkie, president of the Royal Scottish Academy; painted "Circassian
Captives" and "Slave-Market at Constantinople" (1782-1850).


ALLANTOIS, a membrane enveloping the foetus in mammals, birds, and
reptiles.


ALLARD`, a French general, entered the service of Runjeet Singh at
Lahore, trained his troops in European war tactics, and served him
against the Afghans; died at Peshawar (1785-1839).


ALLEGHA`NY (105), a manufacturing city in Pennsylvania, on the Ohio,
opposite Pittsburg, of which it is a kind of suburb.


ALLEGHA`NY MOUNTAINS, a range in the Appalachian system in U.S.,
extending from Pennsylvania to N. Carolina; do not exceed 2400 ft. in
height, run parallel with the Atlantic coast, and form the watershed
between the Atlantic rivers and the Mississippi.


ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION, assigning a higher than a literal
interpretation to the Scripture record of things, in particular the Old
Testament story.


ALLEGORY, a figurative mode of representation, in which a subject of
a higher spiritual order is described in terms of that of a lower which
resembles it in properties and circumstances, the principal subject being
so kept out of view that we are left to construe the drift of it from the
resemblance of the secondary to the primary subject.


ALLEGRI, the family name of Correggio; the name of an Italian
composer, born at Rome, the author of a still celebrated _Miserere_
(1580-1652).


AL`LEINE, JOSEPH, a Puritan writer, author of a book once, and to
some extent still, much in favour among religious people, entitled "Alarm
to the Unconverted" (1632-1674).


ALLEN, BOG OF, a dreary expanse of bogs of peat E. of the Shannon,
in King's Co. and Kildare, Ireland; LOUGH OF, an expansion of the
waters of the Shannon.


ALLEN, ETHAN, one of the early champions of American independence,
taken prisoner in a raid into Canada; wrote a defence of deism and
rational belief (1738-1789).


ALLEN, GRANT, man of letters, born in Kingston, Canada, 1848, and a
prolific writer; an able upholder of the evolution doctrine and an
expounder of Darwinism.


ALLEN, JOHN, an M.D. of Scotch birth, and a contributor to the
_Edinburgh Review_ (1771-1843).


ALLEN, WM., a distinguished chemist and philanthropist, son of a
Spitalfields weaver, a member of the Society of Friends, and a devoted
promoter of its principles (1770-1843).


ALLENTOWN (34), a town on the Lehigh River, 50 m. NW. of
Philadelphia, the great centre of the iron trade in the U.S.


ALLE`RION, in heraldry, an eagle with expanded wings, the points
turned downwards, and without beak or feet.


ALLEYN, EDWARD, a celebrated actor in the reigns of Elizabeth and
James I., the founder of Dulwich College, and was voluntarily along with
his wife one of its first beneficiaries and inmates; was a contemporary
of Shakespeare (1566-1626).


AL`LIA, a stream flowing into the Tiber 11 m. from Rome, where the
Romans were defeated by the Gauls under Brennus, 387 B.C.


ALLIANCE, THE TRIPLE, in 1668, between England, Holland, and Sweden
against Louis XIV.; the QUADRUPLE, in 1718, between France, England,
Holland, and the Empire to maintain the treaty of Utrecht; the HOLY,
in 1815, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia against Liberal ideas; the
TRIPLE, in 1872, between Germany, Austria, and Russia, at the
instigation of Bismarck, from which Russia withdrew in 1886, when Italy
stepped into her place. Under it the signatories in 1887 guarantee the
integrity of their respective territories.


ALLIER, a confluent of the river Loire, in France, near Nevers; also
the department through which it flows.


ALLIES, the name generally given to the confederate Powers who in
1814 and 1815 entered France and restored the Bourbons.


ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM, an English clergyman who turned Roman
Catholic, and wrote, in defence of the step, among others, the "See of
St. Peter, the Rock of the Church."


ALLIGATOR, a N. American fresh-water crocodile, numerous in the
Mississippi and the lakes and rivers of Louisiana and Carolina; subsists
on fish, and though timid, is dangerous when attacked; is slow in
turning, however, and its attacks can be easily evaded.


ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM, a poet and journalist, born in Ireland, of
English origin; his most celebrated works are "Day and Night Songs" and
"Lawerence Bloomfield in Ireland"; was for a time editor of _Fraser's
Magazine_ (1824-1889).


ALLMAN, GEORGE J., M.D., Emeritus Professor of Natural History in
Edinburgh, an eminent naturalist; born in Ireland (1812-1898).


ALLOA (12), a thriving seaport on north bank of the Forth, in
Clackmannan, 6 m. below Stirling, famous for its ale.


ALLOB`ROGES, a Celtic race troublesome to the Romans, who occupied
the country between the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva, corresponding to
Dauphine and Savoy.


ALLOPATHY, in opposition to homoeopathy, the treatment of disease by
producing a condition of the system different from or opposite to the
condition essential to the disease to be cured.


ALLOTROPY, the capability which certain compounds show of assuming
different properties and qualities, although composed of identical
elements.


ALLOWAY, the birthplace of Burns, on the Doon, 2 m. from Ayr, the
assumed scene of Tam o' Shanter's adventure.


ALLOWAY KIRK, a ruin S. of Ayr, celebrated as the scene of the
witches' dance in "Tam o' Shanter."


ALL-SAINTS' DAY, the 1st of November, a feast dedicated to all the
Saints.


ALL-SOULS' DAY, a festival on the 2nd November to pray for the souls
of the faithful deceased, such as may be presumed to be still suffering
in Purgatory.


ALLSPICE, the berry of the pimento, or Jamaica pepper.


ALLSTON, WASHINGTON, an American painter and poet, whose genius was
much admired by Coleridge (1779-1843).


ALMA, a river in the Crimea, half-way between Eupatoria and
Sebastopol, where the allied English, French, and Turkish armies defeated
the Russians under Prince Menschikoff, Sept. 20, 1854.


ALMACK'S, a suite of assembly rooms, afterwards known as Willis's
Rooms, where select balls used to be given, admission to which was a
certificate of high social standing.


ALMADEN (9), a town on the northern slope of the Sierra Morena, in
Spain, with rich mines of quicksilver.


ALMA`GRO, DIEGO D', a confederate of Pizzaro in the conquest of
Peru, but a quarrel with the brothers of Pizzaro about the division of
the spoil on the capture of Cuzco, the capital of Chile, led to his
imprisonment and death (1475-1538).--DIEGO D', his son, who avenged
his death by killing Pizzaro, but being conquered by Vaca de Castro, was
himself put to death (1520-1542).


AL-MAMOUN, the son of HAROUN-EL-RASCHID, the 7th Abbaside
caliph, a great promoter of science and learning; _b_. 833.


ALMANACH DE GOTHA, a kind of European peerage, published annually by
Perthes at Gotha; of late years extended so as to include statesmen and
military people, as well as statistical information.


ALMANSUR, ABU GIAFAR, the 2nd Abbaside caliph and the first of the
caliphs to patronise learning; founded Bagdad, and made it the seat of
the caliphate; _d_. 775.


ALMANSUR, ABU MOHAMMED, a great Moorish general in the end of the
10th century, had overrun and nearly made himself master of all Spain,
when he was repulsed and totally defeated by the kings of Leon and
Navarre in 948.


AL`MA-TAD`EMA, LAURENCE, a distinguished artist of Dutch descent,
settled in London; famous for his highly-finished treatment of classic
subjects; _b_. 1836.


ALMAVIVA, a character in Beaumarchais' _Marriage de Figaro_,
representative of one of the old noblesse of France, recalling all their
manners and vices, who is duped by his valet Figaro, a personification of
wit, talent, and intrigue.


ALMEIDA, a strong fortress in the province of Beira, on the Spanish
frontier of Portugal.


ALMEIDA, FRANCESCO, the first Portuguese viceroy of India, a firm
and wise governor, superseded by Albuquerque, and killed on his way home
by the Kaffirs at the Cape in 1510.--LORENZO, his son, acting under
him, distinguished himself in the Indian seas, and made Ceylon tributary
to Portugal.


ALMERIA (37), a chief town and seaport in the S. of Spain, an
important and flourishing place, next to Granada, under the Moors, and at
one time a nest of pirates more formidable than those of Algiers.


ALMIGHTY DOLLAR, the Almighty whom the Americans are charged with
worshipping, first applied to them, it would seem, by Washington Irving.


ALMOHADES, a Moslem dynasty which ruled in N. Africa and Spain from
1129 to 1273.


ALMO`RA, a high-lying town at the foot of the Himalayas, 85 m. N. of
Bareilly.


ALMORAVIDES, a Moslem dynasty which subdued first Fez and Morocco,
and then S. Spain, from 1055 to 1147.


ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, on the Aln; at the north
entrance is Alnwick Castle, the seat of the Duke of Northumberland, one
of the most magnificent structures of the kind in England, and during the
Border wars a place of great strength.


ALOE, a genus of succulent plants embracing 200 species, the
majority natives of S. Africa, valuable in medicine, in particular a
purgative from the juice of the leaves of several species.


ALOES WOOD, the heart of certain tropical trees, which yields a
fragrant resinous substance and admits of high polish.


ALOST (25), a Belgian town on the Dender, 19 m. NW. from Brussels,
with a cathedral, one of the grandest in Belgium, which contains a famous
painting by Rubens, "St. Roche beseeching Christ to arrest the Plague at
Alost."


ALOYSIUS, ST., See GONZAGA.


ALOYSIUS, ST., an Italian nobleman, who joined the Society of Jesus;
canonised for his devotion to the sick during the plague in Rome, to
which he himself fell a victim, June 21, 1591.


ALPACA, a gregarious ruminant of the camel family, a native of the
Andes, and particularly the tablelands of Chile and Peru; is covered with
a long soft silky wool, of which textile fabrics are woven; in appearance
resembles a sheep, but is larger in size, and has a long erect neck with
a handsome head.


ALP-ARSLAN (Brave Lion), a sultan of the Seljuk dynasty in Persia,
added Armenia and Georgia to his dominions (1030-1072).


ALPES, three departments in SE. France: the BASSES-A, in NE.
part of Provence, bounded by Hautes-Alpes on the N. and Var on the S.,
sterile in the N., fertile in the S., cap. Digne; HAUTES-A., forming
part of Dauphine, traversed by the Cottian Alps, climate severe, cap.
Gap; A. MARITIMES, E. of the Basses-A., bordering on Italy and the
Mediterranean, made up of the territory of Nice, ceded by Italy, and of
Monaco and Var; cap. Nice.


ALPHE`US, a river in the Peloponnesus, flowing west, with its source
in Arcadia; also the name of the river-god enamoured of the nymph
Arethusa, and who pursued her under the sea as far as Sicily, where he
overtook her and was wedded to her.


ALPINE CLUB, a club of English gentlemen devoted to mountaineering,
first of all in the Alps, members of which have successfully addressed
themselves to attempts of the kind on loftier mountains.


ALPINE PLANTS, plants whose natural habitat approaches the line of
perpetual snow.


ALPS, THE, the vastest mountain system in Europe; form the boundary
between France, Germany, and Switzerland on the N. and W., and Italy on
the S., their peaks mostly covered with perpetual snow, the highest being
Mont Blanc, within the frontiers of France. According to height, they
have been distributed into _Fore, Middle_, and _High:_ the Fore rising to
the limit of trees; the Middle, to the line of perpetual snow; and the
High, above the snow-line. In respect of range or extent, they have been
distributed into _Western, Middle_, and _Eastern:_ the Western, including
the Maritime, the Cottian, the Dauphine, and the Graian, extend from the
Mediterranean to Mont Blanc; the Middle, including the Pennine and
Bernese, extend from Mont Blanc to the Brenner Pass; and the Eastern,
including the Dolomite, the Julian, and the Dinaric, extend from the
Brenner and Hungarian plain to the Danube. These giant masses occupy an
area of 90,000 sq. m., and extend from the 44th to the 48th parallel of
latitude.


ALPUJAR`RAS, a rich and lovely valley which stretches S. from the
Sierra Nevada in Spain.


ALRUNA-WIFE, the household goddess of a German family.


ALSACE-LORRAINE` (1,640), a territory originally of the German
empire, ceded to Louis XIV. by the peace of Westphalia in 1648, but
restored to Germany after the Franco-German war in 1870-71, by the peace
of Frankfort; is under a governor general bearing the title of
"Statthalter"; is a great wine-producing country, yields cereals and
tobacco, its cotton manufacture the most important in Germany.


ALSA`TIA, Whitefriars, London, which at one time enjoyed the
privilege of a debtors' sanctuary, and had, till abolished in 1697,
become a haunt of all kinds of nefarious characters.


ALSEN (25), a Danish island adjacent to Sleswig, one of the finest
in the Baltic, now ceded to Germany.


AL-SIRAT, the hair-narrow hell-bridge of the Moslem, which every
Mohammedan must pass to enter Paradise.


ALSTEN, an island off the coast of Northland, Norway, with seven
snow-capped hills, called the Seven Sisters.


ALTAI` MOUNTAINS, in Central Asia, stretching W. from the Desert of
Gobi, and forming the S. boundary of Asiatic Russia, abounding, to the
profit of Russia, in silver and copper, as well as other metals.


ALTDOR`FER, ALBRECHT, a German painter and engraver, a distinguished
pupil of Albert Duerer, and as a painter, inspired with his spirit; his
"Battle of Arbela" adorns the Muenich Picture Gallery (1488-1538).


AL`TEN, KARL AUGUST, a distinguished officer, native of Hanover, who
entered the British service, bore arms under Sir John Moore, was chief of
a division, under Wellington, in the Peninsular war, and closed his
military career at the battle of Waterloo (1763-1840).


AL`TENBURG (33), capital of Saxe-Altenburg, and 4 m. S. of Leipsic;
its castle is the scene of the famous "PRINZENRAUB" (q. v.),
related by Carlyle in his "Miscellanies."


ALTHEN, a Persian refugee, who introduced into France the
cultivation of madder, which became one of the most important products of
the S. of France.


ALTON LOCKE, a novel, by Charles Kingsley, written in sympathy with
the Chartist movement, in which Carlyle is introduced as one of the
personages.


ALTO`NA (148), a town and seaport of Sleswig-Holstein, now belonging
to Germany, close to Hamburg, on the right bank of the Elbe, and
healthier, and as good as forming one city with it.


ALTO-RELIEVO, figures carved out of a tablet so as to project at
least one half from its surface.


AL`TORF, an old town in the canton Uri, at the S. end of the Lake of
Lucerne; associated with the story of William Tell; a place of transit
trade.


ALTRUISM, a Comtist doctrine which inculcates sacrifice of self for
the good of others as the rule of human action.


ALUMBRA`DO, a member of a Spanish sect that laid claim to perfect
enlightenment.


ALURED OF BEVERLEY, an English chronicler of the 12th century; his
annals comprise the history of the Britons, Saxons, and Normans up to his
own time; _d_. 1129.


ALVA, DUKE OF, a general of the armies of Charles V. and Philip of
Spain; his career as a general was uniformly successful, but as a
governor his cruelty was merciless, especially as the viceroy of Philip
in the Low Countries, "very busy cutting off high heads in Brabant, and
stirring up the Dutch to such fury as was needful for exploding Spain and
him" (1508-1582).


ALVARA`DO, PEDRO DE, one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico, and
comrade of Cortez; was appointed Governor of Guatemala by Charles V. as a
reward for his valiant services in the interest of Spain; was a generous
man as well as a brave.


ALVAREZ, FRANCESCO, a Portuguese who, in the 15th century, visited
Abyssinia and wrote an account of it.


ALVAREZ, DON JOSE, the most distinguished of Spanish sculptors, born
near Cordova, and patronised by Napoleon, who presented him with a gold
medal, but to whom, for his treatment of his country, he conceived so
great an aversion, that he would never model a bust of him (1768-1827).


ALVIANO, an eminent Venetian general, distinguished himself in the
defence of the republic against the Emperor Maximilian (1455-1515).


AMADEUS, LAKE, a lake in the centre of Australia, subject to an
almost total drying-up at times.


AMADE`US V., count of Savoy, surnamed the Great from his wisdom and
success as a ruler (1249-1323).


AMADEUS VIII., 1st duke of Savoy, increased his dominions, and
retired into a monastery on the death of his wife; he was elected Pope as
Felix V., but was not acknowledged by the Church (1383-1451).


AMADEUS I., of Spain, 2nd son of Victor Emmanuel of Italy, elected
king of Spain in 1870, but abdicated in 1873 (1845-1890).


AM`ADIS DE GAUL, a celebrated romance in prose, written partly in
Spanish and partly in French by different romancers of the 15th century;
the first four books were regarded by Cervantes as a masterpiece. The
hero of the book, Amadis, surnamed the Knight of the Lion, stands for a
type of a constant and deferential lover, as well as a model
knight-errant, of whom Don Quixote is the caricature.


AMADOU, a spongy substance, consisting of slices of certain fungi
beaten together, used as a styptic, and, after being steeped in
saltpetre, used as tinder.


AMAIMON, a devil who could he restrained from working evil from the
third hour till noon and from the ninth till evening.


AMALARIC, king of the Visigoths, married a daughter of Clovis; _d_.
581.


AMALEKITES, a warlike race of the Sinaitic peninsula, which gave
much trouble to the Israelites in the wilderness; were as good as
annihilated by King David.


AMAL`FI, a port on the N. of the Gulf of Salerno, 24 m. SE. of
Naples; of great importance in the Middle Ages, and governed by Doges of
its own.


AMALFIAN LAWS, a code of maritime law compiled at Amalfi.


AMA`LIA, ANNA, the Duchess of Weimar, the mother of the grand-duke;
collected about her court the most illustrious literary men of the time,
headed by Goethe, who was much attached to her (1739-1807).


AMALRIC, one of the leaders in the crusade against the Albigenses,
who, when his followers asked him how they were to distinguish heretics
from Catholics, answered, "Kill them all; God will know His own;" _d_.
1225.


AMALTHE`A, the goat that suckled Zeus, one of whose horns became the
cornucopia--horn of plenty.


AMA`RA SINHA, a Hindu Buddhist, left a valuable thesaurus of
Sanskrit words.


AMA`RI, MICHELE, an Italian patriot, born at Palermo, devoted a
great part of his life to the history of Sicily, and took part in its
emancipation; was an Orientalist as well; he is famous for throwing light
on the true character of the Sicilian Vespers (1806-1889).


AMARYL`LIS, a shepherdess in one of Virgil's pastorals; any young
rustic maiden.


AMA`SIA (25), a town in Asia Minor, once the capital of the kings of
Pontus.


AMA`SIS, king of Egypt, originally a simple soldier, took part in an
insurrection, dethroned the reigning monarch and assumed the crown,
proved an able ruler, and cultivated alliances with Greece; reigned from
570 to 546 B.C.


AMA`TI, a celebrated family of violin-makers; Andrea and Niccolo,
brothers, at Cremona, in the 16th and 17th centuries.


AMATITLAN (10), a town in Guatemala, the inhabitants of which are
mainly engaged in the preparation of cochineal.


AMAUROSIS, a weakness or loss of vision, the cause of which was at
one time unknown.


AMAZON, a river in S. America and the largest on the globe, its
basin nearly equal in extent to the whole of Europe; traverses the
continent at its greatest breadth, rises in the Andes about 50 m. from
the Pacific, and after a course of 4000 m. falls by a delta into the
Atlantic, its waters increased by an immense number of tributaries, 20 of
which are above 1000 m. in length, one 2000 m., its mouth 200 m. wide;
its current affects the ocean 150 m. out; is navigable 3000 m. up, and by
steamers as far as the foot of the Andes.


AMAZONS, a fabulous race of female warriors, who had a queen of
their own, and excluded all men from their community; to perpetuate the
race, they cohabited with men of the neighbouring nations; slew all the
male children they gave birth to, or sent them to their fathers; burnt
off the right breasts of the females, that they might be able to wield
the bow in war.


AMBASSADOR, "an honest man sent to lie abroad for the commonwealth"
(_Wotton_).


AMBER, a fossil resin, generally yellow and semi-transparent,
derived, it is presumed, from certain extinct coniferous trees; becomes
electric by friction, and gives name to electricity, the Greek word for
it being _electron_; has been fished up for centuries in the Baltic, and
is now used in varnishes and for tobacco pipes.


AMBERGER, a painter of Nuernberg in the 16th century, a disciple of
Holbein, his principal work being the history of Joseph in twelve
pictures.


AMBERGRIS, an ashy-coloured odorous substance used in perfumery,
presumed to be a morbid fragment of the intestines of the spermaceti
whale, being often found floating on the ocean which it frequents.


AMBERLEY, LORD, son of Lord John Russell, wrote an "Analysis of
Religious Belief," which, as merely sceptical, his father took steps to
secure the suppression of, without success.


AMBLESIDE, a small market-town near the head of Lake Windermere, in
the Wordsworth or so-called Lake District.


AMBLYOPSIS, a small fish without eyes, found in the Mammoth
Cave, U.S.


AMBOISE (5), a town on the Loire, 14 m. E. of Tours, with a castle,
once the residence of the French kings. The Conspiracy of A., the
conspiracy of Conde and the Huguenots in 1560 against Francis II.,
Catharine de Medici, and the Guises. The Edict of A. (1563) conceded the
free exercise of their worship to the Protestants.


AMBOISE, GEORGE DE, CARDINAL, the popular Prime Minister of Louis
XII., who, as such, reduced the Public burdens, and as the Pope's legate
in France effected a great reform among the religious orders; is said to
have died immensely rich (1460-1510).


AMBOYNA (238), with a chief city of the name, the most important of
the Moluccas, in the Malay Archipelago, and rich before all in spices; it
belongs to the Dutch, who have diligently fostered its capabilities.


AM`BROSE, ST., bishop of Milan, born at Treves, one of the Fathers
of the Latin Church, and a zealous opponent of the Arian heresy; as a
stern puritan refused to allow Theodosius to enter his church, covered as
his hands were with the blood of an infamous massacre, and only admitted
him to Church privilege after a severe penance of eight months; he
improved the Church service, wrote several hymns, which are reckoned his
most valuable legacy to the Church; his writings fill two vols. folio. He
is the Patron saint of Milan; his attributes are a _scourge_, from his
severity; and a _beehive_, from the tradition that a swarm of bees
settled on his mouth when an Infant without hurting him (340-397).
Festival, Dec. 7.


AMBRO`SIA, the fragrant food of the gods of Olympus, fabled to
preserve in them and confer on others immortal youth and beauty.


AMELIA, a character in one of Fielding's novels, distinguished for
her conjugal affection.


AMENDE HONORABLE, originally a mode of punishment in France which
required the offender, stripped to his shirt, and led into court with a
rope round his neck held by the public executioner, to beg pardon on his
knees of his God, his king, and his country; now used to denote a
satisfactory apology or reparation.


AMERBACH, JOHANN, a celebrated printer in Basel in the 15th century,
the first who used the Roman type instead of Gothic and Italian; spared
no expense in his art, taking, like a true workman, a pride in it; _d_.
1515.


AMERICA, including both North and South, 9000 m. in length, varies
from 3400 m. to 28 m. in breadth, contains 161/2 millions of sq. m., is
larger than Europe and Africa together, but is a good deal smaller than
Asia; bounded throughout by the Atlantic on the E. and the Pacific on the
W.


AMERICA, BRITISH N., is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on
the E. by the Atlantic, on the S. by the United States, and on the W. by
the Pacific; occupies one-third of the continent, and comprises the
Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland.


AMERICA, CENTRAL, extends from Mexico on the north to Panama on the
south, and is about six times as large as Ireland; is a plateau with
terraces descending to the sea on each side, and rich in all kinds of
tropical vegetation; consists of seven political divisions: Guatemala,
San Salvador, British Honduras, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mosquitia, and Costa
Rica.


AMERICA, NORTH, is 4560 m. in length, contains over 81/2 millions sq.
m., is less than half the size of Asia, consists of a plain in the centre
throughout its length, a high range of mountains, the Rocky, on the W.,
and a lower range, the Appalachian, on the E., parallel with the coast,
which is largely indented with gulfs, bays, and seas; has a magnificent
system of rivers, large lakes, the largest in the world, a rich fauna and
flora, and an exhaustless wealth of minerals; was discovered by Columbus
in 1492, and has now a population of 80 millions, of which a fourth are
negroes, aborigines, and half-caste; the divisions are British North
America, United States, Mexico, Central American Republics, British
Honduras, the West Indian Republics, and the Spanish, British, French,
and Dutch West Indies.


AMERICA, RUSSIAN, now called Alaska; belongs by purchase to the
United States.


AMERICA, SOUTH, lies in great part within the Tropics, and consists
of a high mountain range on the west, and a long plain with minor ranges
extending therefrom eastward; the coast is but little indented, but the
Amazon and the Plate Rivers make up for the defect of seaboard; abounds
in extensive plains, which go under the names of Llanos, Selvas, and
Pampas, while the river system is the vastest and most serviceable in the
globe; the vegetable and mineral wealth of the continent is great, and it
can match the world for the rich plumage of its birds and the number and
splendour of its insect tribes.


AMERICA, SPANISH, the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico, till lately
belonging to Spain, though the designation is often applied to all the
countries in N. America where Spanish is the spoken language.


AMERICAN FABIUS, George Washington.


AMERICAN INDIANS, a race with a red or copper-coloured skin, coarse
black straight hair, high cheek-bones, black deep-set eyes, and tall
erect figure, limited to America, and seems for most part fast dying out;
to be found still as far south as Patagonia, the Patagonians being of the
race.


AMERI`GO-VESPUC`CI, a Florentine navigator, who, under the auspices
first of Spain, and afterwards of Portugal, four times visited the New
World, just discovered by Columbus, which the first cartographers called
America, after his name; these visits were made between 1499 and 1505,
while Columbus's discovery, as is known, was in 1492 (1451-1512).


AMES, JOSEPH, historian of early British typography, in a work which
must have involved him in much labour (1689-1759).


AMHA`RA, the central and largest division of Abyssinia.


AMHERST, LORD, a British officer who distinguished himself both on
the Continent and America, and particularly along with General Wolfe in
securing for England the superiority in Canada (1717-1797).


AMICE, a flowing cloak formerly worn by pilgrims, also a strip of
linen cloth worn over the shoulder of a priest when officiating at mass.


AM`IEL, a professor of aesthetics, and afterwards of ethics at
Geneva, who is known to the outside world solely by the publication of
selections from his Journal in 1882-84, which teems with suggestive
thoughts bearing on the great vital issues of the day, and which has been
translated into English by Mrs. Humphrey Ward.


AMIENS` (88), the old capital of Picardy, on the Somme, with a
cathedral begun in 1220, described as the "Parthenon of Gothic
architecture," and by Ruskin as "Gothic, clear of Roman tradition and of
Arabian taint, Gothic pure, authoritative, unsurpassable, and
unaccusable"; possesses other buildings of interest; was the birthplace
of Peter the Hermit, and is celebrated for a treaty of peace between
France and England concluded in 1802.


AMIRAN`TES, a group of small coral islands NE. of Madagascar,
belonging to Britain; are wooded, are 11 in number, and only a few feet
above the sea-level.


AMMANA`TI, BARTOLOMEO, a Florentine architect and sculptor of note,
was an admirer of Michael Angelo, and executed several works in Rome,
Venice, and Padua (1511-1592).


AMMIA`NUS MARCELLI`NUS, a Greek who served as a soldier in the Roman
army, and wrote a history of the Roman Empire, specially valuable as a
record of contemporary events; _d_. 390.


AMMIRATO, an Italian historian, author of a history of Florence
(1531-1601).


AM`MON, an Egyptian deity, represented with the head of a ram, who
had a temple at Thebes and in the Lybian Desert; was much resorted to as
an oracle of fate; identified in Greece with Zeus, and in Rome with
Jupiter.


AMMONIA, a pungent volatile gas, of nitrogen and hydrogen, obtained
from sal-ammonia.


AMMONIO, ANDREA, a Latin poet born in Lucca, held in high esteem by
Erasmus; sent to England by the Pope, he became Latin secretary to Henry
and a prebendary of Salisbury; _d_. 1517.


AMMONITES, a Semitic race living E. of the Jordan; at continual feud
with the Jews, and a continual trouble to them, till subdued by Judas
Maccabaeus.


AMMONITES, a genus of fossil shells curved into a spiral form like
the ram-horn on the head of the image of Ammon.


AMMO`NIUS SACCAS, a philosopher of Alexandria, and founder of
Neo-Platonism; Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus were among his pupils; _d_.
243, at a great age.


AMNION, name given to the innermost membrane investing the foetus in
the womb.


AMOEBA, a minute animalcule of the simplest structure, being a mere
mass of protoplasm; absorbs its food at every point all over its body by
means of processes protruded therefrom at will, with the effect that it
is constantly changing its shape.


AMOMUM, a genus of plants, such as the cardamom and grains of
paradise, remarkable for their pungency and aromatic properties.


AMORITES, a powerful Canaanitish tribe, seemingly of tall stature,
NE. of the Jordan; subdued by Joshua at Gibeon.


AMORY, THOMAS, an eccentric writer of Irish descent, author of the
"Life of John Buncle, Esq.," and other semi-insane productions; he was a
fanatical Unitarian (1691-1789).


AMOS, a poor shepherd of Tekoa, near Bethlehem, in Judah, who in the
8th century B.C. raised his voice in solitary protest against the
iniquity of the northern kingdom of Israel, and denounced the judgment of
God as Lord of Hosts upon one and all for their idolatry, which nothing
could avert.


AMOY` (96), one of the open ports of China, on a small island in the
Strait of Fukien; has one of the finest harbours in the world, and a
large export and import trade; the chief exports are tea, sugar, paper,
gold-leaf, &c.


AMPERE`, ANDRE MARIE, a French mathematician and physicist, born at
Lyons; distinguished for his discoveries in electro-dynamics and
magnetism, and the influence of these on electro-telegraphy and the
general extension of science (1775-1836).


AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES, son of the preceding; eminent as a
litterateur, and a historian and critic of literature; attained to the
rank of a member of the French Academy (1800-1864).


AMPHIC`TYONIC COUNCIL, a council consisting of representatives from
several confederate States of ancient Greece, twelve in number at length,
two from each, that met twice a year, sitting alternately at Thermopylae
and Delphi, to settle any differences that might arise between them, the
decisions of which were several times enforced by arms, and gave rise to
what were called _sacred wars_, of which there were three; it was
originally instituted for the conservation of religious interests.


AMPHI`ON, a son of Zeus and Antiope, who is said to have invented
the lyre, and built the walls of Thebes by the sound of it, a feat often
alluded to as an instance of the miraculous power of music.


AMPHISBAENA, a genus of limbless lizards; a serpent fabled to have
two heads and to be able to move backward or forward.


AM`PHITRITE, a daughter of Oceanus or Nereus, the wife of Neptune,
mother of Triton, and goddess of the sea.


AMPHIT`RYON, the king of Tiryns, and husband of Alcmene, who became
by him the mother of Iphicles, and by Zeus the mother of Hercules.


AMPHITRYON THE TRUE, the real host, the man who provides the feast,
as Zeus proved himself to the household to be when he visited Alcmene.


AM`RAN RANGE, pronounced the "scientific frontier" of India towards
Afghanistan.


AMRIT`SAR (136), a sacred city of the Sikhs in the Punjab, and a
great centre of trade, 32 m. E. of Lahore; is second to Delhi in Northern
India; manufactures cashmere shawls.


AM`RU, a Mohammedan general under the Caliph Omar, conquered Egypt
among other military achievements; he is said to have executed the order
of the Caliph Omar for burning the library of Alexandria; _d_. 663.


AMSTERDAM (456), the capital of Holland, a great trading city and
port at the mouth of the Amsel, on the Zuyder Zee, resting on 90 islands
connected by 300 bridges, the houses built on piles of wood driven into
the marshy ground; is a largely manufacturing place, as well as an
emporium of trade, one special industry being the cutting of diamonds and
jewels; birthplace of Spinoza.


AMUR`, a large eastward-flowing river, partly in Siberia and partly
in China, which, after a course of 3060 m., falls into the Sea of
Okhotsk.


AMURNATH, a place of pilgrimage in Cashmere, on account of a cave
believed to be the dwelling-place of Siva.


AMYOT, JACQUES, grand-almoner of France and bishop of Auxerre; was
of humble birth; was tutor of Charles, who appointed him grand-almoner;
he was the translator, among other works, of Plutarch into French, which
remains to-day one of the finest monuments of the old literature of
France, it was much esteemed by Montaigne (1513-1593).


AMYOT, JOSEPH, a French Jesuit missionary to China, and a learned
Orientalist (1713-1794).


ANABAPTISTS, a fanatical sect which arose in Saxony at the time of
the Reformation, and though it spread in various parts of Germany, came
at length to grief by the excesses of its adherents in Muenster. See
BAPTISTS.


ANAB`ASIS, an account by Xenophon of the ill-fated expedition of
Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, and of the retreat of
the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon who accompanied him, after the battle of
Cunaxa in 401 B.C.


ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher of the 6th century B.C., who, in
his roamings in quest of wisdom, arrived at Athens, and became the friend
and disciple of Solon, but was put to death on his return home by his
brother; he stands for a Scythian savant living among a civilised people,
as well as for a wise man living among fools.


ANACHARSIS CLOOTZ. See CLOOTZ.


ANACON`DA, a gigantic serpent of tropical America.


ANAC`REON, a celebrated Greek lyric poet, a native of Teos, in Asia
Minor; lived chiefly at Samos and Athens; his songs are in praise of love
and wine, not many fragments of them are preserved (560-418 B.C.).


ANACREON OF PAINTERS, Francesco Albani; A. OF PERSIA, Haefiz;
A. OF THE GUILLOTINE, Barere.


ANADYOM`ENE, Aphrodite, a name meaning "emerging," given to her in
allusion to her arising out of the sea; the name of a famous painting of
Apelles so representing her.


ANADYR, a river in Siberia, which flows into Behring Sea.


ANAG`NI, a small town 40 m. SE. of Rome, the birthplace of several
Popes.


ANAHUAC`, a plateau in Central Mexico, 7580 ft. of mean elevation;
one of the names of Mexico prior to the conquest of it by the Spaniards.


AN`AKIM, a race of giants that lived in the S. of Palestine, called
also sons of Anak.


ANAM`ALAH MOUNTAINS, a range of the W. Ghats in Travancore.


ANAMU`DI, the highest point in the Anamalah Mts., 7000 ft.


ANARCHISM, a projected social revolution, the professed aim of which
is that of the emancipation of the individual from the present system of
government which makes him the slave of others, and of the training of
the individual so as to become a law to himself, and in possession,
therefore, of the right to the control of all his vital interests, the
project definable as an insane attempt to realise a social system on the
basis of absolute individual freedom.


ANASTA`SIUS, the name of four popes: A. I., the most eminent,
pope from 398 to 401; A. II., pope from 496 to 498; A. III.,
pope from 911 to 913; A. IV., pope from 1153 to 1154.


ANASTASIUS, ST., a martyr under Nero; festival, April 15.


ANASTASIUS I., emperor of the East, excommunicated for his
severities to the Christians, and the first sovereign to be so treated by
the Pope (430-515).


ANATO`LIA, the Greek name for Asia Minor.


ANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY, a "mosaic" work by Burton, described by
Professor Saintsbury as "a wandering of the soul from Dan to Beersheba,
through all employments, desires, pleasures, and finding them barren
except for study, of which in turn the _taedium_ is not obscurely hinted."


ANAXAG`ORAS, a Greek philosopher of Clazomenae, in Ionia, removed to
Athens and took philosophy along with him, i. e. transplanted it there,
but being banished thence for impiety to the gods, settled in Lampsacus,
was the first to assign to the _nous_, conceived of "as a purely
immaterial principle, a formative power in the origin and organisation of
things"; _d_. 425 B.C.


ANAXAR`CHUS, a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus and
friend of Alexander the Great.


ANAXIMANDER, a Greek philosopher of Miletus, derived the universe
from a material basis, indeterminate and eternal (611-547 B.C.).


ANAXIM`ENES, also of Miletus, made air the first principle of
things; _d_. 500 B.C.; A., of Lampsacus, preceptor and biographer
of Alexander the Great.


ANCAEUS, a son of Neptune, who, having left a flagon of wine to
pursue a boar, was killed by it.


ANCELOT, a French dramatic poet, distinguished both in tragedy and
comedy; his wife also a distinguished writer (1792-1875).


ANCENIS (4), a town on the Loire, 23 m. NE. of Nantes.


ANCESTOR-WORSHIP, the worship of ancestors that prevails in
primitive nations, due to a belief in ANIMISM (q. v.).


ANCHIETA, a Portuguese Jesuit, born at Teneriffe, called the Apostle
of the New World (1538-1597).


ANCHI`SES, the father of AEneas, whom his son bore out of the flames
of Troy on his shoulders to the ships; was buried in Sicily.


ANCHITHERIUM, a fossil animal with three hoofs, the presumed
original of the horse.


ANCHOVY, a small fish captured for the flavour of its flesh and made
into sauce.


ANCHOVY PEAR, fruit of a W. Indian plant, of the taste of the mango.


ANCIENT MARINER, a mariner doomed to suffer dreadful penalties for
having shot an albatross, and who, when he reaches land, is haunted by
the recollection of them, and feels compelled to relate the tale of them
as a warning to others; the hero of a poem by Coleridge.


ANCILLON, FREDERICK, a Prussian statesman, philosophic man of
letters, and of French descent (1766-1837).


ANCO`NA (56), a port of Italy in the Adriatic, second to that of
Venice; founded by Syracusans.


ANCRE, MARSHAL, a profligate minister of France during the minority
of Louis XIII.


ANCUS MARCIUS, 4th king of Rome, grandson of Numa, extended the city
and founded Ostia.


ANDALUSIA (3,370), a region in the S. of Spain watered by the
Guadalquivir; fertile in grains, fruits, and vines, and rich in minerals.


ANDAMANS, volcanic islands in the Bay of Bengal, surrounded by coral
reefs; since 1858 used as a penal settlement.


ANDELYS, LES, a small town on the Seine, 20 m. NE. of Evreux,
divided into Great and Little.


ANDERMATT, a central Swiss village in Uri, 18 m. S. of Altorf.


ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN, a world-famous story-teller of Danish
birth, son of a poor shoemaker, born at Odense; was some time before he
made his mark, was honoured at length by the esteem and friendship of the
royal family, and by a national festival on his seventieth birthday
(1805-1875).


ANDERSON, JAMES, a Scotch lawyer, famous for his learning and his
antiquarian knowledge (1662-1728).


ANDERSON, JAMES, native of Hermiston, near Edinburgh, a writer on
agriculture and promoter of it in Scotland (1739-1808).


ANDERSON, JOHN, a native of Roseneath, professor of physics in
Glasgow University, and the founder of the Andersonian College in Glasgow
(1726-1796).


ANDERSON, LAWRENCE, one of the chief reformers of religion in Sweden
(1480-1552).


ANDERSON, MARY, a celebrated actress, native of California; in 1890
married M. Navarro de Viano of New York; _b_. 1859.


ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND, Lord Chief-Justice of Common Pleas under
Elizabeth, sat as judge at the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. Anderson's
Reports is still a book of authority; _d_. 1605.


ANDES, an unbroken range of high mountains, 150 of them actively
volcanic, which extend, often in double and triple chains, along the west
of South America from Cape Horn to Panama, a distance of 4500 m., divided
into the Southern or Chilian as far as 231/2 deg. S., the Central as far as 10 deg.
S., and the Northern to their termination.


ANDOCIDES, an orator and leader of the oligarchical faction in
Athens; was four times exiled, the first time for profaning the
Eleusinian Mysteries (467-393 B.C.).


ANDOR`RA (6), a small republic in the E. Pyrenees, enclosed by
mountains, under the protection of France and the Bishop of Urgel, in
Catalonia; cattle-rearing is the chief occupation of the inhabitants, who
are a primitive people and of simple habits.


ANDOVER, an old municipal borough and market-town in Hampshire, 66
m. SW. of London; also a town 23 m. from Boston, U.S., famous for its
theological seminary, founded in 1807.


ANDRAL, GABRIEL, a distinguished French pathologist, professor in
Paris University (1797-1876).


AN`DRASSY, COUNT, a Hungarian statesman, was exiled from 1848 to
1851, became Prime Minister in 1867, played a prominent part in
diplomatic affairs on the Continent to the advantage of Austria
(1823-1890).


ANDRE, JOHN, a brave British officer, tried and hanged as a spy in
the American war in 1780; a monument is erected to him in Westminster
Abbey.


ANDRE II., king of Hungary from 1205 to 1235, took part in the fifth
crusade.


ANDREA DEL SARTO. See SARTO.


ANDREA PISANO, a sculptor and architect, born at Pisa, contributed
greatly to free modern art from Byzantine influence (1270-1345).


ANDREOSSY, COUNT, an eminent French general and statesman, served
under Napoleon, ambassador at London, Vienna, and Constantinople,
advocated the recall of the Bourbons on the fall of Napoleon.


ANDREOSSY, FRANCOIS, an eminent French engineer and mathematician
(1633-1688).


ANDREW, ST., one of the Apostles, suffered martyrdom by crucifixion,
became patron saint of Scotland; represented in art as an old man with
long white hair and a beard, holding the Gospel in his right hand, and
leaning on a transverse cross.


ANDREW, ST., RUSSIAN ORDER OF, the highest Order in Russia.


ANDREW, ST., THE CROSS OF, cross like a X, such having, it is
said, been the form of the cross on which St. Andrew suffered.


ANDREWES, LANCELOT, an English prelate, born in Essex, and zealous
High Churchman in the reign of Elizabeth and James I.; eminent as a
scholar, a theologian, and a preacher; in succession bishop of Ely,
Chichester, and Winchester; was one of the Hampton Court Conference, and
of the translators of the Authorised Version of the Bible; he was fervent
in devotion, but of his sermons the criticism of a Scotch nobleman, when
he preached at Holyrood once, was not inappropriate: "He rather plays
with his subject than preaches on it" (1555-1626).


ANDREWS, JOSEPH, a novel by Fielding, and the name of the hero, who
is a footman, and the brother of Richardson's Pamela.


ANDREWS, THOMAS, an eminent physicist, born and professor in Belfast
(1813-1885).


ANDRIEUX, ST., a French litterateur and dramatist, born at
Strassburg, professor in the College of France, and permanent secretary
to the Academy (1759-1822).


ANDRO`CLUS, a Roman slave condemned to the wild beasts, but saved by
a lion, sent into the arena to attack him, out of whose foot he had long
before sucked a thorn that pained him, and who recognised him as his
benefactor.


ANDROM`ACHE, the wife of Hector and the mother of Astyanax, famous
for her conjugal devotion; fell to Pyrrhus, Achilles' son, at the fall of
Troy, but was given up by him to Hector's brother; is the subject of
tragedies by Euripides and Racine respectively.


ANDROM`EDA, a beautiful Ethiopian princess exposed to a sea monster,
which Perseus slew, receiving as his reward the hand of the maiden; she
had been demanded by Neptune as a sacrifice to appease the Nereids for an
insult offered them by her mother.


ANDRONI`CUS, the name of four Byzantine emperors: A. I.,
COMNENUS, killed his ward, Alexis II., usurped the throne, and was
put to death, 1183; A. II., lived to see the empire devastated by
the Turks (1282-1328); A. III., grandson of the preceding, dethroned
him, fought stoutly against the Turks without staying their advances
(1328-1341); A. IV. dethroned his father, Soter V., and was
immediately stripped of his possessions himself (1377-1378).


ANDRONICUS, LIVIUS, the oldest dramatic poet in the Latin language
(240 B.C.).


ANDRONICUS OF RHODES, a disciple of Aristotle in the time of Cicero,
and to whom we owe the preservation of many of Aristotle's works.


ANDROS (22), the most northern of the Cyclades, fertile soil and
productive of wine and silk.


ANDROUET DU CERCEAU`, an eminent French architect who designed the
Pont Neuf at Paris (1530-1600).


ANDUJAR (11), a town of Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir, noted for
the manufacture of porous clay water-cooling vessels.


ANEMOMETER, an instrument for measuring the force, course, and
velocity of the wind.


ANEROID, a barometer, consisting of a small watch-shaped, air-tight,
air-exhausted metallic box, with internal spring-work and an index,
affected by the pressure of the air on plates exposed to its action.


ANEU`RIN, a British bard at the beginning of the 7th century, who
took part in the battle of Cattraeth, and made it the subject of a poem.


ANEURISM, a tumour, containing blood, on the coat of an artery.


ANGARA, a tributary of the Yenisei, which passes through Lake
Baikal.


ANGEL, an old English coin, with the archangel Michael piercing the
dragon on the obverse of it.


ANGEL-FISH, a hideous, voracious fish of the shark family.


ANGELIC DOCTOR, Thomas Aquinas.


ANGEL`ICA, a faithless lady of romance, for whose sake Orlando lost
his heart and his senses.


ANGELICA DRAUGHT, something which completely changes the affection.


ANGELICO, FRA, an Italian painter, born at Mugello, in Tuscany;
became a Dominican monk at Fiesole, whence he removed to Florence, and
finally to Rome, where he died; devoted his life to religious subjects,
which he treated with great delicacy, beauty, and finish, and conceived
in virgin purity and child-like simplicity of soul; his work in the form
of fresco-painting is to be found all over Italy (1387-1455).


AN`GELUS, a devotional service in honour of the Incarnation.


ANGERS` (77), on the Maine, the ancient capital of Anjou, 160 m. SW.
of Paris, with a fine cathedral, a theological seminary, and a medical
school; birthplace of David the sculptor.


ANGERSTEIN, JOHN, born in St. Petersburg, a distinguished patron of
the fine arts, whose collection of paintings, bought by the British
Government, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery (1735-1822).


ANGI`NA PEC`TORIS, an affection of the heart of an intensely
excruciating nature, the pain of which at times extends to the left
shoulder and down the left arm.


ANGLER, a fish with a broad, big-mouthed head and a tapering body,
both covered with appendages having glittering tips, by which, as it
burrows in the sand, it allures other fishes into its maw.


ANGLES, a German tribe from Sleswig who invaded Britain in the 5th
century and gave name to England.


AN`GLESEA (50), i. e. Island of the Angles, an island forming a
county in Wales, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait, flat,
fertile, and rich in minerals.


ANGLESEY, MARQUIS OF, eldest son of the first Earl of Uxbridge,
famous as a cavalry officer in Flanders, Holland, the Peninsula, and
especially at Waterloo, at which he lost a leg, and for his services at
which he received his title; was some time viceroy in Ireland, where he
was very popular (1768-1854).


ANGLIA, EAST territory in England occupied in the 6th century by the
Angles, corresponding to counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.


ANG`LICAN CHURCH, the body of Episcopal churches all over the
British Empire and Colonies, as well as America, sprung from the Church
of England, though not subject to her jurisdiction, the term
_Anglo-Catholic_ being applied to the High Church section.


ANGLO-SAXON, the name usually assigned to the early inflected form
of the English language.


ANGO`LA (2,400), a district on the W. coast of Africa, between the
Congo and Benguela, subject to Portugal, the capital of which is St. Paul
de Loando.


ANGO`RA (20), a city in the centre of Anatolia, in a district noted
for its silky, long-haired animals, cats and dogs as well as goats.


ANGOSTU`RA, capital of the province of Guayana, in Venezuela, 240 m.
up the Orinoco; also a medicinal bark exported thence.


ANGOULEME` (31), an old French city on the Charente, 83 m. NE. of
Bordeaux, with a fine cathedral, the birthplace of Marguerite de Valois
and Balzac.


ANGOULEME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUC D', natural son of Charles IX.,
gained great reputation as a military commander, left Memoirs of his life
(1575-1650).


ANGOULEME, DUC D', the eldest son of Charles X., after the
Revolution of 1830 gave up his rights to the throne and retired to Goritz
(1778-1844).


ANGOULEME, DUCHESSE D', daughter of Louis XVI. and wife of the
preceding (1778-1851).


AN`GRA, the capital of the Azores, on the island of Terceira, a
fortified place.


AN`GRA PEQUE`NA, a port in SW. Africa, N. of the Orange River, and
the nucleus of the territory belonging to Germany.


ANG`STROM, a Swedish physicist and professor at Upsala,
distinguished for his studies on the solar spectrum; _b_. 1814.


ANGUIL`LA (2), or Snake Island, one of the Lesser Antilles, E. of
Porto Rico, belonging to Britain.


ANGUIER, the name of two famous French sculptors in the 17th
century.


AN`HALT (293), a duchy of Central Germany, surrounded and split up
by Prussian Saxony, and watered by the Elbe and Saale; rich in minerals.


ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD, PRINCE OF, a Prussian field-marshal, served
and distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish Succession and in
Italy, was wounded at Cassano; defeated Charles XII. at the Isle of
Ruegen, and the Saxons and Austrians at Kesseldorf (1676-1747).


ANICHINI, an Italian medallist of the 16th century; executed a medal
representing the interview of Alexander the Great with the High Priest of
the Jews, which Michael Angelo pronounced the perfection of the art.


ANILINE, a colourless transparent oily liquid, obtained chiefly from
coal-tar, and extensively used in the production of dyes.


ANIMAL HEAT, the heat produced by the chemical changes which go on
in the animal system, the intensity depending on the activity of the
process.


ANIMAL MAGNETISM, a name given to the alleged effects on the animal
system, in certain passive states, of certain presumed magnetic
influences acting upon it.


ANIMISM, a belief that there is a psychical body within the physical
body of a living being, correspondent with it in attributes, and that
when the connection between them is dissolved by death the former lives
on in a ghostly form; in other words, a belief of a ghost-soul existing
conjointly with and subsisting apart from the body, its physical
counterpart.


AN`IO, an affluent of the Tiber, 4 m. above Rome; ancient Rome was
supplied with water from it by means of aqueducts.


ANISE, an umbelliferous plant, the seed of which is used as a
carminative and in the preparation of liqueurs.


ANJOU`, an ancient province in the N. of France, annexed to the
crown of France under Louis XI. in 1480; belonged to England till wrested
from King John by Philip Augustus in 1203.


ANKARSTROeM, the assassin of Gustavus III. of Sweden, at a masked
ball, March 15, 1792, for which he was executed after being publicly
flogged on three successive days.


ANKLAM (12), an old Hanse town in Pomerania, connected by railway
with Stettin.


ANKOBAR, capital of Shoa, in Abyssinia; stands 8200 ft. above the
sea-level.


ANN ARBOR (10), a city of Michigan, on the Huron, with an
observatory and a flourishing university.


ANNA COMNE`NA, a Byzantine princess, who, having failed in a
political conspiracy, retired into a convent and wrote the life of her
father, Alexius I., under the title of the "Alexiad" (1083-1148).


AN`NA IVANOV`NA, niece of Peter the Great, empress of Russia in
succession to Peter II. from 1730 to 1740; her reign was marred by the
evil influence of her paramour Biren over her, which led to the
perpetration of great cruelties; was famed for her big cheek, "which, as
shown in her portraits," Carlyle says, "was comparable to a Westphalian
ham" (1693-1740).


AN`NAM (6,000), an empire, of the size of Sweden, along the east
coast of Indo-China, under a French protectorate since 1885; it has a
rich well-watered soil, which yields tropical products, and is rich in
minerals.


AN`NAN (3), a burgh in Dumfries, on river Annan; birthplace of
Edward Irving, and where Carlyle was a schoolboy, and at length
mathematical schoolmaster.


ANNAP`OLIS (3), seaport of Nova Scotia, on the Bay of Fundy; also
the capital (7) of Maryland, U.S., 28 m. E. of Washington.


ANNE, QUEEN, daughter of James II.; by the union of Scotland with
England during her reign in 1707 became the first sovereign of the United
Kingdom; her reign distinguished by the part England played in the war of
the Spanish succession and the number of notabilities, literary and
scientific, that flourished under it, though without any patronage on the
part of the Queen (1665-1714).


ANNE, ST., wife of St. Joachim, mother of the Virgin Mary, and the
patron saint of carpentry; festival, July 26.


ANNE OF AUSTRIA, the daughter of Philip III. of Spain, wife of Louis
XIII., and mother of Louis XIV., became regent on the death of her
husband, with Cardinal Mazarin for minister; during the minority of her
son, triumphed over the Fronde; retired to a convent on the death of
Mazarin (1610-1666).


ANNE OF BRITTANY, the daughter of Francis II., Duke of Brittany; by
her marriage, first to Charles VIII. then to Louis XII., the duchy was
added to the crown of France (1476-1514).


ANNE OF CLEVES, daughter of Duke of Cleves, a wife of Henry VIII.,
who fell in love with the portrait of her by Holbein, but being
disappointed, soon divorced her; _d_. 1577.


ANNECY (11), the capital of Haute-Savoie, in France, on a lake of
the name, 22 m. S. of Geneva, at which the Counts of Geneva had their
residence, and where Francis of Sales was bishop.


ANNOBON, a Spanish isle in the Gulf of Guinea.


ANNONAY (14), a town in Ardeche, France; paper the chief
manufacture.


ANNUNCIATION DAY, a festival on the 25th of March in commemoration
of the salutation of the angel to the Virgin Mary on the Incarnation of
Christ.


ANQUETIL`, LOUIS PIERRE, a French historian in holy orders, wrote
"Precis de l'Histoire Universelle" and a "Histoire de France" in 14
vols.; continued by Bouillet in 6 more (1723-1806).


ANQUETIL`-DUPERRON, brother of the preceding, an enthusiastic
Orientalist, to whom we owe the discovery and first translation of the
Zend-Avesta and Schopenhauer his knowledge of Hindu philosophy, and which
influenced his own system so much (1731-1805).


ANSBACH (14), a manufacturing town in Bavaria, 25 m. SW. of
Nuernberg, the capital of the old margraviate of the name, and the
margraves of which were HOHENZOLLERNS (q. v.).


ANSCHAR or ANSGAR, ST., a Frenchman born, the first to preach
Christianity to the pagans of Scandinavia, was by appointment of the Pope
the first archbishop of Hamburg (801-864).


ANSELM, ST., archbishop of Canterbury, a native of Aosta, in
Piedmont, monk and abbot; visited England frequently, gained the favour
of King Rufus, who appointed him to succeed Lanfranc, quarrelled with
Rufus and left the country, but returned at the request of Henry I., a
quarrel with whom about investiture ended in a compromise; an able,
high-principled, God-fearing man, and a calmly resolute upholder of the
teaching and authority of the Church (1033-1109). See CARLYLE'S "PAST
AND PRESENT."


ANSON, LORD, a celebrated British naval commander, sailed round the
world, during war on the part of England with Spain, on a voyage of
adventure with a fleet of three ships, and after three years and nine
months returned to England, his fleet reduced to one vessel, but with
L500,000 of Spanish treasure on board. Anson's "Voyage Round the World"
contains a highly interesting account of this, "written in brief,
perspicuous terms," witnesses Carlyle, "a real poem in its kind, or
romance all fact; one of the pleasantest little books in the world's
library at this time" (1697-1762).


ANSTRUTHER, EAST AND WEST, two contiguous royal burghs on the Fife
coast, the former the birthplace of Tennant the poet, Thomas Chalmers,
and John Goodsir the anatomist.


ANTAEUS, a mythical giant, a _terrae filius_ or son of the earth, who
was strong only when his foot was on the earth, lifted in air he became
weak as water, a weakness which Hercules discovered to his discomfiture
when wrestling with him. The fable has been used as a symbol of the
spiritual strength which accrues when one rests his faith on the
immediate fact of things.


ANTAL`CIDAS, a Spartan general, celebrated for a treaty which he
concluded with Persia whereby the majority of the cities of Asia Minor
passed under the sway of the Persians, to the loss of the fruit of all
the victories gained over them by Athens (387 B.C.).


ANTANANARI`VO (100), the capital of Madagascar, in the centre of the
island, on a well-nigh inaccessible rocky height 5000 ft. above the
sea-level.


ANTAR, an Arab chief of the 6th century, a subject of romance, and
distinguished as a poet.


ANT-EATERS, a family of edentate mammals, have a tubular mouth with
a small aperture, and a long tongue covered with a viscid secretion,
which they thrust into the ant-hills and then withdraw covered with ants.


ANTELOPE, an animal closely allied to the sheep and the goat, very
like the latter in appearance, with a light and elegant figure, slender,
graceful limbs, small cloven hoofs, and generally a very short tail.


ANTEQUE`RA (27), a town in Andalusia, 22 m. N. of Malaga, a
stronghold of the Moors from 712 to 1410.


ANTHE`LIA, luminous rings witnessed in Alpine and Polar regions,
seen round the shadow of one's head in a fog or cloud opposite the sun.


ANTHE`MIUS, the architect of the church of St. Sophia in
Constantinople; _d_. 534.


ANTHON, CHARLES, a well-known American classical scholar and editor
of the Classics (1797-1867).


ANTHRAX, a disease, especially in cattle, due to the invasion of a
living organism which, under certain conditions, breeds rapidly; called
also splenic fever.


ANTHROPOID APES, a class of apes, including the gorilla, chimpanzee,
orang-outang, and gibbon, without tails, with semi-erect figures and long
arms.


ANTHROPOLOGY, the science of man as he exists or has existed under
different physical and social conditions.


ANTHROPOMORPHISM, the ascription of human attributes to the unseen
author of things.


ANTI`BES (5) a seaport and place of ancient date on a peninsula in
the S. of France, near Cannes and opposite Nice.


ANTICHRIST, a name given in the New Testament to various
incarnations of opposition to Christ in usurpation of His authority, but
is by St. John defined to involve that form of opposition which denies
the doctrine of the Incarnation, or that Christ has come in the flesh.


ANTICOSTI, a barren rocky island in the estuary of St Lawrence,
frequented by fishermen, and with hardly a permanent inhabitant.


ANTIG`ONE`, the daughter of Oedipus, king of Thebes, led about her
father when he was blind and in exile, returned to Thebes on his death;
was condemned to be buried alive for covering her brother's exposed body
with earth in defiance of the prohibition of Creon, who had usurped the
throne; Creon's son, out of love for her, killed himself on the spot
where she was buried. She has been immortalised in one of the grandest
tragedies of Sophocles.


ANTIGONE, THE MODERN, the Duchess of Angouleme, daughter of Louis
XV. See THE PARTING SCENE IN CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION."


ANTIG`ONUS, surnamed the Cyclops or One-eyed, one of the generals of
Alexander the Great, made himself master of all Asia Minor, excited the
jealousy of his rivals; was defeated and slain at Ipsus, in Phrygia, 301
B.C.


ANTIGONUS, the last king of the Jews of the Asmonean dynasty; put to
death in 77 B.C.


ANTIGONUS GONATAS, king of Macedonia, grandson of the preceding;
twice deprived of his kingdom, but recovered it; attempted to prevent the
formation of the Achaean League (275-240 B.C.).


ANTIGUA, one of the Leeward Islands, the seat of the government; the
most productive of them belongs to Britain.


ANTILLES, an archipelago curving round from N. America to S.
America, and embracing the Caribbean Sea; the GREATER A., on the N.
of the sea, being Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; and the LESSER
A., on the E., forming the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands, and
the Venezuelan Islands--the Leeward as far as Dominica, the Windward as
far as Trinidad, and the Venezuelan along the coast of S. America.


ANTIMONY, a brittle white metal, of value both in the arts and
medicine.


ANTINOMIANISM, the doctrine that the law is superseded in some sense
or other by the all-sufficing, all-emancipating free spirit of Christ.


ANTINOMY, in the transcendental philosophy the contradiction which
arises when we carry the categories of the understanding above experience
and apply them to the sphere of that which transcends it.


ANTIN`OUS, a Bithynian youth of extraordinary beauty, a slave of the
Emperor Hadrian; became a great favourite of his and accompanied him on
all his journeys. He was drowned in the Nile, and the grief of the
emperor knew no bounds; he enrolled him among the gods, erected a temple
and founded a city in his honour, while artists vied with each other in
immortalising his beauty.


AN`TIOCH (23), an ancient capital of Syria, on the Orontes, called
the Queen of the East, lying on the high-road between the E. and the W.,
and accordingly a busy centre of trade; once a city of great splendour
and extent, and famous in the early history of the Church as the seat of
several ecclesiastical councils and the birthplace of Chrysostom. There
was an Antioch in Pisidia, afterwards called Caesarea.


ANTI`OCHUS, name of three Syrian kings of the dynasty of the
Seleucidae: A. I., SOTER, i. e. Saviour, son of one of Alexander's
generals, fell heir of all Syria; king from 281 to 261 B.C. A. II.,
THEOS, i. e. God, being such to the Milesians in slaying the tyrant
Timarchus; king from 261 to 246. A. III., the Great, extended and
consolidated the empire, gave harbour to Hannibal, declared war against
Rome, was defeated at Thermopylae and by Scipio at Magnesia, killed in
attempting to pillage the temple at Elymais; king from 223 to 187. A.
IV., EPIPHANES, i. e. Illustrious, failed against Egypt, tyrannised
over the Jews, provoked the Maccabaean revolt, and died delirious; king
from 175 to 104. A. V., EUPATOR, king from 164 to 162.


ANTI`OPE, queen of the Amazons and mother of Hippolytus. _The Sleep
of Antiope_, _chef-d'oeuvre_ of Correggio in the Louvre.


ANTIP`AROS (2), one of the Cyclades, W. of Paros, with a stalactite
cavern.


ANTIP`ATER, a Macedonian general, governed Macedonia with great
ability during the absence of Alexander, defeated the confederate Greek
states at Cranon, reigned supreme on the death of Perdiccas
(397-317 B.C.).


ANTIPH`ILUS, a Greek painter, contemporary and rival of Apelles.


AN`TIPHON, an Athenian orator and politician, preceptor of
Thucydides, who speaks of him in terms of honour, was the first to
formulate rules of oratory (479-411 B.C.).


ANTIPOPE, a pope elected by a civil power in opposition to one
elected by the cardinals, or one self-elected and usurped; there were
some 26 of such, first and last.


ANTIPYRETICS, medicines to reduce the temperature in fever, of which
the chief are quinine and salicylate of soda.


ANTIPYRIN, a febrifuge prepared from coal-tar, and used as a
substitute for quinine.


ANTISA`NA, a volcano of the N. Andes, in Ecuador, 19,200 ft. high;
also a village on its flanks, 13,000 ft. high, the highest village in the
world.


ANTISE`MITES, a party in Russia and the E. of Germany opposed to the
Jews on account of the undue influence they exercise in national affairs
to the alleged detriment of the natives.


ANTISEPTICS, substances used, particularly in surgery, to prevent or
arrest putrefaction.


ANTIS`THENES, a Greek philosopher, a disciple of Socrates, the
master of Diogenes, and founder of the Cynic school; affected to disdain
the pride and pomp of the world, and was the first to carry staff and
wallet as the badge of philosophy, but so ostentatiously as to draw from
Socrates the rebuke, "I see your pride looking out through the rent of
your cloak, O Antisthenes."


ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range running NE. from the Taurus Mts.


ANTIUM, a town of Latium on a promontory jutting into the sea, long
antagonistic to Rome, subdued in 333 B.C.; the beaks of its ships,
captured in a naval engagement, were taken to form a rostrum in the Forum
at Home; it was the birthplace of Caligula and Nero.


ANTIVA`RI, a fortified seaport lately ceded to Montenegro.


ANTOFAGAS`TA (7), a rising port in Chile, taken from Bolivia after
the war of 1879; exports silver ores and nitrate of soda.


ANTOMMAR`CHI, Napoleon's attached physician at St. Helena, wrote
"The Last Moments of Napoleon" (1780-1838).


ANTONELLI, CARDINAL, the chief adviser and Prime Minister of Pope
Pius IX., accompanied the Pope to Gaeta, came back with him to Rome,
acting as his foreign minister there, and offered a determined opposition
to the Revolution; left immense wealth (1806-1876).


ANTONEL`LO, of Messina, Italian painter of the 15th century,
introduced from Holland oil-painting into Italy (1414-1493).


ANTONI`NUS, ITINERARY OF, a valuable geographical work supposed of
date 44 B.C.


ANTONI`NUS, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor, successor to the
following, and who surpassed him in virtue, being also of the Stoic
school and one of its most exemplary disciples, was surnamed the
"philosopher," and has left in his "Meditations" a record of his
religious and moral principles (121-180).


ANTONI`NUS PIUS, a Roman emperor, of Stoic principles, who reigned
with justice and moderation from 138 to 161, during which time the Empire
enjoyed unbroken peace.


ANTONI`NUS, WALL OF, an earthen rampart about 36 m. in length, from
the Forth to the Clyde, in Scotland, as a barrier against invasion from
the north, erected in the year 140 A.D.


ANTO`NIUS, MARCUS, a famous Roman orator and consul, slain in the
civil war between Marius and Sulla, having sided with the latter (143-87
B.C.).


ANTO`NIUS, MARCUS (Mark Antony), grandson of the preceding and warm
partisan of Caesar; after the murder of the latter defeated Brutus and
Cassius at Philippi, formed a triumvirate with Octavius and Lepidus, fell
in love with the famous Cleopatra, was defeated by Octavius in the naval
battle of Actium, and afterwards killed himself (83-30 B.C.).


AN`TONY, ST., a famous anchorite of the Thebaid, where from the age
of thirty he spent 20 years of his life, in a lonely ruin by himself,
resisting devils without number; left his retreat for a while to
institute monasteries, and so became the founder of monachism, but
returned to die; festival, Jan. 17 (251-351).


ANTONY OF PADUA, a Minorite missionary to the Moors in Africa;
preached to the fishes, who listened to him when no one else would; the
fishes came in myriads to listen, and shamed the pagans into conversion,
says the fable; festival, June 13 (1195-1234)


ANTRAIGUES, COUNT D', one of the firebrands of the French
Revolution; "rose into furor almost Pythic; highest where many were
high," but veered round to royalism, which he at length intrigued on
behalf of--to death by the stiletto (1765-1812).


ANT`RIM (471), a maritime county in the NE. of Ulster, in Ireland;
soil two-thirds arable, linen the chief manufacture, exports butter,
inhabitants mostly Protestant.


ANTWERP (240), a large fortified trading city in Belgium, on the
Scheldt, 50 m. from the sea, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, the spire
402 ft. high; the burial-place of Rubens; has a large picture-gallery
full of the works of the Dutch and Flemish artists.


ANU`BIS, an Egyptian deity with the body of a man and the head of a
jackal, whose office, like that of Hermes, it was to see to the disposal
of the souls of the dead in the nether world, on quitting the body.


ANWARI, a Persian lyric poet who flourished in the 12th century.


AN`YTUS, the most vehement accuser of Socrates; banished in
consequence from Athens, after Socrates' death.


AOS`TA (5), a town of Italy, N. of Turin, in a fertile Alpine level
valley, but where goitre and cretinism prevail to a great extent; the
birthplace of Anselm.


APA`CHES, a fierce tribe of American Indians on the S. and W. of the
United States; long a source of trouble to the republic.


APEL`LES, the most celebrated painter of antiquity; bred, if not
born, at Ephesus; lived at the court of Alexander the Great; his great
work "APHRODITE ANADYOMENE" (q. v.); a man conscious, like
Duerer, of mastery in his art, as comes out in his advice to the
criticising shoemaker to "stick to his last."


AP`ENNINES, a branch of the Alps extending, with spurs at right
angles, nearly through the whole length of Italy, forming about the
middle of the peninsula a double chain which supports the tableland of
Abruzzi.


APES, DEAD SEA, dwellers by the Dead Sea who, according to the
Moslem tradition, were transformed into apes because they turned a deaf
ear to God's message to them by the lips of Moses, fit symbol, thinks
Carlyle, of many in modern time to whom the universe, with all its
serious voices, seems to have become a weariness and a humbug See
"PAST AND PRESENT," BK. III. CHAP. III.


APH`IDES, a family of insects very destructive to plants by feeding
on them in countless numbers.


APHRODI`TE, the Greek goddess of love and beauty, wife of Hephaestos
and mother of Cupid; sprung from sea-foam; as queen of beauty had the
golden apple awarded her by Paris, and possessed the power of conferring
beauty, by means of her magic girdle, the cestus, on others.


API`CIUS, the name of three famous Roman epicures, the first of whom
was contemporary with Sulla, the second with Augustus, and the third with
Trajan.


A`PION, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 1st century, and an enemy
of the Jews, and hostile to the privileges conceded them in Alexandria.


A`PIS, the sacred live bull of the Egyptians, the incarnation of
Osiris; must be black all over the body, have a white triangular spot on
the forehead, the figure of an eagle on the back, and under the tongue
the image of a scarabaeus; was at the end of 25 years drowned in a sacred
fountain, had his body embalmed, and his mummy regarded as an object of
worship.


APOCALYPTIC WRITINGS, writings composed among the Jews in the 2nd
century B.C., and ascribed to one and another of the early prophets of
Israel, forecasting the judgments ordained of God to overtake the nation,
and predicting its final deliverance at the hands of the Messiah.


APOCRYPHA, THE, a literature of sixteen books composed by Jews,
after the close of the Hebrew canon, which though without the unction of
the prophetic books of the canon, are instinct, for most part, with the
wisdom which rests on the fear of God and loyalty to His law. The word
Apocrypha means hidden writing, and it was given to it by the Jews to
distinguish it from the books which they accepted as canonical.


APOL`DA (20), a town in Saxe-Weimar with extensive hosiery
manufactures; has mineral springs.


APOLLINA`RIS, bishop of Laodicea, denied the proper humanity of
Christ, by affirming that the Logos in Him took the place of the human
soul, as well as by maintaining that His body was not composed of
ordinary flesh and blood; _d_. 390.


APOLLO, the god _par excellence_ of the Greeks, identified with the
sun and all that we owe to it in the shape of inspiration, art, poetry,
and medicine; son of Zeus and Leto; twin brother of Artemis; born in the
island of DELOS (q. v.), whither Leto had fled from the jealous
Hera; his favourite oracle at Delphi.


APPLLODO`RUS (1), an Athenian painter, the first to paint figures in
light and shade, 408 B.C.; (2) a celebrated architect of Damascus, _d_.
A.D. 129; and (3), an Athenian who wrote a well-arranged account of the
mythology and heroic age of Greece.


APOLLONIUS OF RHODES, a grammarian and poet, flourished in the 3rd
century B.C., author of the "Argonautica," a rather prosaic account of
the adventures of the Argonauts.


APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, a Pythagorean philosopher, who, having become
acquainted with some sort of Brahminism, professed to have a divine
mission, and, it is said, a power to work miracles; was worshipped after
his death, and has been compared to Christ; _d_. 97.


APOL`LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, who became an eloquent preacher of
Christ, and on account of his eloquence rated above St. Paul.


APOLLYON, the destroying angel, the Greek name for the Hebrew
Abaddon.


APOLOGETICS, a defence of the historical verity of the Christian
religion in opposition to the rationalist and mythical theories.


APOSTATE, an epithet applied to the Emperor Julian, from his having,
conscientiously however, abjured the Christian religion established by
Constantine, in favour of paganism.


APOSTLE OF GERMANY, St. Boniface; A. OF IRELAND, St. Patrick; OF THE
ENGLISH, St. Augustine; OF THE FRENCH, St. Denis; OF THE GAULS, Irenaeus;
OF THE GENTILES, St. Paul; OF THE GOTHS, Ulfilas; OF THE INDIAN, John
Eliot; OF THE SCOTS, Columba; OF THE NORTH, Ansgar; OF THE PICTS, St.
Ninian; OF THE INDIES, Francis Xavier; OF TEMPERANCE, Father Mathew.


APOSTLES, THE FOUR, picture of St. John, St. Peter, St. Mark, and
St. Paul, in the museum at Muenich, painted by Albert Duerer.


APOSTOLIC FATHERS, Fathers of the Church who lived the same time as
the Apostles: Clemens, Barnabas Polycarp, Ignatius, and Hermas.


APOSTOLIC SUCCESSION, the derivation of episcopal power in an
unbroken line from the Apostles, a qualification believed by High
Churchmen to be essential to the discharge of episcopal functions and the
transmission of promised divine grace.


APPALA`CHIANS, a mountainous system of N. America that stretches NE.
from the tablelands of Alabama to the St. Lawrence, and includes the
Alleghanies and the Blue Mountains; their utmost height, under 7000 feet;
do not reach the snow-line; abound in coal and iron.


APPENZELL` (67), a canton in the NE. of Switzerland, enclosed by St.
Gall, divided into Outer Rhoden, which is manufacturing and Protestant,
and Inner Rhoden, which is agricultural and Catholic; also the name of
the capital.


AP`PIAN, an Alexandrian Greek, wrote in 2nd century a history of
Rome in 24 books, of which 11 remain.


AP`PIAN WAY, a magnificent highway begun by Appius Claudius,
312 B.C., and finished by Augustus, from Rome to Brundusium.


APPLE OF DISCORD, a golden apple inscribed with the words, "To the
most Beautiful," thrown in among the gods of Olympus on a particular
occasion, contended for by Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, and awarded by
Paris of Troy, as referee, to Aphrodite, on promise that he would have
the most beautiful woman of the world for wife.


APPLEBY, the county town of Westmorland, on the Eden; is a health
resort.


APPLEGATH, AUGUSTUS, inventor of the vertical printing-press
(1788-1871).


APPLETON (11), a city of Wisconsin, U.S., on the Fox River.


APPLETON, CH. EDWARD, founder and editor of the _Academy_
(1841-1879).


APPOMATTOX COURTHOUSE, a village in Virginia, U.S., where Gen. Lee
surrendered to Gen. Grant in 1865.


APRAXEN, COUNT, a celebrated naval commander under Peter the Great
and his right-hand man in many enterprises (1671-1728).


APRIL, the fourth month of the year, the month of "opening of the
light in the days, and of the life of the leaves, and of the voices of
the birds, and of the hearts of men."


AP`TERYX, a curious New Zealand bird with rudimentary wings, plumage
like hair, and no tail.


APULE`IUS, a student of Plato, of N. African birth, lived in the 2nd
century; having captivated a rich widow, was charged at one time with
sorcery; his most celebrated work was the "Golden Ass," which contains,
among other stories, the exquisite apologue or romance of PSYCHE
and CUPID (q. v.).


APU`LIA (1,797), an ancient province in SE. of Italy, which extends
as far N. as Monte Gargano, and the scene of the last stages in the
second Punic war.


APU`RE, a river in Venezuela, chief tributary of the Orinoco, into
which it falls by six branches.


AQUA TOFA`NA, Tofana's poison, some solution of arsenic with which a
Sicilian woman called Tofana, in 17th century, poisoned, it is alleged,
600 people.


AQUA`RIUS, the Water-bearer, 11th sign of the Zodiac, which the sun
enters Jan. 21.


AQUAVIVA, a general of the Jesuits of high authority (1543-1615).


A`QUILA (20), capital of the province of Abruzzo Ulteriora, on the
Alterno, founded by Barbarossa; a busy place.


A`QUILA, a Judaised Greek of Sinope, in Pontus, executed a literal
translation of the Old Testament into Greek in the interest of Judaism
versus Christianity in the first half of the 2nd century A.D.


A`QUILA, GASPAR, a friend of Luther who aided him in the translation
of the Bible.


AQUILEIA, an Italian village, 22 m. W. of Trieste, once a place of
great importance, where several councils of the Church were held.


AQUI`NAS, THOMAS, the Angelic Doctor, or Doctor of the Schools, an
Italian of noble birth, studied at Naples, became a Dominican monk
despite the opposition of his parents, sat at the feet of Albertus
Magnus, and went with him to Paris, was known among his pupils as the
"Dumb Ox," from his stubborn silence at study, prelected at his Alma
Mater and elsewhere with distinguished success, and being invited to
assist the Council at Lyons, fell sick and died. His "Summa Theologiae,"
the greatest of his many works, is a masterly production, and to this day
of standard authority in the Romish Church. His writings, which fill 17
folio vols., along with those of Duns Scotus, his rival, constitute the
high-water mark of scholastic philosophy and the watershed of its
divergence into the PHILOSOPHICO-SPECULATIVE THOUGHT on the one
hand, and the ETHICO-PRACTICAL OR REALISM OF MODERN TIMES on the
other, q. v. (1226-1274).


AQUITAINE`, a division of ancient Gaul between the Garonne and the
Pyrenees, was from the time of Henry II. till 1453 an appanage of the
English crown.


ARABELLA STUART, a cousin of King James I., the victim all her days
of jealousy and state policy, suspected of aspiring to the crown on the
death of Queen Elizabeth, was shut up in the Tower of London, where she
died bereft of reason in 1615 at the age of 38.


ARABESQUE, an ornamentation introduced by the Moors, consisting of
imaginary, often fantastic, mathematical or vegetable forms, but
exclusive of the forms of men and animals.


ARA`BI, AHMED PASHA, leader of an insurrectionary movement in Egypt
in 1882; he claimed descent from the Prophet; banished to Ceylon; _b_.
1839.


ARABIA (12,000), the most westerly peninsula of Asia and the largest
in the world, being one-third the size of the whole of Europe, consisting
of (_a_) a central plateau with pastures for cattle, and fertile valleys;
(_b_) a ring of deserts, the Nefud in the N., stony, the Great Arabian, a
perfect Sahara, in the S., sandy, said sometimes to be 600 ft. deep, and
the Dahna between; and (_c_) stretches of coast land, generally fertile
on the W. and S.; is divided into eight territories; has no lakes or
rivers, only wadies, oftenest dry; the climate being hot and arid, has no
forests, and therefore few wild animals; a trading country with no roads
or railways, only caravan routes, yet the birthland of a race that
threatened at one time to sweep the globe, and of a religion that has
been a life-guidance to wide-scattered millions of human beings for over
twelve centuries of time.


ARABIA FELIX, the W. coast of Arabia, contains YEMEN and EL
HEJAZ (q. v.), and is subject to Turkey.


ARABIAN DESERT. See ARABIA.


ARABIAN NIGHTS, or the Thousand and One Nights, a collection of
tales of various origin and date, traceable in their present form to the
middle of the 15th century, and first translated into French by Galland
in 1704. The thread on which they are strung is this: A Persian monarch
having made a vow that he would marry a fresh bride every night and
sacrifice her in the morning, the vizier's daughter obtained permission
to be the first bride, and began a story which broke off at an
interesting part evening after evening for a thousand and one nights, at
the end of which term the king, it is said, released her and spared her
life.


ARABS, THE, "a noble-gifted people, swift-handed, deep-hearted,
something most agile, active, yet most meditative, enthusiastic in their
character; a people of wild, strong feelings, and iron restraint over
these. In words too, as in action, not a loquacious people, taciturn
rather, but eloquent, gifted when they do speak, an earnest, truthful
kind of men, of Jewish kindred indeed, but with that deadly terrible
earnestness of the Jews they seem to combine something graceful,
brilliant, which is not Jewish." Such is Carlyle's opinion of the race
from whom Mahomet sprang, as given in his "Heroes."


ARACAN. See ARAKAN.


ARACH`NE, a Lydian maiden, who excelled in weaving, and whom Athena
changed into a spider because she had proudly challenged her ability to
weave as artistic a work; she had failed in the competition, and
previously hanged herself in her despair.


ARAD (42), a fortified town in Hungary, seat of a bishop, on the
right bank of the Maros; manufactures tobacco, trades in cattle and corn.


ARAF, the Mohammedan sheol or borderland between heaven and hell for
those who are from incapacity either not morally bad or morally good.


ARAFAT`, a granite hill E. of Mecca, a place of pilgrimage as the
spot where Adam received his wife after 200 years separation from her on
account of their disobedience to the Lord in deference to the suggestion
of Satan.


AR`AGO, FRANCOIS, an eminent physicist and astronomer, born in the
S. of France, entered the Polytechnic School of Paris when seventeen,
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at the early age of
twenty-three, nominated Director of the Observatory in 1830, was member
of the Provisional Government in 1848, refused to take the oath to Louis
Napoleon after the _coup d'etat_, would rather resign his post at the
Observatory, but was retained, and at his death received a public funeral
(1786-1853).


ARAGO, JACQUES, a brother of the preceding, a litterateur and a
traveller, author of a "Voyage Round the World" (1790-1855).


AR`AGON (925), a territory in the NE. of Spain, traversed by the
Ebro, and divided as you proceed southward into the provinces of Huesca,
Saragossa, and Teruel, mountainous in the N.; with beautiful fertile
valleys, rather barren, in the S; was a kingdom till 1469.


ARAGUAY, an affluent of the Tocantins, in Brazil, which it joins
after a course of 1000 m., augmented by subsidiary streams.


ARAKAN (671), a strip of land in British Burmah, on the E. of the
Bay of Bengal, 400 m. long and from 90 to 15 m. broad, a low, marshy
country; produces and exports large quantities of rice, as well as sugar
and hemp. The natives belong to the Burman stock, and are of the Buddhist
faith, though there is a sprinkling of Mohammedans among them.


ARAL, THE SEA OF, a lake in Turkestan, 265 m. long and 145 broad,
larger than the Irish Sea, 150 m. E. of the Caspian; has no outlet,
shallow, and is said to be drying up.


ARAM, EUGENE, an English school-usher of scholarly attainments,
convicted of murder years after the act and executed 1759, to whose fate
a novel of Bulwer Lytton's and a poem of Hood's have lent a romantic and
somewhat fictitious interest.


ARAMAEA, the territories lying to NE. of Palestine, the inhabitants
of which spoke a Semitic dialect called Aramaic, and improperly Chaldee.


ARAMA`IC, the language of Palestine in the days of Christ, a Semitic
dialect that has now almost entirely died out.


ARAMAE`ANS, a generic name given to the Semitic tribes that dwelt in
the NE. of Palestine, also to those that dwelt at the mouths of the
Euphrates and the Tigris.


ARAN, VAL D', a Pyrenean valley, source of the Garonne, and one of
the highest of the Pyrenees.


ARAN ISLANDS, three islands with antique relics across the mouth of
Galway Bay, to which they form a breakwater.


ARANDA, COUNT OF, an eminent Spanish statesman, banished the
Jesuits, suppressed brigandage, and curtailed the power of the
Inquisition, was Prime Minister of Charles IV., and was succeeded by
Godoy (1719-1798).


ARANJU`EZ (8), a town 28 m. SE. of Madrid, long the spring resort of
the Spanish Court.


AR`ANY, JANOS, a popular Hungarian poet of peasant origin, attained
to eminence as a man of letters (1819-1882).


AR`ARAT, a mountain in Armenia on which Noah's ark is said to have
rested, 17,000 ft. high, is within Russian territory, and borders on both
Turkey and Persia.


ARA`TUS, native of Sicyon, in Greece, promoter of the Achaean League,
in which he was thwarted by Philip of Macedon, was poisoned, it is said,
by his order (271-213 B.C.); also a Greek poet, author of two didactic
poems, born in Cilicia, quoted by St Paul in Acts xvii. 28.


ARAUCA`NIA (88), the country of the Araucos, in Chile, S. of
Concepcion and N. of Valdivia, the Araucos being an Indian race long
resistant but now subject to Chilian authority, and interesting as the
only one that has proved itself able to govern itself and hold its own in
the presence of the white man.


ARAUCA`RIA, tall conifer trees, natives of and confined to the
southern hemisphere.


ARBE`LA, a town near Mosul, where Alexander the Great finally
defeated Darius, 331 B.C.


ARBROATH (22), a thriving seaport and manufacturing town on the
Forfarshire coast, 17 m. N. of Dundee, with the picturesque ruins of an
extensive old abbey, of which Cardinal Beaton was the last abbot. It is
the "Fairport" of the "Antiquary."


ARBUTHNOT, JOHN, a physician and eminent literary man of the age of
Queen Anne and her two successors, born in Kincardineshire, the friend of
Swift and Pope and other lights of the time, much esteemed by them for
his wit and kind-heartedness, joint-author with Swift, it is thought, of
the "Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus" and the "History of John Bull"
(1667-1735).


AR`CACHON (7), a popular watering-place, with a fine beach and a
mild climate, favourable for invalids suffering from pulmonary
complaints, 34 m. SW. of Bordeaux.


ARCA`DIA, a mountain-girt pastoral tableland in the heart of the
Morea, 50 m. long by 40 broad, conceived by the poets as a land of
shepherds and shepherdesses, and rustic simplicity and bliss, and was the
seat of the worship of Artemis and Pan.


ARCA`DIUS, the first emperor of the East, born in Spain, a weak,
luxurious prince, leaving the government in other hands (377-405).


ARCESILA`US, a Greek philosopher, a member of the Platonic School
and founder of the New Academy, who held in opposition to the Stoics that
perception was not knowledge, denied that we had any accurate criterion
of truth, and denounced all dogmatism in opinion.


ARCHAEOLOGY, the study or the science of the monuments of antiquity,
as distinct from palaeontology, which has to do with extinct organisms or
fossil remains.


ARCHANGEL (19), the oldest seaport of Russia, on the Dvina, near its
mouth, on the White Sea, is accessible to navigation from July to
October, is connected with the interior by river and canal, and has a
large trade in flax, timber, tallow, and tar.


ARCHANGELS, of these, according to the Koran, there are four:
Gabriel, the angel who reveals; Michael, the angel who fights; Azrael,
the angel of death; Azrafil, the angel of the resurrection.


ARCHELA`US, king of Macedonia, and patron of art and literature,
with whom Euripides found refuge in his exile, _d_. 400 B.C.; a general
of Mithridates, conquered by Sulla twice over; also the Ethnarch of
Judea, son of Herod, deposed by Augustus, died at Vienne.


ARCHER, JAMES, portrait-painter, born in Edinburgh, 1824.


ARCHER, WM., dramatic critic, born in Perth, 1856.


AR`CHES, COURT OF, an ecclesiastical court of appeal connected with
the archbishopric of Canterbury, the judge of which is called the dean.


AR`CHIL, a purple dye obtained from lichens.


ARCHIL`OCHUS, a celebrated lyric poet of Greece; of a satiric and
often bitter vein, the inventor of iambic verse (714-676 B.C.).


ARCHIMA`GO, a sorcerer in Spenser's "Faerie Queene," who in the
disguise of a reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa or Deceit,
seduces the Red-Cross Knight from Una or Truth.


ARCHIME`DES OF SYRACUSE, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, a
man of superlative inventive power, well skilled in all the mechanical
arts and sciences of the day. When Syracuse was taken by the Romans, he
was unconscious of the fact, and slain, while busy on some problem, by a
Roman soldier, notwithstanding the order of the Roman general that his
life should be spared. He is credited with the boast: "Give me a fulcrum,
and I will move the world." He discovered how to determine the specific
weight of bodies while he was taking a bath, and was so excited over the
discovery that, it is said, he darted off stark naked on the instant
through the streets, shouting "_Eureka! Eureka!_ I have found it! I have
found it!" (287-212 B.C.).


ARCHIMED`ES SCREW, in its original form a hollow spiral placed
slantingly to raise water by revolving it.


ARCHIPEL`AGO, originally the AEgean Sea, now the name of any similar
sea interspersed with islands, or the group of islands included in it.


ARCHITRAVE, the lowest part of an entablature, resting immediately
on the capital.


AR`CHON, a chief magistrate of Athens, of which there were nine at a
time, each over a separate department; the tenure of office was first for
life, then for ten years, and finally for one.


ARCHY`TAS OF TARENTUM, famous as a statesman, a soldier, a
geometrician, a philosopher, and a man; a Pythagorean in philosophy, and
influential in that capacity over the minds of Plato, his contemporary,
and Aristotle; was drowned in the Adriatic Sea, 4th century B.C.; his
body lay unburied on the shore till a sailor humanely cast a handful of
sand on it, otherwise he would have had to wander on this side the Styx
for a hundred years, such the virtue of a little dust, _munera pulveris_,
as Horace calls it.


ARCIS`-SUR-AUBE (3), a town 17 m. N. of Troyes, in France,
birthplace of Danton; scene of a defeat of Napoleon, March 1814.


AR`COT, the name of two districts, N. and S., in the Presidency of
Madras; also chief town (11) in the district, 65 m. SW. of Madras;
captured by Clive in 1787; once the capital of the Carnatic.


ARCTIC OCEAN, a circular ocean round the N. Pole, its diameter 40 deg.,
with low, flat shores, covered with ice-fields, including numerous
islands; the Gulf Stream penetrates it, and a current flows out of it
into the Atlantic.


ARCTU`RUS, star of the first magnitude and the chief in the N.
constellation Booetes.


ARDECHE, an affluent of the Rhone, source in the Cevennes; gives
name to a department traversed by the Cevennes Mountains.


ARDEN, a large forest at one time in England, E. of the Severn.


ARDEN, ENOCH, hero of a poem by Tennyson, who finds, on his return
from the sea, after long absence, his wife, who believed him dead,
married happily to another; does not disclose himself, and dies
broken-hearted.


ARDENNES, a forest, a tract of rugged woodland on the confines of
France and Belgium; also department of France (325), on the borders of
Belgium.


AR`DOCH, a place in Perthshire, 7 m. from Crieff, with the remains
of a Roman camp, the most complete in Britain.


ARENDS, LEOPOLD, a Russian of literary ability, inventor of a system
of stenography extensively used on the Continent (1817-1882).


AREOPAGITICA, a prose work of Milton's, described by Prof.
Saintsbury as "a magnificent search for the Dead Truth."


AREOP`AGUS, the hill of Ares in Athens, which gave name to the
celebrated council held there, a tribunal of 31 members, charged with
judgment in criminal offences, and whose sentences were uniformly the
awards of strictest justice.


AREQUI`PA (35), a city in Peru, founded by Pizarro in 1536, in a
fruitful valley of the Andes, 8000 ft. above the sea, 30 m. inland; is
much subject to earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one in 1868.


A`RES, the Greek god of war in its sanguinary aspects; was the son
of Zeus and Hera; identified by the Romans with Mars, was fond of war for
its own sake, and had for sister Eris, the goddess of strife, who used to
pander to his passion.


ARETAE`US, a Greek physician of 1st century; wrote a treatise on
diseases, their causes, symptoms, and cures, still extant.


ARETHU`SA, a celebrated fountain in the island of Ortygia, near
Syracuse, transformed from a Nereid pursued thither from Elis, in Greece,
by the river-god Alphaeus, so that the waters of the river henceforth
mingled with those of the fountain.


ARETI`NO, PIETRO, called the "Scourge of Princes," a licentious
satirical writer, born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, alternately attached to
people and repelled from them by his wit, moved from one centre of
attraction to another; settled in Venice, where he died after an
uncontrollable fit of laughter which seized him at the story of the
adventure of a sister (1492-1557).


AREZZO (44), an ancient Tuscan city, 38 m. SE. of Florence, and
eventually subject to it; the birthplace of Maecenas, Michael Angelo,
Petrarch, Guido, and Vasari.


AR`GALI, a sheep of Siberia, as large as a moderately-sized ox, with
enormous grooved curving horns, strong-limbed, sure-footed, and swift.


ARGAN`, the hypochondriac rich patient in Moliere's "Le Malade
Imaginaire."


ARGAND, a Swiss physician and chemist, born at Geneva; inventor of
the argand lamp, which, as invented by him, introduced a circular wick
(1755-1803).


ARGELAN`DER, a distinguished astronomer, born at Memel, professor at
Bonn; he fixed the position of 22,000 stars, and recorded observations to
prove that the solar system was moving through space (1799-1874).


AR`GENS, MARQUIS D', a French soldier who turned to letters, author
of sceptical writings, of which the best known is entitled "Lettres
Juives" (1704-1771).


ARGENSON, RENE-LOUIS, MARQUIS D', French statesman, who left
"Memoirs" of value as affecting the early and middle part of Louis XV.'s
reign (1694-1757).


ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, or ARGENTINA (4,000), a confederation like
that of the United States of 14 states and 9 territories, occupying the
eastern slopes of the Andes and the vast level plain extending from them
to the Atlantic, bounded on the N. by Bolivia and Paraguay; its area ten
times that of Great Britain and Ireland; while the population includes
600,000 foreigners, Italians, French, Spaniards, English, and Germans.


AR`GO, the fifty-oared ship of the ARGONAUTS (q. v.).


AR`GOLIS, the north-eastern peninsula of the Morea of Greece, and
one of the 13 provinces of Greece, is 12 m. long by 5 m. broad.


AR`GON, a new element lately discovered to exist in a gaseous form
in the nitrogen of the air.


ARGONAUTICA, the title of a poem on the Argonautic expedition by
Apollonius of Rhodes.


AR`GONAUTS, the Greek heroes, sailors in the _Argo_, who, under the
command of Jason, sailed for Colchis in quest of the golden fleece, which
was guarded by a dragon that never slept, a perilous venture, but it
proved successful with the assistance of Medea, the daughter of the king,
whom, with the fleece, Jason in the end brought away with him to be his
wife.


ARGONNE`, FOREST OF, "a long strip of rocky mountain and wild wood"
in the NE. of France, within the borders of which the Duke of Brunswick
was outwitted by Dumouriez in 1792.


AR`GOS (9), the capital of Argolis, played for long a prominent part
in the history of Greece, but paled before the power of Sparta.


AR`GUS, surnamed the "All-seeing," a fabulous creature with a
hundred eyes, of which one half was always awake, appointed by Hera to
watch over Io, but Hermes killed him after lulling him to sleep by the
sound of his flute, whereupon Hera transferred his eyes to the tail of
the peacock, her favourite bird. Also the dog of Ulysses, immortalised by
Homer; he was the only creature that recognised Ulysses under his rags on
his return to Ithaca after twenty years' absence, under such excitement,
however, that immediately after he dropped down dead.


ARGUS, a pheasant, a beautiful Oriental game-bird, so called from
the eye-like markings on its plumage.


ARGYLL (74), a large county in the W. of Scotland, consisting of
deeply indented mainland and islands, and abounding in mountains,
moorlands, and lochs, with scenery often picturesque as well as wild and
savage.


ARGYLL, a noble family or clan of the name of Campbell, the members
of which have held successively the title of Earl, Marquis, and Duke,
their first patent of nobility dating from 1445, and their earldom from
1453.


ARGYLL, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 1ST MARQUIS OF, sided with the
Covenanters, fought against Montrose, disgusted with the execution of
Charles I., crowned Charles II. at Scone, after the Restoration committed
to the Tower, was tried and condemned, met death nobly (1598-1661).


ARGYLL, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, 9TH EARL OF, son of the preceding,
fought for Charles II., was taken prisoner, released at the Restoration
and restored to his estates, proved rebellious at last, and was condemned
to death; escaped to Holland, made a descent on Scotland, was captured
and executed in 1685.


ARGYLL, GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8TH DUKE OF, as Marquis of
Lorne took a great interest in the movement which led to the Disruption
of the Church of Scotland in 1843, a Whig in politics, was a member of
the Cabinets of Aberdeen, Palmerston, and Gladstone; of late has shown
more Conservative tendencies; takes a deep interest in the scientific
theories and questions of the time; wrote, among other works, a book in
1866 entitled "The Reign of Law," in vindication of Theism, and another
in the same interest in 1884 entitled "The Unity of Nature"; _b_. 1824.


ARGYLL, JOHN CAMPBELL, 2ND DUKE OF, favoured the Union, was created
an English peer, fought under Marlborough, opposed the return of the
Stuarts, defeated Mar at Sheriffmuir, ruled Scotland under Walpole
(1678-1743).


ARIAD`NE, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, gave to Theseus a clue
by which to escape out of the labyrinth after he had slain the Minotaur,
for which Theseus promised to marry her; took her with him to Naxos and
left her there, where, according to one tradition, Artemis killed her,
and according to another, Dionysos found her and married her, placing her
at her death among the gods, and hanging her wedding wreath as a
constellation in the sky.


ARIANISM, the heresy of ARIUS (q. v.).


ARIA`NO (12), a city with a fine cathedral, 1500 ft. above the
sea-level, NE. of Naples; has a trade in wine and butter.


ARI`CA, a seaport connected with Tacna, S. of Peru, the chief outlet
for the produce of Bolivia; suffers again and again from earthquakes, and
was almost destroyed in 1832.


ARIEGE, a department of France, at the foot of the northern slopes
of the Pyrenees; has extensive forests and is rich in minerals.


A`RIEL, in Shakespeare's "Tempest," a spirit of the air whom
Prospero finds imprisoned by Sycorax in the cleft of a pine-tree, and
liberates on condition of her serving him for a season, which she
willingly engages to do, and does.


ARIEL, an idol of the Moabites, an outcast angel.


ARIES, the Ram. the first of the signs of the Zodiac, which the sun
enters on March 21, though the constellation itself, owing to the
precession of the equinoxes, is no longer within the limits of the sign.


ARI`ON, a lyrist of Lesbos, lived chiefly at the court of Periander,
Corinth; returning in a ship from a musical contest in Sicily laden with
prizes, the sailors plotted to kill him, when he begged permission to
play one strain on his lute, which being conceded, dolphins crowded round
the ship, whereupon he leapt over the bulwarks, was received on the back
of one of them, and carried to Corinth, arriving there before the
sailors, who, on their landing, were apprehended and punished.


ARIOS`TO, LUDOVICO, an illustrious Italian poet, born at Reggio, in
Lombardy; spent his life chiefly in Ferrara, mostly in poverty; his great
work "ORLANDO FURIOSO" (q. v.), published the first edition, in
40 cantos, in 1516, and the third in 46 cantos, in 1532; the work is so
called from the chief subject of it, the madness of Roland induced by the
loss of his lady-love through her marriage to another (1474-1532).


ARIOVISTUS, a German chief, invaded Gaul, and threatened to overrun
it, but was forced back over the Rhine by Caesar.


ARISTAE`US, a son of Apollo, the guardian divinity of the vine and
olive, of hunters and herdsmen; first taught the management of bees, some
of which stung Eurydice to death, whereupon the nymphs, companions of
Orpheus, her husband, set upon his bees and destroyed them. In this
extremity Aristaeus applied to Proteus, who advised him to sacrifice four
bullocks to appease the manes of Eurydice; this done, there issued from
the carcasses of the victims a swarm of bees, which reconciled him to the
loss of the first ones.


ARISTAR`CHUS OF SAMOS, a Greek astronomer, who first conceived the
idea of the rotundity of the earth and its revolution both on its own
axis and round the sun, in promulgating which idea he was accused of
impiously disturbing the serenity of the gods (280 B.C.).


ARISTARCHUS OF SAMOTHRACE, a celebrated Greek grammarian and critic,
who devoted his life to the elucidation and correct transmission of the
text of the Greek poets, and especially Homer (158-88 B.C.).


ARISTE`AS, a sort of Wandering Jew of Greek fable, who turns up here
and there in Greek tradition, and was thought to be endowed with a soul
that could at will leave and enter the body.


ARISTI`DES, an Athenian general and statesman, surnamed The Just;
covered himself with glory at the battle of Marathon; was made archon
next year, in the discharge of the duties of which office he received his
surname; was banished by ostracism at the instance of his rival,
Themistocles; recalled three years after the invasion of Xerxes, was
reconciled to Themistocles, fought bravely at Salamis, and distinguished
himself at Plataea; managed the finances of the State with such probity
that he died poor, was buried at the public charges, and left the State
to provide for his children.


ARISTION, a philosopher, tyrant of Athens, put to death by order of
Sylla, 86 B.C.


ARISTIP`PUS OF CYRENE, founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy,
a disciple of Socrates; in his teaching laid too much emphasis on one
principle of Socrates, apart from the rest, in insisting too exclusively
upon pleasure as the supreme good and ultimate aim of life.


ARISTOBU`LUS I., son of John Hyrcanus, first of the Asmonaean dynasty
in Judea to assume the name of king, which he did from 104-102 B.C., a
pronounced Helleniser; A. II., twice carried captive to Rome,
assassinated 50 B.C.; A. III., last of Asmonaean dynasty, drowned by
Herod in the Jordan, 34 B.C.


ARISTODE`MUS, king of Messenia, carried on for 20 years a war with
Sparta, till at length finding resistance hopeless he put an end to his
life on the tomb of his daughter, whom he had sacrificed to ensure the
fulfilment of an oracle to the advantage of his house; _d_. 724 B.C.
Also a Greek sculptor, 4th century B.C.


ARISTOM`ENES, a mythical king of Messenia, celebrated for his
struggle with the Spartans, and his resistance to them on Mount Ira for
11 years, which at length fell to the enemy, while he escaped and was
snatched up by the gods; died at Rhodes.


ARISTOPHANES, the great comic dramatist of Athens, lived in the 5th
century B.C.; directed the shafts of his wit, which were very keen,
against all of whatever rank who sought in any way to alter, and, as it
was presumed, amend, the religious, philosophical, social, political, or
literary creed and practice of the country, and held up to ridicule such
men as Socrates and Euripides, as well as Cleon the tanner; wrote 54
plays, of which 11 have come down to us; of these the "Clouds" aim at
Socrates, the "Acharnians" and the "Frogs" at Euripides, and the
"Knights" at Cleon; _d_. 384 B.C.


AR`ISTOTLE, a native of Stagira, in Thrace, and hence named the
Stagirite; deprived of his parents while yet a youth; came in his 17th
year to Athens, remained in Plato's society there for 20 years; after the
death of Plato, at the request of Philip, king of Macedon, who held him
in high honour, became the preceptor of Alexander the Great, then only 13
years old; on Alexander's expedition into Asia, returned to Athens and
began to teach in the Lyceum, where it was his habit to walk up and down
as he taught, from which circumstance his school got the name of
Peripatetic; after 13 years he left the city and went to Chalcis, in
Euboea, where he died. He was the oracle of the scholastic philosophers
and theologians in the Middle Ages; is the author of a great number of
writings which covered a vast field of speculation, of which the progress
of modern science goes to establish the value; is often referred to as
the incarnation of the philosophic spirit (385-322 B.C.).


ARISTOX`ENUS OF TARENTUM, a Greek philosopher, author of the
"Elements of Harmony," the only one of his many works extant, and one of
the oldest writers on music; contemporary of Aristotle.


A`RIUS, a presbyter of Alexandria in the 4th century, and founder of
Arianism, which denied the consubstantiality of the Son with the Father
in the so-called Trinity, a doctrine which hovered for a time between
acceptance and rejection throughout the Catholic Church; was condemned
first by a local synod which met at Alexandria in 321, and then by a
General Council at Nice in 325, which the Emperor Constantine attended in
person; the author was banished to Illyricum, his writings burned, and
the possession of them voted to be a crime; after three years he was
recalled by Constantine, who ordered him to be restored; was about to be
readmitted into the Church when he died suddenly, by poison, alleged his
friends--by the judgment of God, said his enemies (280-336).


ARIZO`NA (59), a territory of the United States N. of Mexico and W.
of New Mexico, nearly four times as large as Scotland, rich in mines of
gold, silver, and copper, fertile in the lowlands; much of the surface a
barren plateau 11,000 ft. high, through which the canon of the Colorado
passes. See CANON.


ARK OF THE COVENANT, a chest of acacia wood overlaid with gold, 21/2
cubits long and 11/2 in breadth; contained the two tables of stone
inscribed with the Ten Commandments, the gold pot with the manna, and
Aaron's rod; the lid supported the mercy-seat, with a cherub at each end,
and the shekinah radiance between.


ARKANS`AS (1,128), one of the Southern States of America, N. of
Louisiana and W. of the Mississippi, a little larger than England; rich
in metals, grows cotton and corn.


ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD, born at Preston, Lancashire; bred to the
trade of a barber; took interest in the machinery of cotton-spinning;
with the help of a clockmaker, invented the spinning frame; was mobbed
for threatening thereby to shorten labour and curtail wages, and had to
flee; fell in with Mr. Strutt of Derby, who entered into partnership with
him; prospered in business and died worth half a million. "French
Revolutions were a-brewing; to resist the same in any way, Imperial
Caesars were impotent without the cotton and cloth of England; and it was
this man," says Carlyle, "that had to give to England the power of
cotton" (1732-1792).


ARLBERG, a mountain mass between the Austrian provinces of
Vorarlberg and Tyrol, pierced by a tunnel, one of the three that
penetrate the Alps, and nearly four miles in length.


ARLES (14), a city, one of the oldest in France, on the Rhone, 46 m.
N. of Marseilles, where Constantine built a palace, with ruins of an
amphitheatre and other Roman works; the seat of several Church Councils.


AR`LINCOURT, VISCOUNT D', a French romancer, born near Versailles
(1789-1856).


AR`LINGTON, HENRY BENNET, EARL OF, served under Charles I., and
accompanied Charles II. in his exile; a prominent member of the famous
Cabal; being impeached when in office, lost favour and retired into
private life (1618-1685).


AR`LON (8), a prosperous town in Belgium, capital of Luxemburg.


ARMA`DA, named the Invincible, an armament fitted out in 1588 by
Philip II. of Spain against England, consisting of 130 war-vessels,
mounted with 2430 cannon, and manned by 20,000 soldiers; was defeated in
the Channel on July 20 by Admiral Howard, seconded by Drake, Hawkins, and
Frobisher; completely dispersed and shattered by a storm in retreat on
the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, the English losing only one ship; of
the whole fleet only 53 ships found their way back to Spain, and these
nearly all _hors de combat_.


ARMAGEDDON, a name given in Apocalypse to the final battlefield
between the powers of good and evil, or Christ and Antichrist.


ARMAGH (143), a county in Ulster, Ireland, 32 m. long by 20 m.
broad; and a town (18) in it, 33 m. SW. of Belfast, from the 5th to the
9th century the capital of Ireland, as it is the ecclesiastical still;
the chief manufacture linen-weaving.


ARMAGNAC, a district, part of Gascony, in France, now in dep. of
Gers, celebrated for its wine and brandy.


ARMAGNACS, a faction in France in time of Charles VI. at mortal feud
with the Bourguignons.


ARMATO`LES, warlike marauding tribes in the mountainous districts of
Northern Greece, played a prominent part in the War of Independence in
1820.


ARMED SOLDIER OF DEMOCRACY, Napoleon Bonaparte.


ARME`NIA, a country in Western Asia, W. of the Caspian Sea and N. of
Kurdistan Mts., anciently independent, now divided between Turkey,
Russia, and Persia, occupying a plateau interspersed with fertile
valleys, which culminates in Mt. Ararat, in which the Euphrates and
Tigris have their sources.


ARMENIANS, a people of the Aryan race occupying Armenia, early
converted to Christianity of the Eutychian type; from early times have
emigrated into adjoining, and even remote, countries, and are, like the
Jews, mainly engaged in commercial pursuits, the wealthier of them
especially in banking.


ARMENTIERES (27), a manufacturing and trading town in France, 12 m.
N. of Lille.


ARMI`DA, a beautiful enchantress in Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered,"
who bewitched Rinaldo, one of the Crusaders, by her charms, as Circe did
Ulysses, and who in turn, when the spell was broken, overpowered her by
his love and persuaded her to become a Christian. _The Almida Palace_, in
which she enchanted Rinaldo, has become a synonym for any merely
visionary but enchanting palace of pleasure.


ARMINIANISM. See ARMINIUS.


ARMIN`IUS, or HERMANN, the Deliverer of Germany from the
Romans by the defeat of Varus, the Roman general, in 9 A.D., near
Detmold (where a colossal statue has been erected to his memory); killed
in some family quarrel in his 37th year.


ARMINIUS, JACOBUS, a learned Dutch theologian and founder of
Arminianism, an assertion of the free-will of man in the matter of
salvation against the necessitarianism of Calvin (1560-1609).


ARMOR`ICA, a district of Gaul from the Loire to the Seine.


ARMSTRONG, JOHN, a Scotch doctor and poet, born in Roxburghshire,
practised medicine in London; friend of poet Thomson, as well as of
Wilkes and Smollett, and author of "The Art of Preserving Health"
(1709-1779).


ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE, LORD, born at Newcastle, produced the
hydraulic accumulator and the hydraulic crane, established the Elswick
engine works in the suburbs of his native city, devoted his attention to
the improvement of heavy ordnance, invented the Armstrong gun, which he
got the Government to adopt, knighted in 1858, and in 1887 raised to the
peerage; _b_. 1810.


AR`NAUD, HENRI, a pastor of the Vaudois, turned soldier to rescue,
and did rescue, his co-religionists from their dispersion under the
persecution of the Count of Savoy; but when the Vaudois were exiled a
second time, he accompanied them in their exile to Schomberg, and acted
pastor to them till his death (1641-1721).


ARNAULD, ANTOINE, the "great Arnauld," a French theologian, doctor
of the Sorbonne, an inveterate enemy of the Jesuits, defended Jansenism
against the Bull of the Pope, became religious director of the nuns of
Port Royal des Champs, associated here with a circle of kindred spirits,
among others Pascal; expelled from the Sorbonne and banished the country,
died at Brussels (1612-1694).


ARNAULD, MARIE ANGE`LIQUE, _La Mere Angelique_ as she was called,
sister of the preceding and abbess of the Port Royal, a victim of the
persecutions of the Jesuits to very death (1624-1684).


ARNDT, ERNST MORITZ, a German poet and patriot, whose memory is much
revered by the whole German people, one of the first to rouse his
countrymen to shake off the tyranny of Napoleon; his songs and eloquent
appeals went straight to the heart of the nation and contributed
powerfully to its liberation; his "Geist der Zeit" made him flee the
country after the battle of Jena, and his "Was ist des Deutschen
Vaterland?" strikes a chord in the breast of every German all the world
over (1710-1860).


ARNDT, JOHN, a Lutheran theologian, the author of "True
Christianity," a work which, in Germany and elsewhere, has contributed to
infuse a new spirit of life into the profession of the Christian
religion, which seemed withering away under the influence of a lifeless
dogmatism (1553-1621).


ARNE, THOMAS AUGUSTINE, a musical composer of versatile genius,
produced, during over 40 years, a succession of pieces in every style
from songs to sonatas and oratorios, among others the world-famous chorus
"Rule Britannia"; Mrs. Cibber was his sister (1719-1778).


ARN`HEIM (51), the capital of Guelderland, is situated on the right
bank of the Rhine, and has a large transit trade.


ARNIM, BETTINE VON, sister of Clemens Brentano, wife of Ludwig
Arnim, a native of Frankfort; at 22 conceived a passionate love for
Goethe, then in his 60th year, visited him at Weimar, and corresponded
with him afterwards, part of which correspondence appeared subsequently
under the title of "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child" (1785-1859).


ARNIM, COUNT, ambassador of Germany, first at Rome and then at
Paris; accused in the latter capacity of purloining State documents, and
sentenced to imprisonment; died in exile at Nice (1824-1881).


ARNIM, LUDWIG ACHIM VON, a German poet and novelist (1781-1831).


ARNO, a river of Italy, rises in the Apennines, flows westward past
Florence and Pisa into the Mediterranean, subject to destructive
inundations.


ARNOBIUS, an African rhetorician who, in the beginning of the 4th
century, embraced Christianity, and wrote a book in its defence, still
extant, and of great value, entitled "Disputations against the Heathen."


ARNOLD, BENEDICT, an American military general, entered the ranks of
the colonists under Washington during the War of Independence,
distinguished himself in several engagements, promoted to the rank of
general, negotiated with the English general Clinton to surrender an
important post entrusted to him, escaped to the English ranks on the
discovery of the plot, and served in them against his country; _d_. in
England in 1801.


ARNOLD, MATTHEW, poet and critic, eldest son of Thomas Arnold of
Rugby; professor of Poetry in Oxford from 1857 to 1867; inspector of
schools for 35 years from 1851; commissioned twice over to visit France,
Germany, and Holland, to inquire into educational matters there; wrote
two separate reports thereon of great value; author of "Poems," of a
highly finished order and showing a rich poetic gift, "Essays on
Criticism," "Culture and Anarchy," "St. Paul and Protestantism,"
"Literature and Dogma," &c.; a man of culture, and especially literary
culture, of which he is reckoned the apostle; died suddenly at Liverpool.
He was more eminent as a poet than a critic, influential as he was in
that regard. "It is," says Swinburne, "by his verse and not his prose he
must be judged," and is being now judged (1822-1888).


ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN, poet and journalist, familiar with Indian
literature; author of the "Light of Asia," "Light of the World," and
other works in prose and verse; _b_. 1832, at Gravesend.


ARNOLD, THOMAS, head-master of Rugby, and professor of Modern
History at Oxford; by his moral character and governing faculty effected
immense reforms in Rugby School; was liberal in his principles and of a
philanthropic spirit; he wrote a "History of Rome" based on Niebuhr, and
edited Thucydides; his "Life and Correspondence" was edited by Dean
Stanley (1795-1842).


ARNOLD OF BRESCIA, an Italian monk, and disciple of Abelard;
declaimed against the temporal power of the Pope, the corruptions of the
Church, and the avarice of the clergy; headed an insurrection against the
Pope in Rome, which collapsed under the Pope's interdict; at last was
burned alive in 1156, and his ashes thrown into the Tiber.


ARNOLD OF WINKELRIED, the Decius of Switzerland, a peasant of the
canton of Unterwald, who, by the voluntary sacrifice of his life, broke
the lines of the Austrians at Sempach in 1386 and decided the fate of the
battle.


ARNOTT, DR. NEIL, a native of Arbroath, author of the "Elements of
Physics" and of several hygienic inventions (1788-1874).


AROU`ET, the family name of Voltaire; his name formed by an
ingenious transposition he made of the letters of his name, Arouet l. j.
(jeune).


AR`PAD, the national hero of Hungary; established for the Magyars a
firm footing in the country; was founder of the Arpad dynasty, which
became extinct in 1301; _d_. 907.


ARPI`NO (ARPINIUM), an ancient town in Latium, S. of Rome,
birthplace of Cicero and Marius.


ARQUA, a village 12 m. SW. of Padua, where Petrarch died and was
buried.


ARRACK, a spirituous liquor, especially that distilled from the
juice of the cocoa-nut tree and from fermented rice.


AR`RAH, a town in Bengal, 36 m. from Patna; famous for its defence
by a handful of English and Sikhs against thousands during the Mutiny.


ARRAN (4), largest island in the Firth of Clyde, in Buteshire; a
mountainous island, highest summit Goatfell, 2866 ft, with a margin of
lowland round the coast; nearly all the property of the Duke of Hamilton,
whose seat is Brodick Castle.


ARRAS (20), a French town in the dep. of Pas-de-Calais, long
celebrated for its tapestry; the birthplace of Damiens and Robespierre.


AR`RIA, a Roman matron, who, to encourage her husband in meeting
death, to which he had been sentenced, thrust a poniard into her own
breast, and then handed it to him, saying, "It is not painful," whereupon
he followed her example.


AR`RIAN, FLAVIUS, a Bithynian, a friend of Epictetus the Stoic,
edited his "Enchiridion"; wrote a "History of Alexander the Great," and
"Periplus," an account of voyages round the Euxine and round the Red Sea;
_b_. 100, and died at an advanced age.


ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS, the same as the CUNEIFORM (q. v.).


ARRU ISLANDS (15), a group of 80 coralline islands, belonging to
Holland, W. of New Guinea; export mother-of-pearl, pearls,
tortoise-shell, &c.


AR`SACES I., the founder of the dynasty of the Arsacidae, by a revolt
which proved successful against the Seleucidae, 250 B.C.


ARSACIDAE, a dynasty of 31 Parthian kings, who wrested the throne
from Antiochus II., the last of the Seleucidae, 250 B.C.


ARSIN`OE, the name of several Egyptian princesses of antiquity; also
a prude in Moliere's "Misanthrope."


ARTA, GULF OF, gulf forming the NW. frontier of Greece.


ARTS, THE. There are three classes of these, the Liberal, the Fine,
and the Mechanical: the Liberal, implying scholarship, graduation in
which is granted by universities, entitling the holder to append M.A. to
his name; the Mechanical, implying skill; and the Fine, implying the
possession of a soul, discriminated from the mechanical by the word
spiritual, as holding of the entire, undivided man, heart as well as
brain.


ARTAXER`XES, the name of several Persian monarchs: A. I.,
called the "Long-handed," from his right hand being longer than his left;
son of Xerxes I.; concluded a peace with Greece after a war of 52
years; entertained Themistocles at his court; king from 465 to 424 B.C.
A. II., MNEMON, vanquished and killed his brother Cyrus at Cunaxa in
401, who had revolted against him; imposed in 387 on the Spartans the
shameful treaty of ANTALCIDAS (q. v.); king from 405 to 359
B.C. A. III., OCHUS, son of the preceding, slew all his kindred on
ascending the throne; in Egypt slew the sacred bull Apis and gave the
flesh to his soldiers, for which his eunuch Bagsas poisoned him; king
from 359 to 338 B.C. A. IV., grandson of Sassan, founder of the
dynasty Sassanidae; restored the old religion of the Magi, amended the
laws, and promoted education; king from A.D. 223 to 232.


ARTE`DI, a Swedish naturalist, assisted Linnaeus in his "Systema
Naturae"; his own great work, "Ichthyologia," published by Linnaeus after
his death (1703-1735).


AR`TEGAL, the impersonation and champion of Justice in Spenser's
"Faerie Queene."


AR`TEMIS, in the Greek mythology the daughter of Zeus and Leto, twin
sister of Apollo, born in the Isle of Delos, and one of the great
divinities of the Greeks; a virgin goddess, represented as a huntress
armed with bow and arrows; presided over the birth of animals, was
guardian of flocks, the moon the type of her and the laurel her sacred
tree, was the Diana of the Romans, and got mixed up with deities in other
mythologies.


ARTEMI`SIA, queen of Halicarnassus, joined Xerxes in his invasion of
Greece, and fought with valour at Salamis, 440 B.C. A. II., also
queen, raised a tomb over the grave of her husband Mausolus, regarded as
one of the seven wonders of the world, 355 B.C.


ARTEMI`SIUM, a promontory N. of Euboea, near which Xerxes lost part
of his fleet, 480 B.C.


ARTEMUS WARD. See C. F. BROWNE.


ARTESIAN WELLS, wells made by boring for water where it is lower
than its source, so as to obtain a constant supply of it.


AR`TEVELDE, JACOB VAN, a wealthy brewer of Ghent, chosen chief in a
revolt against Count Louis of Flanders, expelled him, made a treaty with
Edward III. as lord-superior of Flanders, was massacred in a popular
tumult (1300-1345).


ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN, son of the preceding, defeated Louis II. and
became king; but with the help of France Louis retaliated and defeated
the Flemings, and slew him in 1382.


ARTFUL DODGER, a young thief, an expert in the profession in
Dickens' "Oliver Twist."


AR`THUR, a British prince of wide-spread fame, who is supposed to
have lived at the time of the Saxon invasion in the 6th century, whose
exploits and those of his court have given birth to the tradition of the
Round Table, to the rendering of which Tennyson devoted so much of his
genius.


ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN, twenty-first president of the United States, a
lawyer by profession, and a prominent member of the Republican party
(1830-1886).


ARTHUR, PRINCE, DUKE OF BRITTANY, heir to the throne of England by
the death of his uncle Richard I.; supplanted by King John.


ARTHUR SEAT, a lion-shaped hill 822 ft., close to Edinburgh on the
E., from the top of which the prospect is unrivalled; "the blue,
majestic, everlasting ocean, with the Fife hills swelling gradually into
the Grampians behind it on the N.; rough crags and rude precipices at our
feet ('where not a hillock rears its head unsung'), with Edinburgh at
their base, clustering proudly over her rugged foundations, and covering
with a vapoury mantle the jagged, black, venerable masses of stone-work,
that stretch far and wide, and show like a city of fairyland"--such the
view Carlyle had in a clear atmosphere of 1826, whatever it may be now.


ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, originally Forty-Two, a creed framed in
1562, which every clergyman of the Church of England is bound by law to
subscribe to at his ordination, as the accepted faith of the Church.


ARTIST, according to a definition of Ruskin, which he prints in
small caps., "a person who has submitted to a law which it was painful to
obey, that he may bestow a delight which it is gracious to bestow."


ARTISTS, PRINCE OF, Albert Duerer, so called by his countrymen.


AR`TOIS, an ancient province of France, comprising the dep. of
Pas-de-Calais, and parts of the Somme and the Nord; united to the crown
in 1659.


ARTOIS, MONSEIGNEUR D', famed, as described in Carlyle's "French
Revolution," for "breeches of a new kind in this world"; brother of Louis
XVI., and afterwards CHARLES X. (q. v.).


AR`UNDEL (2), a municipal town in Sussex, on the Arun, 9 m. E. of
Chichester, with a castle of great magnificence, the seat of the Earls of
Arundel.


ARUNDEL, THOMAS, successively bishop of Ely, Lord Chancellor,
archbishop of York, and archbishop of Canterbury; a persecutor of the
Wickliffites, but a munificent benefactor of the Church (1353-1414).


ARUNDEL MARBLES, ancient Grecian marbles collected at Smyrna and
elsewhere by the Earl of Arundel in 1624, now in the possession of the
University of Oxford, the most important of which is one from Paros
inscribed with a chronology of events in Grecian history from 1582 to 264
B.C.; the date of the marbles themselves is 263 B.C.


ARUNS, son of Tarquinus Superbus, who fell in single combat with
Brutus.


ARUWI`MI, an affluent of the Congo on the right bank below the
Stanley Falls.


ARVA`TES, FRATRES, a college of twelve priests in ancient Rome whose
duty it was to make annual offerings to the Lares for the increase of the
fruits of the field.


ARVE, a river that flows through the valley of Chamouni and falls
into the Rhone below Geneva.


ARVEYRON, an affluent of the Arve from the Mer de Glace.


AR`YANS, or Indo-Europeans, a race that is presumed to have had its
primitive seat in Central Asia, E. of the Caspian Sea and N. of the
Hindu-Kush, and to have branched off at different periods north-westward
and westward into Europe, and southward into Persia and the valley of the
Ganges, from which sprung the Greeks, Latins, Celts, Teutons, Slavs, on
the one hand, and the Persians and Hindus on the other, a community of
origin that is attested by the comparative study of their respective
languages.


AR`ZEW, a seaport in Algeria, 22 m. from Oran, with Roman remains;
exports grain and salt.


ASAFOE`TIDA, a fetid inspissated sap from an Indian umbelliferous
tree, used in medicine.


ASAPH, a musician of the temple at Jerusalem.


ASAPH, ST., a town in Flintshire, 20 m. from Chester; seat of a
bishopric.


ASBES`TOS, an incombustible mineral of a flax-like fibrous texture,
which has been manufactured into cloth, paper, lamp-wick, steam-pipes,
gas-stoves, &c.


ASBJOeRN`SEN, a Dane, distinguished as a naturalist, and particularly
as a collector of folk-lore, as well as an author of children's stories
(1812-1885).


AS`BURY, FRANCIS, a zealous, assiduous Methodist preacher and
missionary, sent to America, was consecrated the first bishop of the
newly organised Methodist Church there (1745-1816).


AS`CALON, one of the five cities of the Philistines, much contested
for during the Crusades.


ASCA`NIUS, the son of AEneas, who trotted _non passibus aequis_ ("with
unequal steps") by the side of his father as he escaped from burning
Troy; was founder of Alba Longa.


AS`CAPART, a giant conquered by Bevis of Southampton, though so huge
as to carry Bevis, his wife, and horse under his arm.


ASCENSION, a bare volcanic island in the Atlantic, rising to nearly
3000 ft., belonging to Britain, 500 m. NW. of St. Helena, and 900 m. from
the coast of Africa; a coaling and victualling station for the navy.


ASCHAF`FENBURG (14), an ancient town of Bavaria, on the Main, 20 m.
from Frankfort, with an old castle and cathedral.


ASCHAM, ROGER, a Yorkshireman, Fellow of Cambridge, a good
classical, and particularly Greek, scholar; wrote a book on archery,
deemed a classic, entitled "Toxophilus," for which Henry VIII. settled a
pension on him; was tutor and Latin secretary to Queen Elizabeth, and
much esteemed by her; his chief work, the "Schoolmaster," an admirable
treatise on education, held in high regard by Dr. Johnson, the sum of
which is _docendo discas_, "learn by teaching" (1515-1560).


ASCHERSLE`BEN (22), a manufacturing town in the Magdeburg district
of Prussia.


ASCLEPI`ADES, a Bithynian who practised medicine with repute at Rome
in Cicero's time, and was great in hygiene.


AS`COT, a racecourse in Berks, 6 m. SW. of Windsor, the races at
which, instituted by Queen Anne, take place a fortnight after the Derby.


AS`GARD, the garden or heaven of the Asen or gods in the Norse
mythology, in which each had a separate dwelling, and who held
intercourse with the other spheres of existence by the bridge Bifroest,
i. e. the rainbow.


ASGILL, JOHN, an eccentric Englishman, wrote a book to prove that
death was due to want of faith, and to express his belief that he would
be translated, and translated he was, to spend 30 years, apparently quite
happily, writing pamphlets, and end his days in the debtors' prison.


ASH, JOHN, a dissenting divine, author of an English dictionary,
valuable for the number of obsolete and provincial words contained in it
(1724-1779).


ASH`ANTI, or ASHANTEE, a negro inland kingdom in the Upper
Soudan, N. of Gold Coast territory, wooded, well watered, and well
cultivated; natives intelligent, warlike, and skilful; twice over
provoked a war with Great Britain, and finally the despatch of a military
expedition, which led to the submission of the king and the appointment
of a British Resident.


ASHBURNHAM, JOHN, a member of the Long Parliament, a faithful
adherent and attendant of Charles I., and assistant to him in his
troubles (1603-1671).


ASHBURNHAM, 5TH EARL OF, collected a number of valuable MSS. and
rare books known as the Ashburnham Collection; _d_. 1878.


ASHBURTON, ALEXANDER BARING, LORD, second son of Sir Francis Baring,
a Liberal politician, turned Conservative, member of Peel's
administration in 1834-35, sent special ambassador to the United States
in 1842; concluded the boundary treaty of Washington, known as the
Ashburton Treaty; in his retirement "a really good, solid, most cheery,
sagacious, simple-hearted old man" (1774-1848).


ASHBURTON, WILLIAM BINGHAM BARING, son of the preceding, "a very
worthy man," an admirer, and his wife, Lady Harriet, still more, of
Thomas Carlyle (1797-1844).


ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a small market-town 17 m. W. of Leicester,
figures in "Ivanhoe," with the ruins of a castle in which Queen Mary was
immured.


ASHDOD, a maritime Philistine city 20 m. S. of Jaffa, seat of the
Dagon worship.


ASHE`RA, an image of ASTARTE (q. v.), and associated with
the worship of that goddess.


ASH`MOLE, ELIAS, a celebrated antiquary and authority on heraldry;
presented to the University of Oxford a collection of rarities bequeathed
to him, which laid the foundation of the Ashmolean Collection there
(1617-1692).


ASHMUN, JEHUDI, an American philanthropist, founder of the Negro
Republic of Liberia, on the W. coast of Africa (1794-1828).


ASH`TAROTH. See ASTARTE.


ASH`TON-UNDER-LYNE (47), a cotton-manufacturing town near
Manchester.


ASIA, the largest of the four quarters of the globe, and as good as
in touch with the other three; contains one-third of all the land, which,
from a centre of high elevations, extensive plains, and deep depressions,
stretches southward into three large peninsulas separated by three
immense arms of the sea, and eastward into three bulging masses and three
pronounced peninsulas forming seas, protected by groups of islands; with
rivers the largest in the whole world, of which four flow N., two SE.,
and eight S.; with a large continental basin, also the largest in the
world, and with lakes which though they do not match those of America and
Africa, strikingly stand at a higher level as we go E.; with every
variety of climate, with a richly varied flora and fauna, with a
population of 840,000,000, being the half of that of the globe, of
chiefly three races, Caucasian, Mongolian, and Malay, at different stages
of civilisation, and as regards religion, by far the majority professing
the faith of Brahma, Buddha, Mahomet, or Christ.


ASIA MINOR, called also ANATOLE`, a peninsular extension
westward of the Armenian and Kurdistan highlands in Asia, bounded on the
N. by the Black Sea, on the W. by the Archipelago, and on the S. by the
Levant; indented all round, mainland as well as adjoining islands, with
bays and harbours, all more or less busy centres of trade; is as large as
France, and consists of a plateau with slopes all round to the coasts;
has a population of over 28,000,000.


ASKEW, ANNE, a lady of good birth, a victim of persecution in the
time of Henry VIII. for denying transubstantiation, tortured on the rack
and burnt at the stake, 1546.


ASKEW, ANTONY, a physician and classical scholar, a collector of
rare and curious books (1722-1774).


ASMODE`US, a mischievous demon or goblin of the Jewish demonology,
who gloats on the vices and follies of mankind, and figures in Le Sage's
"Le Diable Boiteux," or the "Devil on Two Sticks," as lifting off the
roofs of the houses of Madrid and exposing their inmost interiors and the
secret doings of the inhabitants.


ASMONAE`ANS, a name given to the Maccabees, from Asmon, the place of
their origin.


ASO`KA, a king of Behar, in India; after his accession in 264 B.C.
became an ardent disciple of Buddha; organised Buddhism, as Constantine
did Christianity, into a State religion; convened the third great council
of the Church of that creed at Patna; made a proclamation of this faith
as far as his influence extended, evidence of which is still extant in
pillars and rocks inscribed with his edicts in wide districts of Northern
India; _d_. 223 B.C.


ASP, a poisonous Egyptian viper of uncertain species.


ASPA`SIA, a woman remarkable for her wit, beauty, and culture, a
native of Miletus; being attracted to Athens, came and settled in it;
became the wife of Pericles, and her home the rendezvous of all the
intellectual and wise people of the city, Socrates included; her
character was often both justly and unjustly assailed.


AS`PERN, a village in Austria, on the Danube, 4 m. NE. of Vienna,
where a charge of the Austrians under the Archduke Charles was defeated
by Napoleon, May 21, 1809, and Marshal Lannes killed.


ASPHALT, a mineral pitch of a black or brownish-black colour,
consisting chiefly of carbon; also a limestone impregnated with bitumen,
and more or less in every quarter of the globe.


ASPHALTIC LAKE, the DEAD SEA (q. v.), so called from the
asphalt on its surface and banks.


AS`PHODEL, a lily plant appraised by the Greeks for its almost
perennial flowering, and with which they, in their imagination, covered
the Elysian fields, called hence the Asphodel Meadow.


ASPHYX`IA, suspended respiration in the physical life; a term
frequently employed by Carlyle to denote a much more recondite, but a no
less real, corresponding phenomenon in the spiritual life.


ASPINWALL, a town founded by an American of the name in 1800, at the
Atlantic extremity of the Panama railway; named Colon, since the Empress
Eugenie presented it with a statue of Columbus.


ASPROMON`TE, a mountain close by Reggio, overlooking the Strait of
Messina, near which Garibaldi was defeated and captured in 1862.


ASQUINI, COUNT, a rural economist who did much to promote silk
culture in Italy (1726-1818).


ASSAB BAY, a coaling-station belonging to Italy, on the W. coast of
the Red Sea.


ASSAM` (5,500), a province E. of Bengal, ceded to Britain after the
Burmese war in 1826; being an alluvial plain, with ranges of hills along
the Brahmapootra, 450 m. long and 50 broad; the low lands extremely
fertile and productive, and the hills covered with tea plantations,
yielding at one time, if not still, three-fourths of the tea raised in
India.


ASSAROTTI, an Italian philanthropist, born at Genoa; the first to
open a school for deaf-mutes in Italy, and devoted zealously his fortune
and time to the task (1753-1821).


AS`SAS, NICOLAS, captain of the French regiment of Auvergne, whose
celebrity depends on a single act of defiance: having entered a wood to
reconnoitre it the night before the battle of Kloster Kampen, was
suddenly surrounded by the enemy's (the English) soldiers, and defied
with bayonets at his breast to utter a cry of alarm; "Ho, Auvergne!" he
exclaimed, and fell dead on the instant, pierced with bayonets, to the
saving of his countrymen.


ASSASSINS, a fanatical Moslem sect organised in the 11th century, at
the time of the Crusades, under a chief called the Old Man of the
Mountain, whose stronghold was a rock fortress at Alamut, in Persia,
devoted to the assassination of all enemies of the Moslem faith, and so
called because they braced their nerves for their deeds of blood by
draughts of an intoxicating liquor distilled from hashish (the
hemp-plant). A Tartar force burst upon the horde in their stronghold in
1256, and put them wholesale to the sword.


ASSAYE`, a small town 46 m. NE. of Aurungabad, where Sir Arthur
Wellesley gained a victory over the Mahrattas in 1803.


ASSEGAI, a spear or javelin of wood tipped with iron, used by
certain S. African tribes with deadly effect in war.


ASSEMBLY, GENERAL, the chief court of the Presbyterian Church, a
representative body, half clergymen and half laymen, which sits in
Edinburgh for ten days in May, disposes of the general business of the
Church, and determines appeals.


ASSEMBLY, NATIONAL, the Commons section of the States-General of
France which met on May 5, 1789, constituted itself into a legislative
assembly, and gave a new constitution to the country.


ASSEMBLY, WESTMINSTER, a body composed of 140 members, of which 117
were clergymen, convened at Westminster to determine questions of
doctrine, worship, and discipline in the National Church, and which held
its sittings, over 1100 of them, from July 1, 1643, to Feb. 22, 1649,
with the result that the members of it were unanimous in regard to
doctrine, but were divided in the matter of government.


ASSEMANI, GIUSEPPE, a learned Syrian Maronite, librarian of the
Vatican, wrote an account of Syrian writers (1687-1768); STEPHANO,
nephew, held the same office, wrote "Acta Sanctorum Martyrum"
(1707-1782).


ASSER, JOHN, monk of St. David's, in Wales, tutor, friend, and
biographer of Alfred the Great; is said to have suggested the founding of
Oxford University; _d_. 909.


ASSIEN`TO, a treaty with Spain to supply negroes for her colonies,
concluded in succession with the Flemings, the Genoese, a French company,
the English, and finally the South Sea Company, who relinquished their
rights in 1750 on compensation by Spain.


AS`SIGNATS, bills or notes, to the number of 45 thousand million,
issued as currency by the revolutionary government of France in 1790, and
based on the security of Church and other lands appropriated by it, and
which in course of time sunk in value, to the ruin of millions.


ASSINIBOI`A, a province in Canada between Saskatchewan and the
United States.


ASSINIBOINES, certain aborigines of Canada; the few of whom that
remain do farming on the banks of the Saskatchewan.


ASSI`SI (3), a town in Central Italy, 12 m. SE. of Perugia, the
birthplace and burial-place of St. Francis, and the birthplace of
Metastasio; it was a celebrated place of resort of pilgrims, who
sometimes came in great numbers.


ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS, a connection in the mind between two ideas,
such that the consciousness of one tends to recall the other, a fact
employed to explain certain recondite psychological phenomena.


ASSOUAN`, the ancient Syene, the southernmost city of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile, near the last cataract.


ASSOUCY, D', a French burlesque poet ridiculed by Boileau
(1604-1679).


ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF THE, festival in honour of the translation of
the Virgin Mary to heaven, celebrated on the 15th of August, the alleged
day of the event.


ASSUR, mythical name of the founder of Assyria.


ASSYR`IA, an ancient kingdom, the origin and early history of which
is uncertain, between the Niphates Mountains of Armenia on the N. and
Babylonia on the S., 280 m. long and 150 broad, with a fertile soil and a
population at a high stage of civilisation; became a province of Media,
which lay to the E., in 606 B.C., and afterwards a satrapy of the
Persian empire, and has been under the Turks since 1638, in whose hands
it is now a desert.


ASSYRIOLOGY, the study of the monuments of Assyria, chiefly in a
Biblical interest.


ASTAR`TE, or ASHTORETH, or IST`AR, the female divinity of
the Phoenicians, as Baal was the male, these two being representative
respectively of the conceptive and generative powers of nature, and
symbolised, the latter, like Apollo, by the sun, and the former, like
Artemis or Diana, by the moon; sometimes identified with Urania and
sometimes with Venus; the rites connected with her worship were of a
lascivious nature.


ASTER, of Amphipolis, an archer who offered his services to Philip
of Macedon, boasting of his skill in bringing down birds on the wing, and
to whom Philip had replied he would accept them when he made war on the
birds. Aster, to be revenged, sped an arrow from the wall of a town
Philip was besieging, inscribed, "To the right eye of Philip," which took
effect; whereupon Philip sped back another with the words, "When Philip
takes the town, Aster will hang for it," and he was true to his word.


AS`TEROIDS, or Planetoids, small planets in orbits between those of
Mars and Jupiter, surmised in 1596, all discovered in the present
century, the first on Jan. 1, 1801, and named Ceres; gradually found to
number more than 200.


AS`TI (33), an ancient city in Piedmont, on the Tanaro, 26 m. SE.
from Turin, with a Gothic cathedral; is noted for its wine; birthplace of
Alfieri.


ASTLEY, PHILIP, a famous equestrian and circus manager, along with
Franconi established the Cirque Olympique in Paris (1742-1814).


ASTOLFO, a knight-errant in mediaeval legend who generous-heartedly
is always to do greater feats than he can perform; in "Orlando Furioso"
he brings back Orlando's lost wits in a phial from the moon, and
possesses a horn that with a blast can discomfit armies.


ASTON, LUISE, German authoress, championed the rights of women, and
went about in male attire; _b_. 1820.


ASTON MANOR (54), a suburb of Birmingham.


ASTOR, JOHN JACOB, a millionaire, son of a German peasant, who made
a fortune of four millions in America by trading in furs (1763-1848). His
son doubled his fortune; known as the "landlord of New York" (1792-1875).


ASTOR, WILLIAM WALDORF, son of the preceding, devoted to politics;
came to London, 1891; became proprietor of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and
_Budget_ in 1893; _b_. 1848.


ASTO`RIA, in Oregon, a fur-trading station, with numerous
salmon-tinning establishments.


ASTRAE`A, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess of justice;
dwelt among men during the Golden Age, but left the earth on its decline,
and her sister Pudicitia along with her, the withdrawal explained to mean
the vanishing of the ideal from the life of man on the earth; now placed
among the stars under the name of Virgo.


ASTRAEA REDUX, the name given to an era which piques itself on the
return of the reign of justice to the earth.


AS`TRAKHAN (43), a Russian trading town on the Volga, 40 m. from its
mouth in the Caspian Sea, of which it is the chief port.


ASTRAL BODY, an ethereal body believed by the theosophists to invest
the animal, to correspond to it, and to be capable of BILOCATION
(q. v.)


ASTRAL SPIRITS, spirits believed to animate or to people the
heavenly bodies, to whom worship was paid, and to hover unembodied
through space exercising demonic influence on embodied spirits.


ASTROLOGY, a science founded on a presumed connection between the
heavenly bodies and human destiny as more or less affected by them, a
science at one time believed in by men of such intelligence as Tacitus
and Kepler, and few great families at one time but had an astrologer
attached to them to read the horoscope of any new member of the house.


ASTRUC, JEAN, a French physician and professor of medicine in Paris,
now noted as having discovered that the book of Genesis consists of
Elohistic and Jehovistic portions, and who by this discovery founded the
modern school called of the Higher Criticism (1681-1766).


ASTU`RIAS (579), an ancient province in the N. of Spain, gives title
to the heir to the crown, rich in minerals, and with good fisheries; now
named Oviedo, from the principal town.


ASTY`AGES, last king of the Medes; dethroned by Cyrus, 549 B.C.


ASTY`ANAX, the son of Hector and Andromache; was cast down by the
Greeks from the ramparts after the fall of Troy, lest he should live and
restore the city.


ASUN`CION, or ASSUMPTION (18), the capital of Paraguay, on the
left bank of the Paraguay, so called from having been founded by the
Spaniards on the Feast of the Assumption in 1535.


ASURAS, THE, in the Hindu mythology the demons of the darkness of
night, in overcoming whom the gods asserted their sovereignty in the
universe.


ASYMPTOTE, a line always approaching some curve but never meeting
it.


ATACA`MA, an all but rainless desert in the N. of Chile, abounding
in silver and copper mines, as well as gold in considerable quantities.


ATAHUALPA, the last of the Incas of Peru, who fell into Pizarro's
hands through perfidy, and was strangled by his orders in 1533, that is,
little short of a year after the Spaniards landed in Peru.


ATALAN`TA, a beautiful Grecian princess celebrated for her agility,
the prize of any suitor who could outstrip her on the racecourse, failure
being death; at last one suitor, Hippomenes his name, accepted the risk
and started along with her, but as he neared the goal, kept dropping
first one golden apple, then another, provided him by Venus, stooping to
lift which lost her the race, whereupon Hippomenes claimed the prize.


AT`AVISM, name given to the reappearance in progeny of the features,
and even diseases, of ancestors dead generations before.


ATBA`RA, or Black River, from the Highlands of Abyssinia, the lowest
tributary of the Nile, which it joins near Berber.


ATE`, in the Greek mythology the goddess of strife and mischief,
also of vengeance; was banished by her father Zeus, for the annoyance she
gave him, from heaven to earth, where she has not been idle since.


ATHABA`SCA, a province, a river, and a lake in British N. America.


ATHALIA, the queen of Judah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel,
celebrated for her crimes and impiety, for which she was in the end
massacred by her subjects, 9th century B.C.


ATHANASIAN CREED, a statement, in the form of a confession, of the
orthodox creed of the Church as against the Arians, and damnatory of
every article of the heresy severally; ascribed to Athanasius at one
time, but now believed to be of later date, though embracing his theology
in affirmation of the absolute co-equal divinity of the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost in the Trinity.


ATHANASIUS, Christian theologian, a native of Alexandria, and a
deacon of the Church; took a prominent part against Arius in the Council
at Nice, and was his most uncompromising antagonist; was chosen bishop of
Alexandria; driven forth again and again from his bishopric under
persecution of the Arians; retired into the Thebaid for a time; spent the
last 10 years of his life as bishop at Alexandria, where he died; his
works consist of treatises and orations bearing on the Arian controversy,
and in vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity viewed in the most
absolute sense (296-373).


ATHEISM, disbelief in the existence of God, which may be either
theoretical, in the intellect, or practical, in the life, the latter the
more common and the more fatal form of it.


ATHEISM, MODERN, ascribed by Ruskin to "the unfortunate persistence
of the clergy in teaching children what they cannot understand, and in
employing young consecrate persons to assert in pulpits what they do not
know."


ATHELNEY, ISLE OF, an island in a marsh near the confluence of the
Tone and Parret, Somerset; Alfred's place of refuge from the Danes.


ATHE`NA, the Greek virgin goddess of wisdom, particularly in the
arts, of war as of peace, happily called by Ruskin the "'Queen of the
Air,' in the heavens, in the earth, and in the heart"; is said to have
been the conception of Metis, to have issued full-armed from the brain of
Zeus, and in this way the child of both wisdom and power; wears a helmet,
and bears on her left arm the aegis with the Medusa's head; the olive
among trees, and the owl among animals, were sacred to her.


ATHENAEUM, a school of learning established in Rome about 133 by
Hadrian.


ATHENAEUS, a Greek writer of the 3rd century, wrote a curious
miscellany of a book entitled "Deipnosophistae, or the Suppers of the
Learned," extant only in an imperfect state.


ATHENAG`ORAS, an able Christian apologist of the 2nd century, was
Athenian and a pagan by birth, but being converted to Christianity, wrote
an apology in its defence, and a treatise on the resurrection of the
dead.


ATH`ENS, the capital of Attica, and the chief city of ancient
Greece, at once the brain and the heart of it; the resort in ancient
times of all the able and wise men, particularly in the domain of
literature and art, from all parts of the country and lands beyond; while
the monuments of temple and statue that still adorn it give evidence of a
culture among the citizens such as the inhabitants of no other city of
the world have had the genius to surpass, though the name Athens has been
adopted by or applied to several cities, Edinburgh in particular, that
have been considered to rival it in this respect, and is the name of over
twenty places in the United States. The two chief monuments of the
architecture of ancient Athens, both erected on the Acropolis, are the
PARTHENON (q. v.), dedicated to Athena, the finest building on
the finest site in the world, and the Erechtheum, a temple dedicated to
Poseidon close by; is the capital (100) of modern Greece, the seat of the
government, and the residence of the king.


ATHLONE (7), a market-town on the Shannon, which divides it, and a
chief military station.


ATHOLE, a district in the N. of Perthshire, which gives name to a
branch of the Murray family.


ATHOLE-BROSE, oatmeal, honey, and whisky mixed.


ATHOLE, SIR JOHN JAMES HUGH STEWART-MURRAY, 7TH DUKE OF, honourably
distinguished for having devoted years of his life to editing the records
of the family and the related history; _b_. 1840


A`THOS, MOUNT, or MONTE SANTO (6), a mountain 6780 ft. high at
the southern extremity of the most northerly peninsula of Salonica, in
Turkey, covered with monasteries, inhabited exclusively by monks of the
Greek Church, and rich in curious manuscripts; the monks devote
themselves to gardening, bee-culture, and other rural occupations, the
more devout among them at one time celebrated for the edification they
derived from the study of their own navels.


ATLANTA (65), the largest city in Georgia, U.S.; a large
manufacturing and railway centre.


ATLANTES, figures of men used in architecture instead of pillars.


ATLANTIC, THE, the most important, best known, most traversed and
best provided for traffic of all the oceans on the globe, connecting,
rather than separating, the Old World and the New; covers nearly
one-fifth of the surface of the earth; length 9000 m., its average
breadth 2700 m.; its average depth 15,000 ft., or from 3 to 5 m., with
waves in consequence of greater height and volume than those of any other
sea.


ATLAN`TIS, an island alleged by tradition to have existed in the
ocean W. of the Pillars of Hercules; Plato has given a beautiful picture
of this island, and an account of its fabulous history. THE NEW, a
Utopia figured as existing somewhere in the Atlantic, which Lord Bacon
began to outline but never finished.


AT`LAS, a Titan who, for his audacity in attempting to dethrone
Zeus, was doomed to bear the heavens on his shoulders; although another
account makes him a king of Mauritania whom Perseus, for his want of
hospitality, changed into a mountain by exposing to view the head of the
Medusa.


ATLAS MOUNTAINS, a range in N. Africa, the highest 11,000 feet, the
GREATER in Morocco, the LESSER extending besides through
Algeria and Tunis, and the whole system extending from Cape Nun, in
Morocco, to Cape Bon, in Tunis.


ATMAN, THE, in the Hindu philosophy, the divine spirit in man,
conceived of as a small being having its seat in the heart, where it may
be felt stirring, travelling whence along the arteries it peers out as a
small image in the eye, the pupil; it is centred in the heart of the
universe, and appears with dazzling effect in the sun, the heart and eye
of the world, and is the same there as in the heart of man.


AT`OLL, the name, a Polynesian one, given to a coral island
consisting of a ring of coral enclosing a lagoon.


ATOMIC THEORY, the theory that all compound bodies are made up of
elementary in fixed proportions.


ATOMIC WEIGHT, the weight of an atom of any body compared with that
of hydrogen, the unit.


ATRA`TO, a river in Colombia which flows N. into the Gulf of Darien;
is navigable for 200 m., proposed, since the failure of the Panama
scheme, to be converted, along with San Juan River, into a canal to
connect the Atlantic and the Pacific.


A`TREUS, a son of Pelops and king of Mycenae, who, to avenge a wrong
done him by his brother Thyestes, killed his two sons, and served them up
in a banquet to him, for which act, as tradition shows, his descendants
had to pay heavy penalties.


ATRI`DES, descendants of Atreus, particularly Agamemnon and
Menelaus, a family frequently referred to as capable of and doomed to
perpetrating the most atrocious crimes.


AT`ROPOS, one of the three Fates, the one who cut asunder the thread
of life; one of her sisters, Clotho, appointed to spin the thread, and
the other, Lachesis, to direct it.


AT`TALUS, the name of three kings of Pergamos: A. I., founded
the library of Pergamos and joined the Romans against Philip and the
Achaeans (241-197 B.C.); A. II., kept up the league with Rome
(157-137); A. III., bequeathed his wealth to the Roman people
(137-132).


ATTERBURY, FRANCIS, an English prelate, in succession dean of Christ
Church, bishop of Rochester, and dean of Westminster; a zealous Churchman
and Jacobite, which last brought him into trouble on the accession of the
House of Hanover and led to his banishment; died in Paris. He was a
scholarly man, an eloquent preacher, and wrote an eloquent style
(1662-1731).


ATTIC BEE, Sophocles, from the sweetness and beauty of his
productions.


ATTIC FAITH, inviolable faith, opposed to Punic.


ATTIC MUSE, Xenophon, from the simplicity and elegance of his style.


ATTIC SALT, pointed and delicate wit.


ATTIC STYLE, a pure, classical, and elegant style.


AT`TICA, a country in ancient Greece, on the NE. of the
Peloponnesus, within an area not larger than that of Lanarkshire, which
has nevertheless had a history of world-wide fame and importance.


ATTICISM, a pure and refined style of expression in any language,
originally the purest and most refined style of the ancient literature of
Greece.


ATTICUS, TITUS P., a wealthy Roman and a great friend of Cicero's,
devoted to study and the society of friends, took no part in politics,
died of voluntary starvation rather than endure the torture of a painful
and incurable disease (110-33 B.C.).


AT`TILA, or Etzel, the king of the Huns, surnamed "the Scourge of
God," from the terror he everywhere inspired; overran the Roman Empire at
the time of its decline, vanquished the emperors of both East and West,
extorting heavy tribute; led his forces into Germany and Gaul, was
defeated in a great battle near Chalons-sur-Marne by the combined armies
of the Romans under Aetius and the Goths under Theodoric, retreated
across the Alps and ravaged the N. of Italy; died of hemorrhage, it is
alleged, on the day of his marriage, and was buried in a gold coffin
containing immense treasures in 453, the slaves who dug the grave having,
it is said, been killed, lest they should reveal the spot.


AT`TOCK (4), a town and fortress in the Punjab, on the Indus where
the Kabul joins it--a river beyond which no Hindu must pass; it was built
by Akbar in 1581.


ATTORNEY-GENERAL, the name given the first law officer and legal
adviser of the Crown in England and Ireland.


ATTWOOD, GEORGE, a mathematician, invented a machine for
illustrating the law of uniformly accelerated motion, as in falling
bodies (1745-1807).


ATTWOOD, THOMAS, an eminent English musician and composer, wrote a
few anthems (1767-1836).


A`TYS, a beautiful Phrygian youth, beloved by Cybele, who turned him
into a pine, after she had, by her apparition at his marriage to forbid
the banns, driven him mad.


AUBE (255), a dep. in France, formed of Champagne and a small part
of Burgundy, with Troyes for capital.


AU`BER, a popular French composer of operas, born at Caen; his
operas included "La Muette de Portici," "Le Domino Noir," "Fra Diavolo,"
&c. (1782-1871).


AU`BERT, THE ABBE, a French fabulist, born at Paris (1731-1814).


AUB`REY, JOHN, an eminent antiquary, a friend of Anthony Wood's;
inherited estates in Wilts, Hereford, and Wales, all of which he lost by
lawsuits and bad management; was intimate with all the literary men of
the day; left a vast number of MSS.; published one work, "Miscellanies,"
being a collection of popular superstitions; preserved a good deal of the
gossip of the period (1624-1697).


AUB`RIOT, a French statesman, born at Dijon, provost of Paris under
Charles V.: built the famous Bastille; was imprisoned in it for heresy,
but released by a mob; died at Dijon, 1382.


AUBRY DE MONTDIDIER, French knight murdered by ROBERT MACAIRE
(q. v.), the sole witness of the crime and the avenger of it being his
dog.


AUBUSSON, a French town on the Creuse, manufactures carpets and
tapestry.


AUBUSSON, PIERRE D', grand-master of the Knights of St. John of
Jerusalem, of French descent, who in 1480 gallantly defended Rhodes when
besieged by Mahomet II., and drove the assailants back, amounting to no
fewer than 100,000 men (1423-1503).


AUCH (12), capital of the dep. of Gers, France, 14 m. W. of
Toulouse, with a splendid cathedral perched on a hill, and accessible
only by a flight of 200 steps; has a trade in wine and brandy.


AUCHINLECK, a village 15 m. E. of Ayr, with the mansion of the
Boswell family.


AUCHTERAR`DER, a village in Perthshire, where the forcing of a
presentee by a patron on an unwilling congregation awoke a large section
in the Established Church to a sense of the wrong, and the assertion of
the rights of the people and led to the disruption of the community, and
the creation of the Free Church in 1843.


AUCK`LAND (60), the largest town in New Zealand, in the N. island,
with an excellent harbour in the Gulf of Hauraki, and the capital of a
district of the name, 400 m. long, and 200 m. broad, with a fertile soil
and a fine climate, rich in natural products of all kinds; was the
capital of New Zealand till the seat of government was transferred to
Wellington.


AUCKLAND, BISHOP (11), a town on the Wear, 10 m. SW. of Durham and
in the county of Durham, with the palace of the bishop.


AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, LORD, son of the following, a Whig in
politics, First Lord of the Admiralty, Governor-General of India; gave
name to Auckland; returned afterwards to his post in the Admiralty
(1784-1849).


AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, LORD, diplomatist, and an authority on
criminal law (1744-1814).


AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of small islands 180 m. S. of New Zealand,
with some good harbours, and rich in vegetation.


AUDE (317), a maritime dep. in the S. of France, being a portion of
Languedoc; yields cereals, wine, &c., and is rich in minerals.


AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French artist and naturalist; devoted
himself to the illustration in coloured plates of objects of natural
history, such especially as monkeys and humming-birds, all exquisitely
done (1759-1800).


AUDHUMBLA, the cow, in the Norse mythology, that nourished Hymir,
and lived herself by licking the hoar-frost off the rocks.


AUDLEY, SIR THOMAS, LORD, born in Essex, son of a yeoman; became
Speaker of the House of Commons and Lord Chancellor of England; the
selfish, unscrupulous tool of Henry VIII. (1488-1554).


AU`DOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, an eminent French entomologist; was employed
by the French Government to inquire into and report on the diseases of
the silkworm, and the insects that destroy the vines (1797-1841).


AUDRAN, GERARD, an engraver, the most eminent of a family of
artists, born at Lyons; engraved the works of Lebrun, Mignard, and
Poussin; he did some fine illustrations of the battles of Alexander the
Great (1640-1703).


AU`DUBON, JOHN JAMES, a celebrated American ornithologist of French
Huguenot origin; author of two great works, the "Birds of America" and
the "Quadrupeds of America," drawn and illustrated by himself, the former
characterised by Cuvier as "the most magnificent monument that Art up to
that time had raised to Nature" (1780-1851).


AU`ENBRUGGER, an Austrian physician, discoverer of the method of
investigating diseases of the chest by percussion (1722-1809).


AU`ERBACH, BERTHOLO, a German poet and novelist of Jewish birth,
born in the Black Forest; his novels, which have been widely translated,
are in the main of a somewhat philosophical bent, he having been early
led to the study of Spinoza, and having begun his literary career as
editor of his works; his "Village Tales of the Black Forest" were widely
popular (1812-1882).


AU`ERSPERG, COUNT VON, an Austrian lyrical and satirical poet, of
liberal politics, and a pronounced enemy of the absolutist party headed
by Metternich (1806-1876).


AUF`RECHT, THEODOR, eminent Sanskrit scholar, born in Silesia; was
professor of Sanskrit in Edinburgh University; returning to Germany,
became professor at Bonn; _b_. 1822.


AUFKLAeRUNG, THE, or Illuminationism, a movement, conspicuously of
the present time, the members of which pique themselves on ability to
disperse the darkness of the world, if they could only persuade men to
forego reason, and accept sense, common-sense, as the only test of truth,
and who profess to settle all questions of reason, that is, of faith, by
appeal to private judgment and majorities, or as Dr. Stirling defines it,
"that stripping of us naked of all things in heaven and upon earth, at
the hands of the modern party of unbelief, and under the guidance of
so-called rationalism."


AUGE`AS, a legendary king of Elis, in Greece, and one of the
Argonauts; had a stable with 3000 oxen, that had not been cleaned out for
30 years, but was cleansed by Hercules turning the rivers Peneus and
Alpheus through it; the act a symbol of the worthless lumber a reformer
must sweep away before his work can begin, the work of reformation
proper.


AUGER, a French litterateur, born at Paris, renowned as a critic
(1772-1829).


AU`GEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES, marshal of France and duke of
Castiglione, born at Paris; distinguished in the campaigns of the
Republic and Napoleon; executed the _coup d'etat_ of the 4th Sept. 1797;
his services were rejected by Napoleon on his return from Elba, on
account of his having supported the Bourbons during his absence. He was
simply a soldier, rude and rough-mannered, and with no great brains for
anything else but military discipline (1757-1816).


AU`GIER, EMILE, able French dramatist, produced brilliant comedies
for the French stage through a period of 40 years, all distinctly on the
side of virtue. His only rivals were Dumas _fils_ and M. Sardou
(1820-1889).


AUGS`BURG (75), a busy manufacturing and trading town on the Lech,
in Bavaria, once a city of great importance, where in 1531 the
Protestants presented their Confession to Charles V., and where the peace
of Augsburg was signed in 1555, ensuring religious freedom.


AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document drawn up by Melanchthon in name of
the Lutheran reformers, headed by the Elector of Saxony in statement of
their own doctrines, and of the doctrines of the Church of Rome, against
which they protested.


AUGURS, a college of priests in Rome appointed to forecast the
future by the behaviour or flight of birds kept for the purpose, and
which were sometimes carried about in a coop to consult on emergencies.


AUGUST, originally called Sextilis, as the sixth month of the Roman
year, which began in March, and named August in honour of Augustus, as
being the month identified with remarkable events in his career.


AUGUSTA (33), a prosperous town in Georgia, U.S., on the Savannah,
231 m. from its mouth; also a town (10) the capital of Maine, U.S.


AUGUSTAN AGE, the time in the history of a nation when its
literature is at its best.


AUGUSTI, a German rationalist theologian of note, born near Gotha
(1771-1841).


AUGUSTIN, or AUSTIN, ST., the apostle of England, sent thither
with a few monks by Pope Gregory in 596 to convert the country to
Christianity; began his labours in Kent; founded the see, or rather
archbishopric, of Canterbury; _d_. 605.


AU`GUSTINE, ST., the bishop of Hippo and the greatest of the Latin
Fathers of the Church; a native of Tagaste, in Numidia; son of a pagan
father and a Christian mother, St. Monica; after a youth of dissipation,
was converted to Christ by a text of St. Paul (Rom. xiii. 13, 14), which
his eyes first lit upon, as on suggestion of a friend he took up the
epistle to read it in answer to an appeal he had made to him to explain a
voice that was ever whispering in his ears, "Take and read"; became
bishop in 396, devoted himself to pastoral duties, and took an active
part in the Church controversies of his age, opposing especially the
Manichaeans, the Donatists, and the Pelagians; his principal works are his
"Confessions," his "City of God," and his treatises on Grace and
Free-Will. It is safe to say, no Churchman has ever exercised such
influence as he has done in moulding the creed as well as directing the
destiny of the Christian Church. He was especially imbued with the
theology of St. Paul (354-430).


AUGUSTINIANS, (_a_) Canons, called also Black Cenobites, under a
less severe discipline than monks, had 200 houses in England and Wales at
the Reformation; (_b_) Friars, mendicant, a portion of them barefooted;
(_c_) Nuns, nurses of the sick.


AUGUSTUS, called at first CAIUS OCTAVIUS, ultimately CAIUS
JULIUS CAESAR OCTAVIANUS, the first of the Roman Emperors or Caesars,
grand-nephew of Julius Caesar, and his heir; joined the Republican party
at Caesar's death, became consul, formed one of a triumvirate with Antony
and Lepidus; along with Antony overthrew the Republican party under
Brutus and Cassius at Philippi; defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium,
and became master of the Roman world; was voted the title of "Augustus"
by the Senate in 27 B.C.; proved a wise and beneficent ruler, and
patronised the arts and letters, his reign forming a distinguished epoch
in the history of the ancient literature of Rome (63 B.C.-A.D. 14).


AUGUSTUS, the name of several princes of Saxony and Poland in the
16th and 17th centuries.


AUGUSTUS I., Elector of Saxony, a Lutheran prince, whose reign was
peaceful comparatively, and he was himself both a good man and a good
ruler, a monarch surnamed the "pious" and the "Justinian of Saxony"
(1526-1586).


AUGUSTUS II., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland; forced himself
on Poland; had twice to retire, but was reinstated; is known to history
as "The Strong"; "attained the maximum," says Carlyle, "in several
things,--of physical strength, could break horse-shoes, nay, half-crowns
with finger and thumb; of sumptuosity, no man of his means so regardless
of expense; and of bastards, three hundred and fifty-four of them
(Marshal Saxe one of the lot); baked the biggest bannock on record, a
cake with 5000 eggs and a tun of butter." He was, like many a monarch of
the like loose character, a patron of the fine arts, and founded the
Dresden Picture Gallery (1670-1733).


AUGUSTUS III., son of the preceding; beat Stanislaus Leszcynski in
the struggle for the crown of Poland; proved an incompetent king
(1696-1763).


AULIC COUNCIL, supreme council in the old German Empire, from which
there was no appeal, of date from 1495 to 1654; it had no constitution,
dealt with judicial matters, and lived and died with the emperor.


AULIS, a port in Boeotia, where the fleet of the Greeks assembled
before taking sail for Troy, and where Iphigeneia, to procure a
favourable wind, was sacrificed by her father Agamemnon, an event
commemorated in the "Iphigeneia in Aulis" of Euripides.


AUMALE, DUC D', one of the chiefs of the League, became governor of
Paris, which he held against Henry IV., leagued with the Spaniards, was
convicted of treason, and having escaped, was burned in effigy; died an
exile at Brussels (1556-1631).


AUMALE, DUC D', fourth son of Louis Philippe, distinguished himself
in Algiers, and was governor of Algeria, which he resigned when his
father abdicated; lived in England for twenty years after, acknowledged
the Republic, and left his estate and valuables to the French nation
(1822-1897).


AUNGERVILLE, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE BURY, tutor to Edward III.,
bishop of Durham, sent on embassies to various courts, was a lover and
collector of books, and left a curious work called "Philobiblon"
(1281-1345).


AUNOY, COMTESSE D', a French authoress, known and appreciated for
her fairy tales (1650-1705).


AURELIA`NUS, LUCIUS DOMITIUS, powerful in physique, and an able
Roman emperor; son of a peasant of Pannonia; distinguished as a skilful
and successful general; was elected emperor, 270; drove the barbarians
out of Italy; vanquished Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, carrying her captive
to Rome; subdued a usurper in Gaul, and while on his way to crush a
rebellion in Persia was assassinated by his troops (212-275).


AURE`LIUS, MARCUS. See ANTONI`NUS.


AURE`LIUS, VICTOR SEXTUS, a Roman consul and a Latin historian of
the 4th century.


AUREOLA, a wreath of light represented as encircling the brows of
the saints and martyrs.


AURILLAC (14), capital of the dep. of Cantal, on the Jourdanne,
affluent of the Dordogne, built round the famous abbey of St. Geraud, now
in ruins.


AU`ROCHS, a German wild ox, now extinct.


AURO`RA, the Roman goddess of the dawn, charged with opening for the
sun the gates of the East; had a star on her forehead, and rode in a rosy
chariot drawn by four white horses. See EOS.


AURORA (19), a city in Illinois, U.S., 35 m. SW. of Chicago, said
to have been the first town to light the streets with electricity.


AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights, understood to be an electric
discharge through the atmosphere connected with magnetic disturbance.


AURUN`GABAD` (50), a city in Hyderabad, in the Nizam's dominions;
once the capital, now much decayed, with the ruins of a palace of
Aurungzebe.


AU`RUNGZEBE, Mogul emperor of Hindustan, third son of Shah Jehan;
ascended the throne by the deposition of his father, the murder of two
brothers and of the son of one of these; he governed with skill and
courage; extended his empire by subduing Golconda, the Carnatic, and
Bengal, and though fanatical and intolerant, was a patron of letters; his
rule was far-shining, but the empire was rotten at the core, and when he
died it crumbled to pieces in the hands of his sons, among whom he
beforehand divided it (1615-1707).


AUSCULTATION, discerning by the sound whether there is or is not
disease in the interior organs of the body.


AUSCULTATOR, name in "Sartor Resartus," the hero as a man qualified
for a profession, but as yet only expectant of employment in it.


AUSONIA, an ancient name of Italy.


AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS, a Roman poet, a native of Gaul, born in
Bordeaux; tutor to the Emperor Gratian, who, on coming to the throne,
made him prefect of Latium and of Gaul, and consul of Rome. He was a good
versifier and stylist, but no poet (300-394).


AUSTEN, JANE, a gifted English novelist, daughter of a clergyman in
N. Hampshire; member of a quiet family circle, occupied herself in
writing without eye to publication, and only in mature womanhood thought
of writing for the press. Her first novel, "Sense and Sensibility," was
published in 1811, and was followed by "Pride and Prejudice," her
masterpiece, "Persuasion," and others, her interest being throughout in
ordinary quiet cultured life, and the delineation of it, which she
achieved in an inimitably charming manner. "She showed once for all,"
says Professor Saintsbury, "the capabilities of the very commonest and
most ordinary life, if sufficiently observed and selected, and combined
with due art, to furnish forth prose fiction not merely that would pass,
but that should be of the absolutely first quality as literature. She is
the mother of the English 19th-century novel, as Scott is the father of
it" (1775-1816).


AUS`TERLITZ (3), a town in Moravia, near Bruenn, where Napoleon
defeated the emperors of Russia and of Austria, at "the battle of the
three emperors," Dec. 2, 1805; one of Napoleon's most brilliant
victories, and thought so by himself.


AUSTIN (14), the capital of Texas, on the Colorado River, named
after Stephen Austin, who was chiefly instrumental in annexing Texas to
the States.


AUSTIN, ALFRED, poet-laureate in succession to Tennyson, born near
Leeds, bred for the bar, but devoted to literature as journalist, writer,
and poet; has written "The Golden Age, a Satire," "Savonarola," "English
Lyrics," and several works in prose; _b_. 1835.


AUSTIN, JOHN, a distinguished English jurist, professor of
Jurisprudence in London University; mastered the science of law by the
study of it in Germany, but being too profound in his philosophy, was
unsuccessful as professor; his great work, "The Province of Jurisprudence
Determined," and his Lectures, were published by his widow after his
death (1790-1859).


AUSTIN, MRS. J., (_nee_ Sarah Taylor), wife of the preceding,
executed translations from the German, "Falk's Characteristics of Goethe"
for one; was, like her husband, of the utilitarian school; was introduced
to Carlyle when he first went up to London; he wrote to his wife of her,
"If I 'swear eternal friendship' with any woman here, it will be with
her" (1793-1867)


AUSTIN FRIARS. See AUGUSTINIANS.


AUSTRALASIA (i. e. Southern Asia), a name given to Australia, New
Zealand, and the islands adjoining.


AUSTRALIA, a continent entirely within the Southern Hemisphere,
about one-fourth smaller than Europe, its utmost length from E. to W.
being 2400 m., and breadth 1971; the coast has singularly few inlets,
though many and spacious harbours, only one great gulf, Carpentaria, on
the N., and one bight, the Great Australian Bight, on the S.; the
interior consists of a low desert plateau, depressed in the centre,
bordered with ranges of various elevation, between which and the sea is a
varying breadth of coast-land; the chief mountain range is in the E., and
extends more or less parallel all the way with the E. coast; the rivers
are few, and either in flood or dried up, for the climate is very
parching, only one river, the Murray, 2345 m. long, of any consequence,
while the lakes, which are numerous, are shallow and nearly all salt; the
flora is peculiar, the eucalyptus and the acacia the most characteristic,
grains, fruits, and edible roots being all imported; the fauna is no less
peculiar, including, in the absence of many animals of other countries,
the kangaroo, the dingo, and the duck-bill, the useful animals being
likewise all imported; of birds, the cassowary and the emu, and smaller
ones of great beauty, but songless; minerals abound, both the precious
and the useful; the natives are disappearing, the colonists in 1904
numbering close upon 4,000,000; and the territory divided into Victoria,
New South Wales, Queensland, S. Australia, and W. Australia, which with
Tasmania federated in 1900 and became the Commonwealth.


AUSTRASIA, or the East Kingdom, a kingdom on the E. of the
possessions of the Franks in Gaul, that existed from 511 to 843, capital
of which was Metz; it was celebrated for its rivalry with the kingdom of
Neustria, or the Western Kingdom.


AUSTRIA, or AUSTRO-HUNGARY, is a country of every variety of
surface and scenery; is inhabited by peoples of different races and
nationalities, speaking different languages, as many as 20, and composed
of 50 different states, 5 of them kingdoms; occupies the centre of
Europe, yet has free communication with the seas on all sides of it; is
the third country for size in it; is divided by the Leitha, a tributary
of the Danube, into Cis-Leithan on the W. and Trans-Leithan on the E.;
has next to no coast-line; its chief seaport, Trieste; is watered by
rivers, the Danube in chief, all of which have their mouths in other
countries; has three zones of climate with corresponding zones of
vegetation; is rich in minerals; is largely pastoral and agricultural,
manufacturing chiefly in the W.; the capital Vienna, and the population
over 40,000,000.


AUSTRIAN LIP, a thick under-lip characteristic of the House of
Hapsburg.


AUTEUIL, a village in the dep. of the Seine, now included in Paris.


AUTHORISED VERSION OF THE BIBLE was executed between the years 1604
and 1610 at the instance of James I., so that it is not undeservedly
called King James's Bible, and was the work of 47 men selected with
marked fairness and discretion, divided into three groups of two sections
each, who held their sittings for three years severally at Westminster,
Cambridge, and Oxford, the whole being thereafter revised by a committee
of six, who met for nine months in Stationers' Hall, London, and received
thirty pounds each, the rest being done for nothing. The result was a
translation that at length superseded every other, and that has since
woven itself into the affectionate regard of the whole English-speaking
people. The men who executed it evidently felt something of the
inspiration that breathes in the original, and they have produced a
version that will remain to all time a monument of the simplicity,
dignity, grace, and melody of the English language; its very style has
had a nobly educative effect on the national literature, and has
contributed more than anything else to prevent it from degenerating into
the merely frivolous and formal.


AUTOCHTHONS, Greek for aborigines.


AUTO-DA-FE, or Act of Faith, a ceremony held by the court of the
Inquisition in Spain, preliminary to the execution of a heretic, in which
the condemned, dressed in a hideously fantastic robe, called the San
Benito, and a pointed cap, walked in a procession of monks, followed by
carts containing coffins with malefactors' bones, to hear a sermon on the
true faith, prior to being burned alive; the most famous auto-da-fe took
place in Madrid in 1680.


AUTOL`YCUS, in the Greek mythology a son of HERMES (q. v.),
and maternal grandfather of Ulysses by his daughter Anticlea; famed for
his cunning and robberies; synonym for thief.


AUTOM`EDON, the charioteer of Achilles.


AUTONOMY (i. e. Self-law), in the Kantian metaphysics denotes the
sovereign right of the pure reason to be a law to itself.


AUTRAN`, JOSEPH, a French poet and dramatist, born at Marseilles; he
was of the school of Lamartine, and attained distinction by the
production of the tragedy "La Fille d'Eschyle" (1813-1877).


AUTUN` (15), an ancient city in the dep. of Saone-et-Loire, on the
Arroux, 28 m. NW. from Chalons, where Talleyrand was bishop, with a fine
cathedral and rich in antiquities; manufactures serges, carpets, velvet,
&c.


AUVERGNE`, an ancient province of France, united to the crown under
Louis XIII. in 1610, embracing the deps. of Puy-de-Dome, Cantal, and part
of Haute-Loire, the highlands of which separate the basin of the Loire
from that of the Garonne, and contain a hardy and industrious race of
people descended from the original inhabitants of Gaul; they speak a
strange dialect, and supply all the water-carriers and street-sweepers of
Paris.


AUXERRE` (15), an ancient city, capital of the dep. of Yonne, 90 m.
SE. of Paris; has a fine cathedral in the Flamboyant style; drives a
large trade in wine.


AVA, capital of the Burmese empire from 1364 to 1740 and from 1822
to 1835; now in ruins from an earthquake in 1839.


AV`ALON, in the Celtic mythology an island of faerie in the region
where the sun sinks to rest at eventide, and the final home of the heroes
of chivalry when their day's work was ended on earth.


AVARS, a tribe of Huns who, driven from their home in the Altai Mts.
by the Chinese, invaded the E. of Europe about 553, and committed ravages
in it for about three centuries, till they were subdued by Charlemagne,
and all but exterminated in 827.


AVATAR`, or Descent, the incarnation and incarnated manifestation of
a Hindu deity, a theory both characteristic of Vishnuism and marking a
new epoch in the religious development of India.


AVE MARIA, an invocation to the Virgin, so called as forming the
first two words of the salutation of the angel in Luke i. 28.


AVEBURY, or ABERY, a village in Wiltshire, 6 m. W. of
Marlborough, in the middle of a so-called Druidical structure consisting
of 100 monoliths, surmised to have been erected and arranged in memory of
some great victory.


AVELLI`NO (26), chief town in a province of the name in Campania, 59
m. E. of Naples, famous for its trade in hazel-nuts and chestnuts;
manufactures woollens, paper, macaroni, &c.; has been subject to
earthquakes.


AVENTINE HILL, one of the seven hills of Rome, the mount to which
the plebs sullenly retired on their refusal to submit to the patrician
oligarchy, and from which they were enticed back by Menenius Agrippa by
the well-known fable of the members of the body and the stomach.


AVENTI`NUS, a Bavarian historian, author of the "Chronicon Bavariae"
(Annals of Bavaria), a valuable record of the early history of Germany
(1477-1534).


AVENZO`AR, an Arabian physician, the teacher of Averroes
(1073-1103).


AVERNUS, a deep lake in Italy, near Naples, 11/2 m. in circumference,
occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, at one time surrounded by a
dark wood, and conceived, from its gloomy appearance, as well as from the
mephitic vapours it exhaled, to be the entrance to the infernal world,
and identified with it.


AVER`ROES, an Arabian physician and philosopher, a Moor by birth and
a native of Cordova; devoted himself to the study and the exposition of
Aristotle, earning for himself the title of the "Commentator," though he
appears to have coupled with the philosophy of Aristotle the Oriental
pantheistic doctrine of emanations (1126-1198).


AVERSA (24), an Italian town 8 m. from Naples, amid vineyards and
orange groves; much resorted to by the Neapolitans.


AVEYRON`, a mountainous dep. in the S. of France, with excellent
pastures, where the Roquefort cheese is produced.


AVICEN`NA, an illustrious Arabian physician, surnamed the prince of
physicians, a man of immense learning and extensive practice in his art;
of authority in philosophy as well as in medicine, his philosophy being
of the school of Aristotle with a mixture of Neoplatonism, his "Canon of
Medicine," being the supreme in medical science for centuries (980-1037).


AVIE`NUS, RUFUS FESTUS, a geographer and Latin poet, or versifier
rather, of the 4th century.


AVIGN`ON (37), capital of the dep. of Vaucluse, France; an ancient
city beautifully situated on the left bank of the Rhone, near the
confluence of the Durance, of various fortune from its foundation by the
Phocaeans in 539 B.C.; was the seat of the Papacy from 1305 to 1377,
purchased by Pope Clement VI. at that period, and belonged to the Papacy
from that time till 1797, when it was appropriated to France; it contains
a number of interesting buildings, and carries on a large trade in wine,
oil, and fruits; grows and manufactures silk in large quantities.


A`VILA (10), a town in Spain, in a province of the name, in S. of
Old Castile, 3000 ft. above the sea-level, with a Gothic cathedral and a
Moorish castle; birthplace of St. Theresa.


AVILA, JUAN D', a Spanish priest, surnamed the Apostle of Andalusia,
for his zeal in planting the Gospel in its mountains; _d_. 1569.


AVILA Y ZINUGA, a soldier, diplomatist, and historian under Charles
V.


AVLO`NA (6), or VALONA, a port of Albania, on an inlet of the
Adriatic.


AV`OLA (12), a seaport on the E. coast of Sicily, ruined by an
earthquake in 1693, rebuilt since; place of export of the Hybla honey.


A`VON, the name of several English rivers, such as Shakespeare's in
Warwickshire, of Salisbury in Wiltshire, and of Bristol, rising in
Wiltshire.


AVRANCHES` (7), a town in dep. of Manche, Normandy; the place, the
spot marked by a stone, where Henry II. received absolution for the
murder of Thomas a Becket; lace-making the staple industry, and trade in
agricultural products.


AWE, LOCH, in the centre of Argyllshire, overshadowed by mountains,
25 m. in length, the second in size of Scottish lakes, studded with
islands, one with the ruin of a castle; the scenery gloomily picturesque;
its surface is 100 ft. above the sea-level.


AXEL, archbishop of Lund; born in Zealand; a Danish patriot with
Norse blood; subdued tribes of Wends, and compelled them to adopt
Christianity.


AXHOLME, ISLE OF, a tract of land in NW. Lincolnshire, 17 m. long
and 5 m. broad; once a forest, then a marsh; drained in 1632, and now
fertile, producing hemp, flax, rape, &c.


AXIM, a trading settlement on the Gold Coast, Africa, belonging to
Britain; belonged to Holland till 1871.


AX`OLOTL, a batrachian, numerous in Mexico and the Western States,
believed to be in its preliminary or tadpole state of existence.


AX`UM, capital of an Ethiopian kingdom in Abyssinia, now in ruins,
where Christianity was introduced in the 4th century, and which as the
outpost of Christendom fell early before the Mohammedan power.


AYACU`CHO, a thriving town in Peru, founded by Pizarro in 1539,
where the Peruvians and Colombians achieved their independence of Spain
in 1824, and ended the rule of Spain in the S. American continent.


AYA`LA, PEDRO LOPEZ D', a Spanish soldier, statesman, and
diplomatist, born in Murcia; wrote a "History of the Kings of Castile,"
which was more than a chronicle of wars, being also a review of them; and
a book of poems entitled the "Rhymes of the Court" (1332-1407).


AYE-AYE, a lemur found in the woods of Madagascar.


AYESHA, the daughter of Abubekr, and favourite wife of Mahomet, whom
he married soon after the death of Kadijah; as much devoted to Mahomet as
he was to her, for he died in her arms. "A woman who distinguished
herself by all manner of qualities among the Moslems," who is styled by
them the "Mother of the Faithful" (see KADIJAH). She was, it is
said, the only wife of Mahomet that remained a virgin. On Mahomet's death
she opposed the accession of Ali, who defeated her and took her prisoner,
but released her on condition that she should not again interfere in
State matters (610-677).


AYLES`BURY (9), a borough and market-town in Buckinghamshire, 40 m.
NW. of London, in an agricultural district; supplies the London market
with ducks.


AYLMER, JOHN, tutor to Lady Jane Grey, bishop of London, a highly
arbitrary man, and a friend to neither Papist nor Puritan; he is
satirised by Spenser in the "Shepherd's Calendar" (1521-1594).


AYLOFFE, SIR JOSEPH, English antiquary, born in Sussex (1708-1781).


AYMA`RAS, the chief native race of Peru and Bolivia, from which it
would appear sprang the Quinchuas, the dominant people of Peru at the
time of the Spanish conquest; attained a high degree of civilisation, and
number to-day 500,000.


AYMON, THE COUNT OF DORDOGNE, the father of four sons, Renaud,
Guiscard, Alard, and Richard, renowned in the legends of chivalry, and
particularly as paladins of Charlemagne.


AY`MAR-VER`NAY, a peasant of Dauphine, who in the 17th century
professed to discover springs and treasures hid in the earth by means of
a divining rod.


AYR (23), the county town of Ayrshire, at the mouth of a river of
the same name, a clean, ancient town, its charter, granted by William the
Lion, dating from 1200; well built, with elegant villas in the suburbs, a
good harbour and docks for shipping; famous in early Scottish history,
and doubly so among Scottish towns as the birthplace near it of Robert
Burns.


AYR`ER, JACOB, a German dramatist in the 16th century, of the style
of HANS SACHS (q. v.).


AYRSHIRE (226), a large and wealthy county in the W. of Scotland,
bordered on the W. by the Firth of Clyde, agricultural and pastoral, with
a large coal-field and thriving manufactures; its divisions, Carrick, to
the S. of the Doon; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, and
Cunningham, on the N.; concerning which there is an old rhyme: "Kyle for
a man, Carrick for a coo, Cunningham for butter and cheese, Galloway for
'oo."


AYTON, SIR ROBERT, a poet of considerable merit, a native of Fife,
born at Kinaldie, who made his fortune by a Latin panegyric to King James
I. on his accession; was on friendly terms with the eminent literary men
of his time, Ben Jonson in particular; his poems are written in pure and
even elegant English, some in Latin, and have only recently been
collected together (1571-1638).


AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONDSTOUNE, poet and critic, a native of
Edinburgh, professor of Rhetoric and English Literature in Edinburgh
University, author of the "Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers"; he was also
editor, along with Sir Theodore Martin, of the "Gaultier Ballads," an
admirable collection of light verse (1813-1865).


AZEGLIO, MARCHESE D', an Italian patriot and statesman, native of
Turin; wounded at Vicenza in 1848, fighting for Italian independence;
entered the Piedmontese Parliament, was Victor Emanuel's right-hand man,
retired in favour of Cavour; he was not altogether engrossed with
politics, being an amateur in art (1798-1866).


AZERBIJAN (2,000), prov. of Armenian Persia, S. of the river Aras,
with fertile plains, cattle-breeding, and rich in minerals.


AZORES, i. e. Hawk Islands (250), a group of nine volcanic islands
in the Atlantic, 800 m. W. of Portugal, and forming a province of it; are
in general mountainous; covered with orange groves, of which the chief
are St. Michael's and Fayal; and 900 m. W. of it, in the latitude of
Lisbon; the climate is mild, and good for pulmonary complaints; they were
known to the Carthaginian mariners, but fell out of the map of Europe
till rediscovered in 1431.


AZOV, SEA OF, an opening from the Black Sea, very shallow, and
gradually silting up with mud from the Don.


AZ`RAEL, the angel of death according to Rabbinical tradition.


AZ`TECS, a civilised race of small stature, of reddish-brown skin,
lean, and broad featured, which occupied the Mexican plateau for some
centuries before the Spaniards visited it, and were overthrown by the
Spaniards in 1520.


AZUNI, DOMINICO ALBERTO, an Italian jurist, born in Sardinia;
president of the Court of Appeal at Genoa; made a special study of
maritime law; author of "Droit Maritime de l'Europe" (1729-1827).


AZYMITES, the name given to a party in the Church who insisted that
only unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist, and the
controversy hinged on the question whether the Lord's Supper was
instituted before the Passover season was finished, or after, as in the
former case the bread must have been unleavened, and in the latter
leavened.




B


BAADER, FRANZ XAVIER VON, a German philosopher, born at Muenich; was
patronised by the king of Bavaria, and became professor in Muenich, who,
revolting alike from the materialism of Hume, which he studied in
England, and the transcendentalism of Kant, with its self-sufficiency of
the reason, fell back upon the mysticism of Jacob Boehme, and taught in
16 vols. what might rather be called a theosophy than a philosophy, which
regarded God in Himself, and God even in life, as incomprehensible
realities. He, however, identified himself with the liberal movement in
politics, and offended the king (1765-1841).


BA`AL (meaning Lord), _PL_. BAALIM, the principal male divinity
of the Canaanites and Phoenicians, identified with the sun as the great
quickening and life-sustaining power in nature, the god who presided over
the labours of the husbandman and granted the increase; his crowning
attribute, strength; worshipped on hill-tops with sacrifices, incense,
and dancing. Baal-worship, being that of the Canaanites, was for a time
mixed up with the worship of Jehovah in Israel, and at one time
threatened to swamp it, but under the zealous preaching of the prophets
it was eventually stamped out.


BAAL`BEK (i. e. City of Baal, or the Sun), an ancient city of
Syria, 35 m. NW. of Damascus; called by the Greeks, Heliopolis; once a
place of great size, wealth, and splendour; now in ruins, the most
conspicuous of which is the Great Temple to Baal, one of the most
magnificent ruins of the East, covering an area of four acres.


BAALISM, the name given to the worship of natural causes, tending to
the obscuration and denial of the worship of God as Spirit.


BABA, ALI, the character in the "Arabian Nights" who discovers and
enters the den of the Forty Thieves by the magic password "SESAME"
(q. v.), a word which he accidentally overheard.


BABA, CAPE, in Asia Minor, the most western point in Asia, in
Anatolia, with a town of the name.


BABBAGE, CHARLES, a mathematician, born in Devonshire; studied at
Cambridge, and professor there; spent much time and money over the
invention of a calculating machine; wrote on "The Economy of Manufactures
and Machinery," and an autobiography entitled "Passages from the Life of
a Philosopher"; in his later years was famous for his hostility to street
organ-grinders (1791-1871).


BABBINGTON, ANTONY, an English Catholic gentleman; conspired against
Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots, confessed his guilt, and was
executed at Tyburn in 1586.


BAB-EL-MANDEB (i. e. the Gate of Tears), a strait between Asia and
Africa forming the entrance to the Red Sea, so called from the strong
currents which rush through it, and often cause wreckage to vessels
attempting to pass it.


BABER, the founder of the Mogul empire in Hindustan, a descendant of
Tamerlane; thrice invaded India, and became at length master of it in
1526; left memoirs; his dynasty lasted for three centuries.


BABES IN THE WOOD, Irish banditti who infested the Wicklow Mountains
in the 18th century, and were guilty of the greatest atrocities. See
CHILDREN.


BABIS, a modern Persian sect founded in 1843, their doctrines a
mixture of pantheistic with Gnostic and Buddhist beliefs; adverse to
polygamy, concubinage, and divorce; insisted on the emancipation of
women; have suffered from persecution, but are increasing in numbers.


BABOEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL, a violent revolutionary in France,
self-styled Gracchus; headed an insurrection against the Directory,
"which died in the birth, stifled by the soldiery"; convicted of
conspiracy, was guillotined, after attempting to commit suicide
(1764-1797).


BABOO, or BABU, name applied to a native Hindu gentleman who
has some knowledge of English.


BABOON, LEWIS, the name Arbuthnot gives to Louis XIV. in his
"History of John Bull."


BA`BRIUS, or GABRIUS, a Greek poet of uncertain date; turned
the fables of AEsop and of others into verse, with alterations.


BABY-FARMING, a system of nursing new-born infants whose parents may
wish them out of sight.


BABYLON, the capital city of Babylonia, one of the richest and most
magnificent cities of the East, the gigantic walls and hanging gardens of
which were classed among the seven wonders of the world; was taken,
according to tradition, by Cyrus in 538 B.C., by diverting out of their
channel the waters of the Euphrates, which flowed through it and by
Darius in 519 B.C., through the self-sacrifice of Zophyrus. The name was
often metaphorically applied to Rome by the early Christians, and is
to-day to great centres of population, such as London, where the
overcrowding, the accumulation of material wealth, and the so-called
refinements of civilisation, are conceived to have a corrupting effect on
the religion and morals of the inhabitants.


BABYLO`NIA, the name given by the Greeks to that country called in
the Old Testament, Shinar, Babel, and "the land of the Chaldees"; it
occupied the rich, fertile plain through which the lower waters of the
Euphrates and the Tigris flow, now the Turkish province of Irak-Arabi or
Bagdad. From very early times it was the seat of a highly developed
civilisation introduced by the Sumero-Accadians, who descended on the
plain from the mountains in the NW. Semitic tribes subsequently settled
among the Accadians and impressed their characteristics on the language
and institutions of the country. The 8th century B.C. was marked by a
fierce struggle with the northern empire of Assyria, in which Babylonia
eventually succumbed and became an Assyrian province. But Nabopolassar in
625 B.C. asserted his independence, and under his son Nebuchadnezzar,
Babylonia rose to the zenith of its power. Judah was captive in the
country from 599 to 538 B.C. In that year Cyrus conquered it for Persia,
and its history became merged in that of Persia.


BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, the name given to the deportation of Jews from
Judea to Babylon after the capture of Jerusalem by the king of Babylon,
and which continued for 70 years, till they were allowed to return to
their own land by Cyrus, who had conquered Babylon; those who returned
were solely of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi.


BACCHANALIA, a festival, originally of a loose and riotous
character, in honour of Bacchus.


BACCHANTES, those who took part in the festival of Bacchus, confined
originally to women, and were called by a number of names, such as
Maenads, Thyads, &c.; they wore their hair dishevelled and thrown back,
and had loose flowing garments.


BAC`CHUS, son of Zeus and Semele, the god of the vine, and promoter
of its culture as well as the civilisation which accompanied it;
represented as riding in a car drawn by tame tigers, and carrying a
THYRSUS (q. v.); he rendered signal service to Zeus in the war
of the gods with the GIANTS (q. v.). See DIONYSUS.


BACCHYL`IDES, a Greek lyric poet, 5th century B.C., nephew of
Simonides and uncle of Eschylus, a rival of Pindar; only a few fragments
of his poems extant.


BACCIO DELLA PORTO. See BARTOLOMEO, FRA.


BACCIO`CHI, a Corsican officer, who married Maria Bonaparte, and was
created by Napoleon Prince of Lucca (1762-1841).


BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, one of the greatest of musical composers,
born in Eisenach, of a family of Hungarian origin, noted--sixty of
them--for musical genius; was in succession a chorister, an organist, a
director of concerts, and finally director of music at the School of St.
Thomas, Leipzig; his works, from their originality and scientific rigour,
difficult of execution (1685-1750).


BACHE, A. DALLAS, an American physicist, born at Philadelphia,
superintended the coast survey (1806-1867).


BACHELOR, a name given to one who has achieved the first grade in
any discipline.


BACIL`LUS (lit. a little rod), a bacterium, distinguished as being
twice as long as it is broad, others being more or less rounded. See
BACTERIA.


BACK, SIR GEORGE, a devoted Arctic explorer, born at Stockport,
entered the navy, was a French captive for five years, associated with
Franklin in three polar expeditions, went in search of Sir John Ross,
discovered instead and traced the Great Fish River in 1839, was knighted
in 1837, and in 1857 made admiral (1796-1878).


BACKHUY`SEN, LUDOLPH, a Dutch painter, famous for his sea-pieces and
skill in depicting sea-waves; was an etcher as well as painter
(1631-1708).


BACON, DELIA, an American authoress, who first broached, though she
did not originate, the theory of the Baconian authorship of Shakespeare's
works, a theory in favour of which she has received small support
(1811-1859).


BACON, FRANCIS, LORD VERULAM, the father of the inductive method of
scientific inquiry; born in the Strand, London; son of Sir Nicholas
Bacon; educated at Cambridge; called to the bar when 21, after study at
Gray's Inn; represented successively Taunton, Liverpool, and Ipswich in
Parliament; was a favourite with the queen; attached himself to Essex,
but witnessed against him at his trial, which served him little; became
at last in succession Attorney-General, Privy Councillor, Lord Keeper,
and Lord Chancellor; was convicted of venality as a judge, deposed, fined
and imprisoned, but pardoned and released; spent his retirement in his
favourite studies; his great works were his "Advancement of Learning,"
"Novum Organum," and "De Augmentis Scientiarum," but is seen to best
advantage by the generality in his "Essays," which are full of practical
wisdom and keen observation of life; indeed, these show such shrewdness
of wit as to embolden some (see _SUPRA_) to maintain that the
plays named of Shakespeare were written by him (1561-1626).


BACON, ROGER, a Franciscan monk, born at Ilchester, Somerset; a
fearless truth-seeker of great scientific attainments; accused of magic,
convicted and condemned to imprisonment, from which he was released only
to die; suggested several scientific inventions, such as the telescope,
the air-pump, the diving-bell, the camera obscura, and gunpowder, and
wrote some eighty treatises (1214-1294).


BACON, SIR NICHOLAS, the father of Francis, Lord Bacon, Privy
Councillor and Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen Elizabeth; a prudent
and honourable man and minister, and much honoured and trusted by the
queen (1510-1579).


BACSANYI, JANOS, a Hungarian poet; he suffered from his liberal
political opinions, like many of his countrymen (1763-1845).


BACTE`RIA, exceedingly minute organisms of the simplest structure,
being merely cells of varied forms, in the shape of spheres, rods, or
intermediate shapes, which develop in infusions of organic matter, and
multiply by fission with great rapidity, fraught, as happens, with life
or death to the higher forms of being; conspicuous by the part they play
in the process of fermentation and in the origin and progress of disease,
and to the knowledge of which, and the purpose they serve in nature, so
much has been contributed by the labours of M. Pasteur.


BAC`TRIA, a province of ancient Persia, now BALKH (q. v.),
the presumed fatherland of the Aryans and the birthplace of the
Zoroastrian religion.


BACTRIAN SAGE, a name given to Zoroaster as a native of Bactria.


BACUP (23), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, about 20 m. NE. of
Manchester.


BADAJOZ` (28), capital of a Spanish province of the name, on the
Guadiana, near the frontier of Portugal; a place of great strength;
surrendered to Soult in 1811, and taken after a violent and bloody
struggle by Wellington in 1812; the scene of fearful outrages after its
capture.


BADAKANS, a Dravidian people of small stature, living on the
Nilghiri Mountains, in S. India.


BADAKHSHAN` (100), a Mohammedan territory NE. of Afghanistan, a
picturesque hill country, rich in minerals; it is 200 m. from E. to W.
and 150 from N. to S.; it has been often visited by travellers, from
Marco Polo onwards; the inhabitants, called Badakhshans, are of the Aryan
family and speak Persian.


BADALO`NA (15), a seaport 5 m. NE. of Barcelona.


BA`DEN (4), a town in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, 14 m. NW.
of Zurich, long a fashionable resort for its mineral springs; also a town
near Vienna.


BAD`EN, THE GRAND-DUCHY OF (1,725), a German duchy, extends along
the left bank of the Rhine from Constance to Mannheim; consists of
valley, mountain, and plain; includes the Black Forest; is rich in
timber, minerals, and mineral springs; cotton fabrics, wood-carving, and
jewellery employ a great proportion of the inhabitants; there are two
university seats, Heidelberg and Freiburg.


BADEN-BADEN (13), a town in the duchy of Baden, 18 m. from Carlsruhe
and 22 from Strassburg, noted for its hot mineral springs, which were
known to the Romans, and is a popular summer resort.


BAD`ENOCH, a forest-covered district of the Highlands of Scotland,
45 m. long by 19 broad, traversed by the Spey, in the SE. of
Inverness-shire; belonged originally to the Comyns, but was forfeited by
them, was bestowed by Bruce on his nephew; became finally the property of
the Earl of Huntly.


BADI`A-Y-LABLICH, a Spaniard, born at Barcelona; travelled in the
East; having acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Arab customs, disguised
himself as a Mohammedan under the name of Ali-Bei; his disguise was so
complete that he passed for a Mussulman, even in Mecca itself; is
believed to be the first Christian admitted to the shrine of Mecca; after
a time settled in Paris, and wrote an account of his travels (1766-1818).


BADRINATH, a shrine of Vishnu, in N.W. India, 10,000 ft. high; much
frequented by pilgrims for the sacred waters near it, which are believed
to be potent to cleanse from all pollution.


BAEDEKER, KARL, a German printer in Coblenz, famed for the
guide-books to almost every country of Europe that he published
(1801-1859).


BAER, KARL ERNST VON, a native of Esthonia; professor of zoology,
first in Koenigsberg and then in St. Petersburg; the greatest of modern
embryologists, styled the "father of comparative embryology"; the
discoverer of the law, known by his name, that the embryo when developing
resembles those of successively higher types (1792-1876).


BAFFIN, WILLIAM, an early English Arctic explorer, who, when acting
as pilot to an expedition in quest of the N.W. Passage, discovered
Baffin Bay (1584-1622).


BAFFIN BAY, a strait stretching northward between N. America and
Greenland, open four months in summer to whale and seal fishing;
discovered in 1615 by William Baffin.


BAGDAD (185), on the Tigris, 500 m. from its mouth, and connected
with the Euphrates by canal; is the capital of a province, and one of the
most flourishing cities of Asiatic Turkey; dates, wool, grain, and horses
are exported; red and yellow leather, cotton, and silk are manufactured;
and the transit trade, though less than formerly, is still considerable.
It is a station on the Anglo-Indian telegraph route, and is served by a
British-owned fleet of river steamers plying to Basra. Formerly a centre
of Arabic culture, it has belonged to Turkey since 1638. An imposing city
to look at, it suffers from visitations of cholera and famine.


BAGEHOT, WALTER, an English political economist, born in Somerset, a
banker by profession, and an authority on banking and finance; a disciple
of Ricardo; wrote, besides other publications, an important work, "The
English Constitution"; was editor of the _Economist_; wrote in a vigorous
style (1826-1877).


BAGGE`SEN, JENS EMMANUEL, a Danish poet, travelled a good deal,
wrote mostly in German, in which he was quite at home; his chief works, a
pastoral epic, "Parthenais oder die Alpenreise," and a mock epic, "Adam
and Eve"; his minor pieces are numerous and popular, though from his
egotism and irritability he was personally unpopular (1764-1826).


BAGHELKAND, name of five native states in Central India, Rewah the
most prosperous.


BAGHE`RIA, a town in Sicily, 8 m. from Palermo, where citizens of
the latter have more or less stylish villas.


BAGIR`MI, a Mohammedan kingdom in Central Africa, SE. of Lake Tehad,
240 m. from N. to S. and 150 m. from E. to W.


BAGLIO`NI, an Italian fresco-painter of note (1573-1641).


BAGLI`VI, GIORGIO, an illustrious Italian physician, wrote "De Fibra
Motrice" in defence of the "solidist" theory, as it is called, which
traced all diseases to alterations in the solid parts of the body
(1667-1706).


BAGNERES, two French towns on the Pyrenees, well-known
watering-places.


BAGNES, name given to convict prisons in France since the abolition
of the galleys.


BAGRA`TION, PRINCE, Russian general, distinguished in many
engagements; commanded the vanguard at Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland,
and in 1812, against Napoleon; achieved a brilliant success at Smolensk;
fell at Borodino (1765-1812).


BAGSTOCK, JOE, a "self-absorbed" talking character in "Dombey &
Son."


BAHA`MAS, THE (47), a group of over 500 low, flat coral islands in
the W. Indies, and thousands of rocks, belonging to Britain, of which 20
are inhabited, and on one of which Columbus landed when he discovered
America; yield tropical fruits, sponges, turtle, &c.; Nassau the capital.


BAHAR (263), a town on the Ganges, 34 m. SE. of Patna; after falling
into decay, is again rising in importance.


BAHAWALPUR (650), a feudatory state in the NW. of India, with a
capital of the name; is connected administratively with the Punjab.


BAHI`A, or San Salvador (200), a fine city, one of the chief
seaports of Brazil, in the Bay of All Saints, and originally the capital
in a province of the name stretching along the middle of the coast.


BAHR, an Arabic word meaning "river," prefixed to the name of many
places occupied by Arabs.


BAeHR, FELIX, classical scholar, burn at Darmstadt; wrote a "History
of Roman Literature," in high repute (1798-1872).


BAHREIN` ISLANDS (70), a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, under
the protection of Britain, belonging to Muscat, the largest 27 m. long
and 10 broad, cap. Manamah (20); long famous for their pearl-fisheries,
the richest in the world.


BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, an old Egyptian prov. including the district watered
by the tributaries of the Bahr-el-Arab and the Bahr-el-Ghazal; it was
wrested from Egypt by the Mahdi, 1884; a district of French Congo lies W.
of it, and it was through it Marchand made his way to Fashoda.


BAIAE, a small town near Naples, now in ruins and nearly all
submerged; famous as a resort of the old Roman nobility, for its climate
and its baths.


BAIF, a French poet one of a group of seven known in French
literature as the "Pleiade," whose aim was to accommodate the French
language and literature to the models of Greek and Latin.


BAIKAL, a clear fresh-water lake, in S. of Siberia, 397 m. long and
from 13 to 54 wide, in some parts 4500 ft. deep, and at its surface 1560
ft. above the sea-level, the third largest in Asia; on which sledges ply
for six or eight months in winter, and steamboats in summer; it abounds
in fish, especially sturgeon and salmon; it contains several islands, the
largest Olkhin, 32 m. by 10 m.


BAIKIE, W. BALFOUR, an Orcadian, born at Kirkwall, surgeon in the
Royal Navy; was attached to the Niger Expedition in 1854, and ultimately
commanded it, opening the region up and letting light in upon it at the
sacrifice of his life; died at Sierra Leone (1825-1864).


BAILEY, NATHAN, an early English lexicographer, whose dictionary,
very popular in its day, was the basis of Johnson's; _d_. 1742.


BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES, English poet, born in Nottingham; author of
"Festus," a work that on its appearance in 1839 was received with
enthusiasm, passed through 11 editions in England and 30 in America, was
succeeded by "The Angel World," "The Mystic," "The Universal Hymn," and
"The Age"; he has been rated by some extravagantly high; _b_. 1816.


BAILEY, SAMUEL, an English author, born in Sheffield, a
liberal-minded man, a utilitarian in philosophy, who wrote on psychology,
ethics, and political economy, and left a fortune, acquired in business,
to his native town (1787-1870).


BAILLIE, JOANNA, a poetess, born at Bothwell, child of the
Presbyterian manse there; joined a brother in London, stayed afterwards
with a sister at Hampstead; produced a series of dramas entitled "Plays
of the Passions," besides many others, both comedies and tragedies, one
of which, the "Family Legend," was acted in the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh,
under the auspices of Sir Walter Scott; she does not stand high either as
a dramatist or a writer (1762-1851).


BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL, an heroic Scotch lady, famous for her songs,
"And werena my heart licht I wad dee" is well known (1665-1740).


BAILLIE, MATTHEW, physician, brother of Joanna, wrote on Morbid
Anatomy (1761-1823).


BAILLIE, ROBERT, a Scotch Presbyterian divine, born in Glasgow;
resisted Laud's attempt to thrust Episcopacy on the Scotch nation, and
became a zealous advocate of the national cause, which he was delegated
to represent twice over in London; he was a royalist all the same, and
was made principal of Glasgow University; "His Letters and Journals" were
published by the Bannatyne Club, and are commended by Carlyle as
"veracious," forming, as they do, the subject of one of his critical
essays (1599-1662).


BAILLIE, ROBERT, a zealous Scotch Presbyterian, tried for complicity
in the Rye House Plot, and unfairly condemned to death, and barbarously
executed the same day (in 1683) for fear he should die afterwards and
cheat the gallows of its victim.


BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN, an astronomer, born at Paris; wrote the
"History of Astronomy, Ancient and Modern," in five volumes; was
distracted from further study of the science by the occurrence of the
Revolution; elected president of the National Assembly; installed mayor
of Paris; lost favour with the people; was imprisoned as an enemy of the
popular cause and cruelly guillotined. Exposed beforehand "for hours
long, amid curses and bitter frost-rain, 'Bailly, thou tremblest,' said
one; 'Mon ami,' said he meekly, 'it is for cold.' Crueller end," says
Carlyle, "had no mortal."


BAILY, E. H., a sculptor, born in Bristol, studied under Flaxman;
his most popular works were, "Eve Listening to the Voice," "The Sleeping
Girl," and the "Graces Seated" (1788-1867).


BAIN, ALEXANDER, born at Aberdeen, professor of Logic in the
university, and twice Lord Rector, where he was much esteemed by and
exercised a great influence over his pupils; his chief works, "The Senses
and the Intellect," "The Emotions and the Will," and "Mental and Moral
Science"; has written on composition in a very uninteresting style; his
psychology, which he connected with physiology, was based on empiricism
and the inductive method, to the utter exclusion of all _a priori_ or
transcendental speculation, such as hails from Kant and his school; he is
of the school of John Stuart Mill, who endorsed his philosophy; _b_.
1818.


BAIRAM, a Mohammedan festival of three days at the conclusion of the
Ramadan, followed by another of four days, seventy days later, called the
Second Bairam, in commemoration of the offering up of Isaac, and
accompanied with sacrifices.


BAIRD, JAMES, ironmaster, founder of the Baird Lectureship, in
vindication of Scotch orthodoxy; bequeathed L500,000 to support churches
(1802-1876).


BAIRD, SIR DAVID, a distinguished English general of Scotch descent,
born at Newbyth, Aberdeenshire; entered the army at 15; served in India,
Egypt, and at the Cape; was present at the taking of Seringapatam, and
the siege of Pondicherry; in command when the Cape of Good Hope was
wrested from the Dutch, and on the fall of Sir John Moore at Corunna,
wounded; he afterwards retired (1757-1829).


BAIRD, S. FULLERTON, an American naturalist, wrote, along with
others, on the birds and mammals of N. America, as well as contributed to
fish-culture and fisheries (1823-1887).


BAI`REUTH (24), the capital of Upper Franconia, in Bavaria, with a
large theatre erected by the king for the performance of Wagner's musical
compositions, and with a monument, simple but massive, as was fit, to the
memory of Jean Paul, who died there.


BAIREUTH, WILHELMINA, MARGRAVINE OF, sister of Frederick the Great,
left "Memoirs" of her time (1709-1758).


BAJAZET` I., sultan of the Ottoman Turks, surnamed ILDERIM, _i. e_.
Lightning, from the energy and rapidity of his movements; aimed at
Constantinople, pushed everything before him in his advance on Europe,
but was met and defeated on the plain of Angora by Tamerlane, who is said
to have shut him in a cage and carried him about with him in his train
till the day of his death (1347-1403).


BA`JUS, MICHAEL, deputy from the University of Louvain to the
Council of Trent, where he incurred much obloquy at the hands of the
Jesuits by his insistence of the doctrines of Augustine, as the
Jansenists did after him (1513-1580).


BAKER, MOUNT, a volcano in the Cascade range, 11,000 ft.; still
subject to eruptions.


BAKER, SIR RICHARD, a country gentleman, born in Kent, often
referred to by Sir Roger de Coverley; author of "The Chronicle of the
Kings of England," which he wrote in the Fleet prison, where he died
(1603-1645).


BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE, a man of enterprise and travel, born in
London; discovered the Albert Nyanza; commanded an expedition under the
Khedive into the Soudan; wrote an account of it in a book, "Ismailia";
visited Cyprus and travelled over India; left a record of his travels in
five volumes with different titles (1821-1893).


BAKSHISH, a word used all over the East to denote a small fee for
some small service rendered.


BAKU (107), a Russian port on the Caspian Sea, in a district so
impregnated and saturated in parts with petroleum that by digging in the
soil wells are formed, in some cases so gushing as to overflow in
streams, which wells, reckoned by hundreds, are connected by pipes with
refineries in the town; a district which, from the spontaneous ignition
of the petroleum, was long ago a centre of attraction to the Parsees or
fire-worshippers of the East, and resorted to by them as holy ground.


BAKU`NIN, MICHAEL, an extreme and violent anarchist, and a leader of
the movement; native of Moscow; was banished to Siberia, but escaped;
joined the International, but was expelled (1814-1876).


BALA, the county town of Merioneth, in Wales. Bala Lake, the largest
lake in Wales, 4 m. long, and with a depth of 100 ft.


BA`LAAM, a Midianitish soothsayer; for the account of him see Num.
xxii.-xxiv., and Carlyle's essay on the "Corn-Law Rhymes" for its
application to modern State councillors of the same time-serving type,
and their probable fate.


BALACLA`VA, a small port 6 m. SE. of Sebastopol, with a large
land-locked basin; the head-quarters of the British during the Crimean
war, and famous in the war, among other events, for the "Charge of the
Six Hundred."


BALANCE OF POWER, preservation of the equilibrium existing among the
States of Europe as a security of peace, for long an important
consideration with European statesmen.


BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference in value between the exports and
the imports of a country, and said to be in favour of the country whose
exports exceed in value the imports in that respect.


BALANOGLOS`SUS, a worm-like marine animal, regarded by the zoologist
as a possible connecting link between invertebrates and vertebrates.


BALATA, a vegetable gum used as a substitute for gutta-percha, being
at once ductile and elastic; goes under the name of bully.


BAL`ATON, LAKE, the largest lake in Hungary, 48 m. long, and 10 m.
broad, 56 m. SW. of Pesth; slightly saline, and abounds in fish.


BALBI, ADRIANO, a geographer of Italian descent, born at Venice, who
composed in French a number of works bearing on geography (1782-1848).


BALBO, CAESARE, an Italian statesmen and publicist, born at Turin;
devoted his later years to literature; wrote a life of Dante; works in
advocacy of Italian independence (1789-1853).


BALBO`A. VASCO NUNEZ DE, a Castilian noble, established a settlement
at Darien; discovered the Pacific; took possession of territory in the
name of Spain; put to death by a new governor, from jealousy of the glory
he had acquired and the consequent influence in the State (1475-1517).


BALDACHINO, a tent-like covering or canopy over portals, altars, or
thrones, either supported on columns, suspended from the roof, or
projecting from the wall.


BALD`ER, the sun-god of the Norse mythology, "the beautiful, the
wise, the benignant," who is fated to die, and dies, in spite of, and to
the grief of, all the gods of the pantheon, a pathetic symbol conceived
in the Norse imagination of how all things in heaven, as on earth, are
subject in the long-run to mortality.


BALDERSTONE, CALEB, the faithful old domestic in Scott's "Bride of
Lammermoor," the family he serves his pride.


BALDRICK, an ornamental belt worn hanging over the shoulder, across
the body diagonally, with a sword, dagger, or horn suspended from it.


BALDUNG, HANS, or HANS GRUeN, a German artist, born in Suabia; a
friend of Duerer's; his greatest work, a masterpiece, a painting of the
"Crucifixion," now in Freiburg Cathedral (1300-1347).


BALDWIN, archbishop of Canterbury; crowned Richard Coeur de Lion;
accompanied him on the crusade; died at Acre in 1191.


BALDWIN, the name of several counts of Flanders, eight in all.


BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem; succeeded his brother Godfrey de
Bouillon; assuming said title, made himself master of most of the towns
on the coast of Syria; contracted a disease in Egypt; returned to
Jerusalem, and was buried on Mount Calvary; there were five of this name
and title, the last of whom, a child of some eight years old, died in
1186 (1058-1118).


BALDWIN I., the first Latin emperor of Constantinople; by birth,
count of Hainault and Flanders; joined the fourth crusade, led the van in
the capture of Constantinople, and was made emperor; was defeated and
taken prisoner by the Bulgarians (1171-1206). B. II., nephew of
Baldwin I., last king of the Latin dynasty, which lasted only 57 years
(1217-1273).


BALE, JOHN, bishop of Ossory, in Ireland; born in Suffolk; a convert
from Popery, and supported by Cromwell; was made bishop by Edward VI.;
persecuted out of the country as an apostate from Popery; author of a
valuable account of early British writers (1495-1563).


BALEARIC ISLES (312), a group of five islands off the coast of
Valencia, in Spain, Majorca the largest; inhabitants in ancient times
famous as expert slingers, having been one and all systematically trained
to the use of the sling from early childhood; cap. Palma (58).


BALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM, a musical composer, of Irish birth, born
near Wexford; author of "The Bohemian Girl," his masterpiece, and
world-famous (1808-1870).


BALFOUR, A. J., of Whittinghame, East Lothian; educated at Eton and
Cambridge; nephew of Lord Salisbury, and First Lord of the Treasury and
leader of the House of Commons in Lord Salisbury's ministry; author of a
"Defence of Philosophic Doubt" and a volume of "Essays and Addresses";
_b_. 1848.


BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND, brother of the preceding; a promising
biologist; career was cut short by death in attempting to ascend the
Wetterhorn (1851-1882).


BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, Lord President of the Court of Session; native
of Fife; an unprincipled man, sided now with this party, now with the
opposite, to his own advantage, and that at the most critical period in
Scottish history; _d_. 1583.


BALFOUR OF BURLEY, leader of the Covenanters in Scott's "Old
Mortality."


BALI, one of the Samoa Islands, 75 m. long by 40 m. broad; produces
cotton, coffee, and tobacco.


BALIOL, EDWARD, son of the following, invaded Scotland; was crowned
king at Scone, supported by Edward III.; was driven from the kingdom, and
obliged to renounce all claim to the crown, on receipt of a pension; died
at Doncaster, 1369.


BALIOL, JOHN DE, son of the following; laid claim to the Scottish
crown on the death of the Maid of Norway in 1290; was supported by Edward
I., and did homage to him for his kingdom, but rebelled, and was forced
publicly to resign the crown; died in 1314 in Normandy, after spending
some three years in the Tower; satirised by the Scotch, in their stinging
humorous style, as King Toom Tabard, i. e. Empty King Cloak.


BALIOL, SIR JOHN DE, of Norman descent; a guardian to the heir to
the Scottish crown on the death of Alexander III.; founder of Baliol
College, Oxford; _d_. 1269.


BALIZE, or BELIZE, the capital of British Honduras, in Central
America; trade in mahogany, rosewood, &c.


BALKAN PENINSULA, the territory between the Adriatic and the AEgean
Sea, bounded on the N. by the Save and the Lower Danube, and on the S. by
Greece.


BALKANS, THE, a mountain range extending from the Adriatic to the
Black Sea; properly the range dividing Bulgaria from Roumania; mean
height, 6500 ft.


BALKASH, LAKE, a lake in Siberia, 780 ft. above sea-level, the
waters clear, but intensely salt, 150 m. long and 73 m. broad.


BALKH, anciently called Bactria, a district of Afghan Turkestan
lying between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, 250 m. long and 120 m. broad,
with a capital of the same name, reduced now to a village; birthplace of
Zoroaster.


BALL, JOHN, a priest who had been excommunicated for denouncing the
abuses of the Church; a ringleader in the Wat Tyler rebellion; captured
and executed.


BALL, SIR R. S., mathematician and astronomer, born in Dublin;
Astronomer-Royal for Ireland; author of works on astronomy and mechanics,
the best known of a popular kind on the former science being "The Story
of the Heavens"; _b_. 1840.


BALLAD, a story in verse, composed with spirit, generally of
patriotic interest, and sung originally to the harp.


BALLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON, a mystic writer, born at Lyons, his chief
work "la Palingenesie Sociale," his aim being the regeneration of society
(1814-1847).


BALLANTINE, JAMES, glass-stainer and poet, born in Edinburgh
(1808-1877).


BALLANTINE, SERJEANT, distinguished counsel in celebrated criminal
cases (1812-1887).


BALL`ANTYNE, JAMES, a native of Kelso, became a printer in
Edinburgh, printed all Sir Walter Scott's works; failed in business, a
failure in which Scott was seriously implicated (1772-1833).


BALLANTYNE, JOHN, brother of preceding, a confidant of Sir Walter's
in the matter of the anonymity of the Waverley Novels; an inimitable
story-teller and mimic, very much to the delight of Sir Walter
(1774-1821).


BALLARAT` (40), a town in Victoria, and since 1851 the second city
in the province, about 100 m. NW. of Melbourne; the centre of the chief
gold-fields in the colony, the precious metal being at first washed out
of the soil, and now crushed out of the quartz rocks and dug out of deep
mines; it is the seat of both a Roman Catholic and a Church of England
bishopric.


BALL`ATER, a clean Aberdeenshire village on the Dee, a favourite
summer resort, stands 668 ft. above sea-level.


BALMAT, JACQUES, of Chamounix, a celebrated Alpine guide
(1796-1834).


BALMAWHAPPLE, a prejudiced Scotch clergyman in "Waverley."


BAL`MEZ, an able Spanish Journalist, author of "Protestantism and
Catholicism compared in their Effects on the Civilisation of Europe"
(1810-1848).


BALMOR`AL, a castle on the upper valley of the Dee, at the foot of
Braemar, 521/2 m. from Aberdeen, 9 m. from Ballater; the Highland residence
of Queen Victoria, on a site which took the fancy of both the Queen and
the Prince Consort on their first visit to the Highlands.


BALMUNG, the sharp-cutting sword of Siegfried, so sharp that a smith
cut in two by it did not know he was so cut till he began to move, when
he fell in pieces.


BALNAVES, HENRY, coadjutor of John Knox in the Scottish Reformation,
and a fellow-sufferer with him in imprisonment and exile; afterwards
contributed towards formulating the creed of the Scotch Church; born at
Kirkcaldy, and educated in Germany; _d_. 1579.


BALSALL, a thriving suburb of Birmingham, engaged in hardware
manufacture.


BALTIC PROVINCES, Russian provinces bordering on the Baltic.


BALTIC SEA, an inland sea in the N. of Europe, 900 m. long and from
100 to 200 m. broad, about the size of England and Wales; comparatively
shallow; has no tides; waters fresher than those of the ocean, owing to
the number of rivers that flow into it and the slight evaporation that
goes on at the latitude; the navigation of it is practically closed from
the middle of December to April, owing to the inlets being blocked with
ice.


BALTIMORE (550), the metropolis of Maryland, on an arm of Chesapeake
Bay, 250 m. from the Atlantic; is picturesquely situated; not quite so
regular in design as most American cities, but noted for its fine
architecture and its public monuments. It is the seat of the John Hopkins
University. The industries are varied and extensive, including textiles,
flour, tobacco, iron, and steel. The staple trade is in bread-stuffs; the
exports, grain, flour, and tobacco.


BALUE, CARDINAL, minister of Louis XI.; imprisoned, for having
conspired with Charles the Rash, by Louis in an iron cage for eleven
years (1421-1491).


BALUCHISTAN, a country lying to the S. of Afghanistan and extending
to the Persian Gulf. See Beluchistan.


BALZAC, HONORE DE, native of Tours, in France; one of the most
brilliant as well as prolific novelwriters of modern times; his
productions remarkable for their sense of reality; they show power of
observation, warmth and fertility of imagination, and subtle and profound
delineation of human passion, his design in producing them being to make
them form part of one great work, the "Comedie Humaine," the whole being
a minute dissection of the different classes of society (1799-1850).


BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GUEZ DE, born at Angouleme, a French litterateur
and gentleman of rank, who devoted his life to the refinement of the
French language, and contributed by his "Letters" to the classic form it
assumed under Louis XIV.; "he deliberately wrote," says Prof. Saintsbury,
"for the sake of writing, and not because he had anything particular to
say," but in this way did much to improve the language; _d_. 1685.


BAMBAR`RA (2,000), a Soudan state on the banks of the Upper Niger,
opened up to trade; the soil fertile; yields grain, dates, cotton, and
palm-oil; the natives are negroes of the Mohammedan faith, and are good
husbandmen.


BAMBERG (35), a manufacturing town in Upper Franconia, Bavaria; once
the centre of an independent bishopric; with a cathedral, a magnificent
edifice, containing the tomb of its founder, the Emperor Henry II.


BAMBINO, a figure of the infant Christ wrapped in swaddling bands,
the infant in pictures surrounded by a halo and angels.


BAMBOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient fortress E. of Belford, on the coast
of Northumberland, now an alms-house.


BAMBOUK (800), a fertile but unhealthy negro territory, with mineral
wealth and deposits of gold, W. of Bambarra.


BAMIAN`, a high-lying valley in Afghanistan, 8500 ft. above
sea-level; out of the rocks on its N. side, full of caves, are hewn huge
figures of Buddha, one of them 173 ft. high, all of ancient date.


BAMPTON LECTURES, annual lectures on Christian subjects, eight in
number, for the endowment of which John Bampton, canon of Salisbury, left
property which yields a revenue worth L200 a year.


BANBURY, a market-town in Oxfordshire, celebrated for its cross and
its cakes.


BANCA (80), an island in the Eastern Archipelago, belonging to the
Dutch, with an unhealthy climate; rich in tin, worked by Chinese.


BANCROFT, GEORGE, an American statesman, diplomatist, and historian,
born in Massachusetts; his chief work "The History of the United States,"
issued finally in six vols., and a faithful account (1800-1891).


BANCROFT, HUBERT, an American historian, author of a "History of the
Pacific States of N. America"; _b_. 1832.


BANCROFT, RICHARD, archbishop of Canterbury, a zealous Churchman and
an enemy of the Puritans; represented the Church at the Hampton Court
Conference, and was chief overseer of the Authorised Version of the Bible
(1554-1610).


BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE, English actor, born in London, made his first
appearance in Birmingham in 1861; married Mrs. Wilton, an actress; opened
with her the Haymarket Theatre in 1880; retired in 1885, at which time
both retired, and have appeared since only occasionally.


BANDA ISLES, a group of the Moluccas, some twelve in number,
belonging to Holland; yield nutmegs and mace; are subject to earthquakes.


BANDA ORIENTAL, See URUGUAY.


BANDELLO, an Italian Dominican monk, a writer of tales, some of
which furnished themes and incidents for Shakespeare, Massinger, and
other dramatists of their time (1480-1562).


BANDIE`RA, brothers, born in Venice; martyrs, in 1844, to the cause
of Italian independence.


BANDINELLI, a Florentine sculptor, tried hard to rival Michael
Angelo and Cellini; his work "Hercules and Cacus" is the most ambitious
of his productions; did a "Descent from the Cross" in bas-relief, in
Milan Cathedral (1487-1559).


BANFF (7), county town of Banffshire, on the Moray Firth, at the
mouth of the Deveron; the county itself (64) stretches level along the
coast, though mountainous on the S. and SE.; fishing and agriculture the
great industries.


BANFFY, BARON, Premier of Hungary, born at Klausenburg; became in
1874 provincial prefect of Transylvania; was elected a peer on the
formation of the Upper Hungarian Chamber, and was made Premier in 1893;
he is a strong Liberal; _b_. 1841.


BANGA, the Hindu name for the Delta of the Ganges.


BAN`GALORE (180), the largest town in Mysore, and the capital;
stands high; is manufacturing and trading.


BANGHIS, a low-caste people in the Ganges valley.


BANGK`OK (500), the capital of Siam, on the Menam; a very striking
city; styled, from the canals which intersect it, the "Venice of the
East"; 20 m. from the sea; the centre of the foreign trade, carried on by
Europeans and Chinese; with the royal palace standing on an island, in
the courtyard of which several white elephants are kept.


BANGOR (9), an episcopal city in Carnarvon, N. Wales, with large
slate quarries; a place of summer resort, from the beauty of its
surroundings.


BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy in the Church of England
provoked by a sermon which Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, preached before
George I. in 1717, which offended the sticklers for ecclesiastical
authority.


BANGWEO`LO, a lake in Equatorial Africa, discovered by Livingstone,
and on the shore of which he died; 150 m. long, and half as wide; 3690
ft. above sea-level.


BANIAN DAYS, days when no meat is served out to ships' crews.


BANJARI, a non-Aryan race in Central India, the carriers and
caravan-conductors of the region.


BANIM, JOHN, Irish author, a native of Kilkenny, novelist of Irish
peasant life on its dark side, who, along with his brother Michael, wrote
24 vols. of Irish stories, &c.; his health giving way, he fell into
poverty, but was rescued by a public subscription and a pension; Michael
survived him 32 years (1798-1842).


BANKS, SIR JOSEPH, a zealous naturalist, particularly in botany; a
collector, in lands far and wide, of specimens in natural history; left
his collection and a valuable library and herbarium to the British
Museum; president of the Royal Society for 41 years (1744-1820).


BANKS, THOMAS, an eminent English sculptor, born at Lambeth; first
appreciated by the Empress Catharine; his finest works, "Psyche" and
"Achilles Enraged," now in the entrance-hall of Burlington House; he
excelled in imaginative art (1735-1805).


BANNATYNE CLUB, a club founded by Sir Walter Scott to print rare
works of Scottish interest, whether in history, poetry, or general
literature, of which it printed 116, all deemed of value, a complete set
having been sold for L235; dissolved in 1861.


BAN`NOCKBURN (2), a manufacturing village 3 m. SE. of Stirling, the
scene of the victory, on June 24, 1314, of Robert the Bruce over Edward
II., which reasserted and secured Scottish independence; it manufactures
carpets and tartans.


BAN`SHEE, among the Irish, and in some parts of the Highlands and
Brittany, a fairy, believed to be attached to a family, who gave warnings
by wailings of an approaching death in it, and kept guard over it.


BANTAM, a chief town in Java, abandoned as unhealthy by the Dutch;
whence the Bantam fowl is thought to have come.


BANTING SYSTEM, a dietary for keeping down fat, recommended by a Mr.
Banting, a London merchant, in a "Letter on Corpulence" in 1863; he
recommended lean meat, and the avoidance of sugar and starchy foods.


BANTRY BAY, a deep inlet on the SW. coast of Ireland; a place of
shelter for ships.


BANTU, the name of most of the races, with their languages, that
occupy Africa from 6 deg. N. lat. to 20 deg. S.; are negroid rather than negro,
being in several respects superior; the name, however, suggests rather a
linguistic than an ethnological distinction, the language differing
radically from all other known forms of speech--the inflection, for one
thing, chiefly initial, not final.


BANVILLE, THEODORE DE, a French poet, born at Moulins; well
characterised as "_Roi des Rimes_," for with him form was everything, and
the matter comparatively insignificant, though, there are touches here
and there of both fine feeling and sharp wit (1823-1891).


BANYAN, the Indian fig; a tree whose branches, bending to the
ground, take root and form new stocks, till they cover a large area and
become a forest.


BA`OBAB, a large African tropical tree, remarkable for the girth of
its trunk, the thickness of its branches, and their expansion; its leaves
and seeds are used in medicine.


BAPHOMET, a mysterious image, presumed represent Mahomet, which the
Templars were accused of worshipping, but which they may rather be
surmised to have invoked to curse them if they failed in their vow;
Carlyle refers to this cult in "Sartor," end of Bk. II. chapter vii.,
where he speaks of the "Baphometic fire-baptism" of his hero, under which
all the spectres that haunted him withered up.


BAPTISM, the Christian rite of initiation into the membership of the
Church, identified by St. Paul (Rom. vi. 4) with that No to the world
which precedes or rather accompanies Yea to God, but a misunderstanding
of the nature of which has led to endless diversity, debate, and
alienation all over the Churches of Christendom.


BAPTISTE, JEAN, a name given to the French Canadians.


BAPTISTRY, a circular building, sometimes detached from a church, in
which the rite of baptism is administered; the most remarkable, that of
Pisa.


BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians, sometimes called Anabaptists
to distinguish them from Paedobaptists, who, however they may and do
differ on other matters, insist that the rite of initiation is duly
administered only by immersion, and to those who are of age to make an
intelligent profession of faith; they are a numerous body, particularly
in America, and more so in England than in Scotland, and have included in
their membership a number of eminent men.


BAPTISMAL REGENERATION, the High Church doctrine that the power of
spiritual life, forfeited by the Fall, is bestowed on the soul in the
sacrament of baptism duly administered.


BARAGUAY D'HILLIERS`, ACHILLE, a French marshal who fought under
Napoleon at Quatre-Bras; distinguished himself under Louis Philippe in
Algeria, as well as under Louis Napoleon; presided at the trial of
Marshal Bazaine (1795-1878).


BARATARIA, the imaginary island of which Sancho Panza was formally
installed governor, and where in most comical situations he learned how
imaginary is the authority of a king, how, instead of governing his
subjects, his subjects govern him.


BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, a fortification to a castle outside the
walls, generally at the end of the drawbridge in front of the gate.


BARBA`DOES (182), one of the Windward Islands, rather larger than
the Isle of Wight; almost encircled by coral reefs; is the most densely
peopled of the Windward Islands; subject to hurricanes; healthy and well
cultivated; it yields sugar, arrowroot, ginger, and aloes.


BARBARA, ST., a Christian martyr of the 3rd century; beheaded by her
own father, a fanatical heathen, who was immediately after the act struck
dead by lightning; she is the patron saint of those who might otherwise
die impenitent, and of Mantua; her attributes are a tower, a sword, and a
crown. Festival, Dec. 4.


BARBARIANS, originally those who could not speak Greek, and
ultimately synonymous with the uncivilised and people without culture,
particularly literary; this is the sense in which Matthew Arnold uses it.


BARBAROSSA, the surname of Frederick I., emperor of Germany, of whom
there is this tradition, that "he is not yet dead; but only sleeping,
till the bad world reach its worst, when he will reappear. He sits within
a cavern near Saltzburg, at a marble table, leaning on his elbow;
winking, only half-asleep, as a peasant once tumbling into the interior
saw him; beard had grown through the table, and streamed out on the
floor. He looked at the peasant one moment, asked something about the
time it was; then drooped his eyelids again: 'Not yet time, but will be
soon.'"


BARBAROSSA (i. e. Red-beard), HORUK, a native of Mitylene;
turned corsair; became sovereign of Algiers by the murder of Selim the
emir, who had adopted him as an ally against Spain; was defeated twice by
the Spanish general Gomarez and slain (1473-1518).


BARBAROSSA, KHAIR-EDDIN, brother and successor of the preceding;
became viceroy of the Porte, made admiral under the sultan, opposed
Andrea Doria, ravaged the coast of Italy, and joined the French against
Spain; died at Constantinople in 1546.


BARBAROUX, CHARLES, advocate, born at Marseilles, of which he became
town-clerk; came to Paris "a young Spartan," and became chief of the
Girondins in the French Revolution; represented Marseilles in the
Constituent Assembly and the Convention; joined the Rolands; sent
"fire-eyed" message to Marseilles for six hundred men "who knew how to
die"; held out against Marat and Robespierre; declared an enemy of the
people, had to flee; mistook a company approaching for Jacobins, drew his
pistol and shot himself, but the shot miscarried; was captured and
guillotined (1767-1794).


BARBARY APE, a tailless monkey of gregarious habits, native of the
mountainous parts of Barbary, and of which there is a colony on the Rock
of Gibraltar, the only one in Europe.


BARBARY STATES, the four states of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and
Tripoli, so called from the Berbers who inhabit the region.


BARBAULD, ANNA LAETITIA, _nee_ Aiken, an English popular and
accomplished authoress, wrote "Hymns in Prose for Children," "Evenings at
Home," in which she was assisted by a brother, &c. (1743-1825).


BARBAZAN, a French general under Charles VI. and VII., who
deservedly earned for himself the name of the Irreproachable Knight; _d_.
1432.


BAR`BECUE, a feast in the open air on a large scale, at which the
animals are roasted and dressed whole, formerly common in the SW. States
of N. America.


BARBERI`NI, an illustrious and influential Florentine family,
several of the members of which were cardinals, and one made pope in 1623
under the name Urban VIII.


BARBERTON, a mining town and important centre in the Transvaal, 180
m. E. of Pretoria.


BARBES, ARMAND, a French politician, surnamed the Bayard of
Democracy; imprisoned in 1848, liberated in 1854; expatriated himself
voluntarily; died at the Hague (1809-1870).


BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEX., a French bibliographer, author of a
"Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works" (1765-1825).


BARBIER, ED. FR., jurisconsult of the parliament, born in Paris;
author of a journal, historical and anecdotical, of the time of Louis XV.
(1689-1771).


BARBIER, HENRY, a French satirical poet, born in Paris; wrote
vigorous political verses; author of "Iambics" (1805-1882).


BARBOUR, JOHN, a Scotch poet and chronicler, archdeacon of Aberdeen,
a man of learning and sagacity; his only extant work a poem entitled "The
Bruce," being a long history in rhyme of the life and achievements of
Robert the Bruce, a work consisting of 13,000 octosyllabic lines, and
possessing both historical and literary merit; "represents," says
Stopford Brooke, "the whole of the eager struggle for Scottish freedom
against the English, which closed at Bannockburn, and the national spirit
in it full grown into life;" _d_. 1195.


BARCA (500), a Turkish province in the N. of Africa, between Tripoli
and Egypt; produces maize, figs, dates, and olives.


BARCA, name of a Carthaginian family to which Hamilcar, Hasdrubal,
and Hannibal belonged, and determinedly opposed to the ascendency of
Rome; known as the Barcine faction.


BARCELO`NA (280), the largest town in Spain next to Madrid, on the
Mediterranean, and its chief port, with a naval arsenal, and its largest
manufacturing town, called the "Spanish Manchester," the staple
manufacture being cotton; is the seat of a bishopric and a university;
has numerous churches, convents, and theatres.


BARCLAY, ALEX., a poet and prose-writer, of Scotch birth; bred a
monk in England, which he ceased to be on the dissolution of the
monasteries; wrote "The Ship of Fools," partly a translation and partly
an imitation of the German "Narrerschiff" of Brandt. "It has no value,"
says Stopford Brooke; "but it was popular because it attacked the follies
and questions of the time; and its sole interest to us is in its pictures
of familiar manners and popular customs" (1475-1552).


BARCLAY, JOHN, born in France, educated by the Jesuits, a stanch
Catholic; wrote the "Argenis," a Latin romance, much thought of by
Cowper, translated more than once into English (1582-1621).


BARCLAY, JOHN, leader of the sect of the Bereans (1734-1798).


BARCLAY, ROBERT, the celebrated apologist of Quakerism, born in
Morayshire; tempted hard to become a Catholic; joined the Society of
Friends, as his father had done before him; his greatest work, written in
Latin as well as in English, and dedicated to Charles II., "An Apology
for the True Christian Divinity, as the same is held forth and preached
by the People called in scorn Quakers," a great work, the leading thesis
of which is that Divine Truth is not matter of reasoning, but intuition,
and patent to the understanding of every truth-loving soul (1645-1690).


BARCLAY, WILLIAM, father of John (1), an eminent citizen and
professor of Law at Angers; _d_. 1605. All these Barclays were of
Scottish descent.


BARCLAY DE TOLLY, a Russian general and field-marshal, of Scottish
descent, and of the same family as Robert Barclay the Quaker;
distinguished in successive Russian wars; his promotion rapid, in spite
of his unpopularity as German born; on Napoleon's invasion of Russia his
tactic was to retreat till forced to fight at Smolensk; he was defeated,
and superseded in command by Kutusow; on the latter's death was made
commander-in-chief; commanded the Russians at Dresden and Leipzig, and
led them into France in 1815; he was afterwards Minister of War at St.
Petersburg, and elevated to the rank of prince (1761-1818).


BARD OF AVON, Shakespeare; OF AYRSHIRE, Burns; OF HOPE,
Campbell; OF IMAGINATION, Akenside; OF MEMORY, Rogers; OF
OLNEY, Cowper; OF RYDAL MOUNT, Wordsworth; OF TWICKENHAM,
Pope.


BARDELL`, MRS., a widow in the "Pickwick Papers," who sues Pickwick
for breach of promise.


BARDOLPH, a drunken, swaggering, worthless follower of Falstaff's.


BARDON HILL, a hill in Leicestershire, from which one can see right
across England.


BAR-DURANI, the collective name of a number of Afghan tribes between
the Hindu-Kush and the Soliman Mountains.


BAREBONE'S PARLIAMENT, Cromwell's Little Parliament, met 4th July
1653; derisively called Barebone's Parliament, from one Praise-God
Barebone, a member of it. "If not the remarkablest Assembly, yet the
Assembly for the remarkablest purpose," says Carlyle, "that ever met in
the modern world; the business being no less than introducing of the
Christian religion into real practice in the social affairs of this
nation.... In this it failed, could not but fail, with what we call the
Devil and all his angels against it, and the Little Parliament had to go
its ways again," 12th December in the same year.


BAREGES, a village on the Hautes-Pyrenees, at 4000 ft. above the
sea-level, resorted to for its mineral waters.


BAREILLY (121), a city in NW. India, the chief town in Rohilkhand,
153 m. E. of Delhi, notable as the place where the Mutiny of 1858 first
broke out.


BARENTZ, an Arctic explorer, born in Friesland; discovered
Spitzbergen, and doubled the NE. extremity of Nova Zembla, in 1596, and
died the same year.


BARERE, French revolutionary, a member of the States-General, the
National Assembly of France, and the Convention; voted in the Convention
for the execution of the king, uttering the oft-quoted words, "The tree
of Liberty thrives only when watered by the blood of tyrants;" escaped
the fate of his associates; became a spy under Napoleon; was called by
Burke, from his flowery oratory, the Anacreon of the Guillotine, and by
Mercier, "the greatest liar in France;" he was inventor of the famous
fable "his masterpiece," of the "Sinking of the _Vengeur_," "the largest,
most inspiring piece of _blaque_ manufactured, for some centuries, by any
man or nation;" died in beggary (1755-1841). See VENGEUR.


BARETTI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian lexicographer, born in Turin; taught
Italian in London, patronised by Johnson, became secretary of the Royal
Academy (1719-1789).


BARFLEUR, a seaport 15 m. E. of Cherbourg, where William the
Conqueror set out with his fleet to invade England.


BARFRUeSH (603), a town S. of the Caspian, famous for its bazaar.


BAR`GUEST, a goblin long an object of terror in the N. of England.


BARI, THE, a small negro nation on the banks of the White Nile.


BARING, SIR FRANCIS, founder of the great banking firm of Baring
Brothers & Co.; amassed property, value of it said to have been nearly
seven millions (1740-1810).


BARING-GOULD, SABINE, rector of Lew-Trenchard, Devonshire,
celebrated in various departments of literature, history, theology, and
romance, especially the latter; a voluminous writer on all manner of
subjects, and a man of wide reading; _b_. 1834.


BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS, his literary name Thomas Ingoldsby, born at
Canterbury, minor canon of St. Paul's; friend of Sidney Smith; author of
"Ingoldsby Legends," published originally as a series of papers in
_Bentley's Miscellany_ (1788-1879).


BARKIS, a carrier-lad in "David Copperfield," in love with Peggotty.
"Barkis is willin'."


BARKER, E. HENRY, a classical scholar, born in Yorkshire; edited
Stephens' "Thesaurus Linguae Graecae," an arduous work; died in poverty
(1788-1839).


BARKING, a market-town in Essex, 7 m. NE. of London, with the
remains of an ancient Benedictine convent.


BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT, a mediaeval legend, being a Christianised
version of an earlier legend relating to Buddha, in which Josaphat, a
prince like Buddha, is converted by Barlaam to a like ascetic life.


BARLEYCORN, JOHN, the exhilarating spirit distilled from barley
personified.


BARLOW, JOEL, an American poet and diplomatist; for his Republican
zeal, was in 1792 accorded the rights of citizenship in France; wrote a
poem "The Vision of Columbus" (1755-1812).


BARLOWE, a French watchmaker, inventor of the repeating watch; _d_.
1690.


BARMACIDE FEAST, an imaginary feast, so called from a story in the
"Arabian Nights" of a hungry beggar invited by a Barmacide prince to a
banquet, which proved a long succession of merely empty dishes, and which
he enjoyed with such seeming gusto and such good-humour as to earn for
himself a sumptuous real one.


BAR`MACIDES, a Persian family celebrated for their magnificence, and
that in the end met with the cruellest fate. Yahya, one of them, eminent
for ability and virtue, was chosen by the world-famous Haroun-Al-Raschid
on his accession to the caliphate to be his vizier; and his four sons
rose along with him to such influence in the government, as to excite the
jealousy of the caliph so much, that he had the whole family invited to a
banquet, and every man, woman, and child of them massacred at midnight in
cold blood. The caliph, it is gratifying to learn, never forgave himself
for this cruelty, and was visited with a gnawing remorse to the end of
his days; and it had fatal issues to his kingdom as well as himself.


BAR`MEN (116), a long town, consisting of a series of hamlets, 6 m.
in extent, in Rhenish Prussia; the population consists chiefly of
Protestants; the staple industry, the manufacture of ribbons, and it is
the centre of that industry on the Continent.


BARNABAS, ST., a member of the first Christian brotherhood, a
companion of St. Paul's, and characterised in the Acts as "a good man";
stoned to death at Cyprus, where he was born; an epistle extant bears his
name, but is not believed to be his work; the Epistle to the Hebrews has
by some been ascribed to him; he is usually represented in art as a
venerable man of majestic mien, with the Gospel of St. Matthew in his
hand. Festival, June 11.


BARNABITES, a proselytising order of monks founded at Milan, where
Barnabas was reported to have been bishop, in 1530; bound, as the rest
are, by the three monastic vows, and by a vow in addition, not to sue for
preferment in the Church.


BARNABY RUDGE, one of Dickens' novels, published in 1841.


BARNARD, HENRY, American educationist, born in Connecticut, 1811.


BARNARD, LADY ANNE, daughter of Lindsay, the 5th Earl of Balcarres,
born in Fife; authoress of "Auld Robin Gray," named after a Balcarres
herd; lived several years at the Cape, where her husband held an
appointment, and after his death, in London (1750-1825).


BARNARD CASTLE, an old tower W. of Darlington, in Durham; birthplace
of John Baliol, and the scene of Scott's "Rokeby."


BAR`NARDINE, a reckless character in "Measure for Measure."


BARNAVE, JOSEPH MARIE, French lawyer, born at Grenoble; president of
the French Constitutional Assembly in 1780; one of the trio in the
Assembly of whom it was said, "Whatsoever those three have on hand,
Dupont thinks it, Barnave speaks it, Lameth does it;" a defender of the
monarchy from the day he gained the favour of the queen by his gallant
conduct to her on her way back to Paris from her flight with the king to
Varennes; convicted by documentary evidence of conspiring with the court
against the nation; was guillotined (1761-1793).


BARN-BURNERS, name formerly given to an extreme radical party in the
United States, as imitating the Dutchman who, to get rid of the rats,
burned his barns.


BARNES, THOMAS, editor of the _Times_, under whom the paper first
rose to the pre-eminent place it came to occupy among the journals of the
day (1786-1841).


BARNES, WILLIAM, a local philologist, native of Dorsetshire; author
of "Poems of Rural Life in Dorset," in three vols.; wrote on subjects of
philological interest (1830-1886).


BARNET (5), a town in Hertfordshire, almost a suburb of London; a
favourite resort of Londoners; has a large annual horse and cattle fair;
scene of a battle in 1471, at which Warwick, the king-maker, was slain.


BARNETT, JOHN, composer, born at Bedford; author of operas and a
number of fugitive pieces (1802-1891).


BARNEVELDT, JOHANN VAN OLDEN, Grand Pensionary of Holland, of a
distinguished family; studied law at the Hague, and practised as an
advocate there; fought for the independence of his country against Spain;
concluded a truce with Spain, in spite of the Stadtholder Maurice, whose
ambition for supreme power he courageously opposed; being an Arminian,
took sides against the Gomarist or Calvinist party, to which Maurice
belonged; was arrested, tried, and condemned to death as a traitor and
heretic, and died on the scaffold at 71 years of age, with sanction, too,
of the Synod of Dort, in 1619.


BARNSLEY (35), a manufacturing town in W. Yorkshire, 18 m. N. of
Sheffield; manufactures textile fabrics and glass.


BARNUM, an American showman; began with the exhibition of George
Washington's reputed nurse in 1834; picked up Tom Thumb in 1844; engaged
Jenny Lind for 100 concerts in 1849, and realised a fortune, which he
lost; started in 1871 with his huge travelling show, and realised another
fortune, dying worth five million dollars (1810-1891).


BAROCCI, a celebrated Italian painter, imitator of the style of
Correggio (1528-1612).


BAROCHE, PIERRE-JULES, a French statesman, minister of Napoleon III.
(1802-1870).


BARO`DA (2,415), a native state of Gujerat, in the prov. of Bombay,
with a capital (101) of the same name, the sovereign of which is called
the Guicowar; the third city in the presidency, with Hindu temples and a
considerable trade.


BARO`NIUS, CAESAR, a great Catholic ecclesiastic, born near Naples,
priest of the Congregation of the Oratory under its founder, and
ultimately Superior; cardinal and librarian of the Vatican; his great
work, "Annales Ecclesiastici," being a history of the first 12 centuries
of the Church, written to prove that the Church of Rome was identical
with the Church of the 1st century, a work of immense research that
occupied him 30 years; failed of the popehood from the intrigues of the
Spaniards, whose political schemes he had frustrated (1538-1607).


BARONS' WAR, a war in England of the barons against Henry III.,
headed by Simon de Montfort, and which lasted from 1258 to 1265.


BAROQUE, ornamentation of a florid and incongruous character, more
lavish and showy rather than true and tasteful; much in vogue from the
16th to the 18th centuries.


BARRA, a small island, one of the Hebrides, 5 m. SW. of S. Uist, the
inhabitants of which are engaged in fisheries.


BAR`RACKPUR (18), a town on the Hooghly, 15 m. above Calcutta, where
the lieutenant-governor of Bengal has a residence; a healthy resort of
the Europeans.


BARRACK-ROOM BALLADS, ballads by Rudyard Kipling, with a fine
martial strain.


BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS, a member of the Jacobin Club, born in
Provence; "a man of heat and haste,... tall, and handsome to the eye;"
voted in the National Convention for the execution of the king; took part
in the siege of Toulon; put an end to the career of Robespierre and the
Reign of Terror; named general-in-chief to oppose the reactionaries;
employed Bonaparte to command the artillery, "he the commandant's cloak,
this artillery officer the commandant;" was a member of the Directory
till Bonaparte swept it away (1755-1829).


BAR`RATRY, the offence of inciting and stirring up riots and
quarrels among the Queen's subjects, also a fraud by a ship captain on
the owners of a ship.


BARRE, ISAAC, soldier and statesman, born in Dublin, served under
Wolfe in Canada, entered Parliament, supported Pitt, charged with
authorship of "Junius' Letters"; _d_. 1802.


BARREL MIRABEAU, Viscount de Mirabeau, brother of the great tribune
of the name, so called from his bulk and the liquor he held.


BARRERE. See BARERE.


BARRETT, WILSON, English actor, born in Essex; made his _debut_ at
Halifax; lessee of the Grand Theatre, Leeds, and of the Court and the
Princess's Theatres, London; produced his Hamlet in 1884; _b_. 1846.


BARRIE, JAMES MATTHEW, a writer with a rich vein of humour and
pathos, born at Kirriemuir ("Thrums"), in Forfarshire; began his literary
career as a contributor to journals; produced, among other works, "Auld
Licht Idylls" in 1888, and "A Window in Thrums," in 1889, and recently
"Margaret Ogilvie," deemed by some likely to prove the most enduring
thing he has yet written; _b_. 1860.


BARRIER REEF, THE GREAT, a slightly interrupted succession of coral
reefs off the coast of Queensland, of 1200 m. extent, and 100 m. wide at
the S., and growing narrower as they go N.; are from 70 to 20 m. off the
coast, and protect the intermediate channel from the storms of the
Pacific.


BARRIERE, JEAN FRANCOIS, French historian of the Revolution
(1786-1868).


BARRIERE, PIERRE, would-be assassin of Henry IV. of France; broken
on the wheel in 1593.


BARRIERS, BATTLE OF THE, a battle fought within the walls of Paris
in 1814 between Napoleon and the Allies, which ended in the capitulation
of the city and the abdication of Napoleon.


BARRINGTON, JOHN SHUTE, 1st Viscount, gained the favour of the
Nonconformists by his "Rights of Dissenters," and an Irish peerage from
George I. for his "Dissuasive from Jacobitism"; left six sons, all more
or less distinguished, particularly Daines, the fourth, distinguished in
law (1727-1800), and Samuel, the fifth, 1st Lord of the name,
distinguished in the naval service, assisted under Lord Howe at the
relief of Gibraltar, and became an admiral in 1787 (1678-1764).


BARROS, JOAO DE, a distinguished Portuguese historian; his great
work. "Asia Portugueza," relates, in a pure and simple style, the
discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the Indies; he did not
live to complete it (1493-1570).


BARROT, ODILON, famous as an advocate, born at Villefort;
contributed to the Revolutions of both 1830 and 1848; accepted office
under Louis Napoleon; retired after the _coup d'etat_, to return to
office in 1872 (1791-1873).


BARROW, a river in Ireland rising in the Slievebloom Mts.; falls
into Waterford harbour, after a course of 114 m.


BARROW, ISAAC, English scholar, mathematician, and divine, born in
London; a graduate of Cambridge, and fellow of Trinity College; appointed
professor of Greek at Cambridge, and soon after Gresham professor of
Geometry; subsequently Lucasian professor of Mathematics (in which he had
Newton for successor), and master of Trinity, and founder of the library;
a man of great intellectual ability and force of character; besides
mathematical works, left a "Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy," and a body
of sermons remarkable for their vigour of thought and nervousness of
expression (1630-1677).


BARROW, SIR JOHN, secretary to the Admiralty for 40 years, and much
esteemed in that department, distinguished also as a man of letters;
wrote the Lives of Macartney, Anson, Howe, and Peter the Great
(1764-1848).


BARROW-IN-FURNESS (51), a town and seaport in N. Lancashire, of
recent rapid growth, owing to the discovery of extensive deposits of iron
in the neighbourhood, which has led to the establishment of smelting
works and the largest manufacture of steel in the kingdom; the principal
landowners in the district being the Dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch.


BARRY, JAMES, painter, born in Cork; painted the "Death of General
Wolfe"; became professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, but was
deposed; died in poverty; his masterpiece is the "Victors at Olympia"
(1741-1806).


BARRY, SIR CHARLES, architect, born at Westminster; architect of the
new Palace of Westminster, besides other public buildings (1795-1860).


BARRY CORNWALL. See PROCTER.


BART, or BARTH, JEAN, a distinguished French seaman, born at
Dunkirk, son of a fisherman, served under De Ruyter, entered the French
service at 20, purchased a ship of two guns, was subsidised as a
privateer, made numerous prizes; having had other ships placed under his
command, was captured by the English, but escaped; defeated the Dutch
admiral, De Vries; captured his squadron laden with corn, for which he
was ennobled by Louis XIV.; he was one of the bravest of men and the most
independent, unhampered by red-tapism of every kind (1651-1702).


BARTH, HEINRICH, a great African explorer, born at Hamburg; author
of "Travels in the East and Discoveries in Central Africa," in five
volumes (1821-1865).


BARTHELEMY, AUGUSTE-MARSEILLE, a poet and politician, born at
Marseilles; author of "Nemesis," and the best French translation of the
"AEneid," in verse; an enemy of the Bourbons, an ardent Imperialist, and
warm supporter of Louis Napoleon (1796-1867).


BARTHELEMY, THE ABBE, JEAN JACQUES, a French historian and
antiquary, born at Cassis, in Provence; educated by the Jesuits; had
great skill in numismatics; wrote several archaeological works, in chief,
"Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece;" long treated as an authority in
the history, manners, and customs of Greece (1716-1795).


BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, JULES, a French baron and politician, born
at Paris; an associate of Odilon Barrot in the Revolutions of 1830 and
1848, and subsequently a zealous supporter of M. Thiers; for a time
professor of Greek and Roman Philosophy in the College of France; an
Oriental as well as Greek scholar; translated the works of Aristotle,
his greatest achievement, and the "Iliad" into verse, as well as wrote on
the Vedas, Buddhism, and Mahomet; _b_. 1805.


BARTHEZ, PAUL JOSEPH, a celebrated physician, physiologist, and
Encyclopaedist, born at Montpellier, where he founded a medical school;
suffered greatly during the Revolution; was much esteemed and honoured by
Napoleon; is celebrated among physiologists as the advocate of what he
called the Vital Principle as a physiological force in the functions of
the human organism; his work "Nouveaux Elements de la Science de l'Homme"
has been translated into all the languages of Europe (1734-1806).


BARTHOLDI, a French sculptor, born at Colmar; his principal works,
"Lion le Belfort," and "Liberte eclairant le Monde," the largest bronze
statue in the world, being 150 ft. high, erected at the entrance of New
York harbour; _b_. 1834.


BARTHOLOMEW, ST., an apostle of Christ, and martyr; represented in
art with a knife in one hand and his skin in the other; sometimes been
painted as being flayed alive, also as headless. Festival, Aug. 24.


BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, an annual market held at Smithfield, London, and
instituted in 1133 by Henry I., to be kept on the saint's day, but
abolished in 1853, when it ceased to be a market and became an occasion
for mere dissipation and riot.


BARTHOLOMEW HOSPITAL, an hospital in Smithfield, London, founded in
1123; has a medical school attached to it, with which the names of a
number of eminent physicians are associated.


BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, ST., 24th August, day in 1572 memorable for the
wholesale massacre of the Protestants in France at the instance of
Catharine de Medici, then regent of the kingdom for her son, Charles IX.,
an event, cruelly gloried in by the Pope and the Spanish Court, which
kindled a fire in the nation that was not quenched, although it
extinguished Protestantism proper in France, till Charles was coerced to
grant liberty of conscience throughout the realm.


BARTIZAN, an overhanging wall-mounted turret projecting from the
walls of ancient fortifications.


BARTLETT, JOHN H., an American ethnologist and philologist, born at
Rhode Island, U.S.; author of "Dictionary of Americanisms," among other
works particularly on ethnology (1805-1886).


BARTOLI, DANIELE, a learned Italian Jesuit, born at Ferrara
(1635-1685).


BARTOLI, PIETRO, Italian engraver, engraved a great number of
ancient works of art (1635-1700).


BARTOLINI, LORENZO, a Florentine sculptor, patronised by Napoleon;
produced a great number of busts (1777-1850).


BARTOLOMME`O, FRA, a celebrated Florentine painter of sacred
subjects, born at Florence; an adherent of Savonarola, friend of Raphael;
"St. Mark" and "St. Sebastian" among his best productions (1469-1517).


BARTOLOZ`ZI, FRANCESCO, an eminent engraver, born at Florence;
wrought at his art both in England and in Portugal, where he died; his
chief works, "Clytie," after Annibale Caracci, the "Prometheus," after
Michael Angelo, and "Virgin and Child," after Carlo Dolci; he was the
father of Madame Vestris (1725-1815).


BARTON, BERNARD, the "Quaker poet," born in London; a clerk nearly
all his days in a bank; his poems, mostly on homely subjects, but
instinct with poetic feeling and fancy, gained him the friendship of
Southey and Charles Lamb, as well as more substantial patronage in the
shape of a government pension (1784-1849).


BARTON, ELIZABETH, "the Maid of Kent," a poor country servant-girl,
born in Kent, subject from nervous debility to trances, in which she gave
utterances ascribed by Archbishop Warham to divine inspiration, till her
communications were taken advantage of by designing people, and she was
led by them to pronounce sentence against the divorce of Catharine of
Aragon, which involved her and her abettors in a charge of treason, for
which they were all executed at Tyburn (1506-1534).


BARUCH, (1) the friend of the prophet Jeremiah, and his scribe, who
was cast with him into prison, and accompanied him into Egypt; (2) a book
in the Apocrypha, instinct with the spirit of Hebrew prophecy, ascribed
to him; (3) also a book entitled the Apocalypse of Baruch, affecting to
predict the fall of Jerusalem, but obviously written after the event.


BARYE, a French sculptor, distinguished for his groups of statues of
wild animals (1795-1875).


BASAITI, a Venetian painter of the 15th and 16th centuries, a rival
of Bellini; his best works, "Christ in the Garden" and the "Calling of
St. Peter and St. Andrew."


BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNARD, a zealous educational reformer, born at
Hamburg; his method modelled according to the principles of Rousseau;
established a normal school on this method at Dessau, which, however,
failed from his irritability of temper, which led to a rupture with his
colleagues (1723-1790).


BASEL (74), in the NW. of Switzerland, on the Rhine, just before it
enters Germany; has a cathedral, university, library, and museum; was a
centre of influence in Reformation times, and the home for several years
of Erasmus; it is now a great money market, and has manufactures of silks
and chemicals; the people are Protestant and German-speaking.


BASEL, COUNCIL OF, met in 1431, and laboured for 12 years to effect
the reformation of the Church from within. It effected some compromise
with the Hussites, but was hampered at every step by the opposition of
Pope Eugenius IV. Asserting the authority of a general council over the
Pope himself, it cited him on two occasions to appear at its bar, on his
refusal declared him contumacious, and ultimately endeavoured to suspend
him. Failing to effect its purpose, owing to the secession of his
supporters, it elected a rival pope, Felix V., who was, however, but
scantily recognised. The Emperor Frederick III. supported Eugenius, and
the council gradually melted away. At length, in 1449, the pope died,
Felix resigned, and Nicholas V. was recognised by the whole Church. The
decrees of the council were directed against the immorality of the
clergy, the indecorousness of certain festivals, the papal prerogatives
and exactions, and dealt with the election of popes and the procedure of
the College of Cardinals. They were all confirmed by Nicholas V., but are
not recognised by modern Roman canonists.


BA`SHAN, a fertile and pastoral district in NE. Palestine of
considerable extent, and at one time densely peopled; the men of it were
remarkable for their stature.


BASHAHR, a native hill state in the Punjab, traversed by the Sutlej;
tributary to the British Government.


BASHI-BAZOUKS`, irregular, undisciplined troops in the pay of the
Sultan; rendered themselves odious by their brutality in the Bulgarian
atrocities of 1876, as well as, more or less, in the time of the Crimean
war.


BASHKIRS, originally a Finnish nomad race (and still so to some
extent) of E. Russia, professing Mohammedanism; they number some 500,000.


BASHKIRTSEFF, MARIE, a precocious Russian young lady of good family,
but of delicate constitution, who travelled a good deal with her mother,
noted her impressions, and left a journal of her life, which created,
when published after her death, an immense sensation from the confessions
it contains (1860-1884).


BASIL, ST., THE GREAT, bishop of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, his
birthplace; studied at Athens; had Julian the Apostate for a
fellow-student; the lifelong friend of Gregory Nazianzen; founded a
monastic body, whose rules are followed by different monastic
communities; a conspicuous opponent of the Arian heresy, and defender of
the Nicene Creed; tried in vain to unite the Churches of the East and
West; is represented in Christian art in Greek pontificals, bareheaded,
and with an emaciated appearance (326-380). There were several Basils of
eminence in the history of the Church: Basil, bishop of Ancyra, who
flourished in the 4th century; Basil, the mystic, and Basil, the friend
of St. Ambrose.


BASIL I., the Macedonian, emperor of the East; though he had raised
himself to the throne by a succession of crimes, governed wisely;
compiled, along with his son Leo, surnamed the Philosopher, a code of
laws that were in force till the fall of the empire; fought successfully
against the Saracens; _d_. 886.


BASILICA, the code of laws, in 60 books, compiled by Basil I., and
Leo, his son and successor, first published in 887, and named after the
former.


BASILICA, a spacious hall, twice as long as broad, for public
business and the administration of justice, originally open to the sky,
but eventually covered in, and with the judge's bench at the end opposite
the entrance, in a circular apse added to it. They were first erected by
the Romans, 180 B.C.; afterwards, on the adoption of Christianity, they
were converted into churches, the altar being in the apse.


BASILICON DORON (i. e. Royal Gift), a work written by James I. in
1599, before the union of the crowns, for the instruction of his son,
Prince Henry, containing a defence of the royal prerogative.


BASILI`DES, a Gnostic of Alexandria, flourished at the commencement
of the 2nd century; appears to have taught the Oriental theory of
emanations, to have construed the universe as made up of a series of
worlds, some 365 it is alleged, each a degree lower than the preceding,
till we come to our own world, the lowest and farthest off from the
parent source of the series, of which the God of the Jews was the ruler,
and to have regarded Jesus as sent into it direct from the parent source
to redeem it from the materialism to which the God of the Jews, as
Creator and Lord of the material universe, had subjected it; which
teaching a sect called after his name accepted and propagated in both the
East and the West for more than two centuries afterwards.


BAS`ILISK, an animal fabled to have been hatched by a toad from the
egg of an old cock, before whose breath every living thing withered and
died, and the glance of whose eye so bewitched one to his ruin that the
bravest could confront and overcome it only by looking at the reflection
of it in a mirror, as PERSEUS (q. v.) was advised to do, and
did, when he cut off the head of the Medusa; seeing itself in a mirror,
it burst, it as said, at the sight.


BASKERVILLE, JOHN, a printer and typefounder, originally a
writing-master in Birmingham; native of Sion Hill, Worcestershire;
produced editions of classical works prized for their pre-eminent beauty
by connoisseurs in the art of the printer, and all the more for their
rarity (1706-1756).


BASNAGES, JACQUES, a celebrated Protestant divine, born at Rouen;
distinguished as a linguist and man of affairs; wrote a "History of the
Reformed Churches" and on "Jewish Antiquities" (1653-1723).


BASOCHE, a corporation of lawyers' clerks in Paris. See
BAZOCHE.


BASQUE PROVINCES, a fertile and mineral district in N. of Spain,
embracing the three provinces of Biscaya, Guipuzcoa, and Alava, of which
the chief towns are respectively Bilbao, St. Sebastian, and Vittoria; the
natives differ considerably from the rest of the Spaniards in race,
language, and customs. See BASQUES.


BASQUE ROADS, an anchorage between the Isle of Oleron and the
mainland; famous for a naval victory gained in 1809 over a French fleet
under Vice-Admiral Allemand.


BASQUES, a people of the Western Pyrenees, partly in France and
partly in Spain; distinguished from their neighbours only by their
speech, which is non-Aryan; a superstitious people, conservative,
irascible, ardent, proud, serious in their religious convictions, and
pure in their moral conduct.


BAS-RELIEF (i. e. low relief) a term applied to figures very
slightly projected from the ground.


BASS ROCK, a steep basaltic rock at the mouth of the Firth of Forth,
350 ft. high, tenanted by solan geese; once used as a prison, specially
in Covenanting times.


BASS STRAIT, strait between Australia and Tasmania, about 150 m.
broad.


BASSANIO, the lover of Portia in the "Merchant of Venice."


BASSANO, a town in Italy, on the Brenta, 30 m. NW. of Padua;
printing the chief industry.


BASSANO, DUC DE, an intriguing French diplomatist in the interest of
Bonaparte, and his steadfast auxiliary to the last (1763-1839).


BASSANO, JACOPO DA PONTE, an eminent Italian painter, chiefly of
country scenes, though the "Nativity" at his native town, Bassano, shows
his ability in the treatment of higher themes (1510-1592).


BASSOMPIERRE, FRANCOIS DE, a marshal of France, born in Lorraine;
entered military life under Henry IV., was a gallant soldier, and one of
the most brilliant wits of his time; took part in the siege of Rochelle;
incurred the displeasure of Richelieu; was imprisoned by his order twelve
years in the Bastille; wrote his Memoirs there; was liberated on the
death of Richelieu; his Memoirs contain a lively description of his
contemporaries, the manners of the time, his own intrigues, no less than
those of his friends and enemies (1579-1646).


BASSORAH (40), a port in Asiatic Turkey, on the Shatt-el-Arab; a
place of great commercial importance when Bagdad was the seat of the
caliphate; for a time sank into insignificance, but has of late revived.


BASTI`A (22), a town in NE. Corsica, the most commercial in the
island, and once the capital; was founded by the Genoese in 1383, and
taken by the French in 1553; exports wine, oil, fruits, &c.


BASTIAN, ADOLF, an eminent ethnologist, born at Bremen; travelled
over and surveyed, in the interest of his science, all quarters of the
globe, and recorded the fruits of his survey in his numerous works, no
fewer than thirty in number, beginning with "Der Mensch in der
Geschichte," in three vols.; conducts, along with Virchow and R. Hartman,
the _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_; _b_. 1826.


BASTIAN, DR. H. C., a physiologist, born at Truro; a materialist in
his theory of life; a zealous advocate of the doctrine of spontaneous
generation; _b_. 1837.


BASTIAT, FREDERIC, an eminent political economist, born at Bayonne;
a disciple of Cobden's; a great advocate of Free Trade; wrote on behalf
of it and against Protection, "Sophismes Economiques"; a zealous
Anti-Socialist, and wrote against Socialism (1801-1850).


BASTIDE, JULES, French Radical writer, born in Paris; took part in
the Revolution of 1848, and became Minister of Foreign Affairs
(1800-1879).


BASTILLE (lit. the Building), a State prison in Paris, built
originally as a fortress of defence to the city, by order of Charles V.,
between 1369 and 1382, but used as a place of imprisonment from the
first; a square structure, with towers and dungeons for the incarceration
of the prisoners, the whole surrounded by a moat, and accessible only by
drawbridges; "tyranny's stronghold"; attacked by a mob on 14th July 1789;
taken chiefly by noise; overturned, as "the city of Jericho, by
miraculous sound"; demolished, and the key of it sent to Washington; the
taking of it was the first event in the Revolution. See Carlyle's "French
Revolution" for the description of the fall of it.


BASUTOLAND (250), a fertile, healthy, grain-growing territory in S.
Africa, SE. of the Orange Free State, under protection of the British
crown, of the size of Belgium; yields large quantities of maize; the
natives keep large herds of cattle.


BASUTOS, a S. African race of the same stock as the Kaffirs, but
superior to them in intelligence and industry.


BATANGAS, a port in the island of Luzon, one of the Philippine
Islands, which has a considerable trade.


BATAVIA (105), the capital of Java, on the N. coast, and of the
Dutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago; the emporium, with a large
trade, of the Far East; with a very mixed population. Also the ancient
name of Holland; _insula Batavorum_ it was called--that is, island of the
Batavi, the name of the native tribes inhabiting it.


BATES, HENRY WALTER, a naturalist and traveller, born at Leicester;
friend of, and a fellow-labourer with, Alfred R. Wallace; author of "The
Naturalist on the Amazons"; an advocate of the Darwinian theory, and
author of contributions in defence of it (1825-1892).


BATH (54), the largest town in Somerset, on the Avon; a cathedral
city; a place of fashionable resort from the time of the Romans, on
account of its hot baths and mineral waters, of which there are six
springs; it was from 1704 to 1750 the scene of Beau Nash's triumphs; has
a number of educational and other institutions, and a fine public park.


BATH, MAJOR, a gentleman in Fielding's "Amelia," who stoops from his
dignity to the most menial duties when affection prompts him.


BATH, ORDER OF THE, an English order of knighthood, traceable to the
reign of Henry IV., consisting of three classes: the first, Knights Grand
Cross; the second, Knights Commanders, and the third, Knights Companions,
abbreviated respectively into G.C.B., K.C.B., and C.B.; initiation
into the order originally preceded by immersion in a bath, whence the
name, in token of the purity required of the members by the laws of
chivalry. It was originally a military order, and it is only since 1847
that civil Knights, Knights Commanders, and Companions have been admitted
as Knights. The first class, exclusive of royal personages and
foreigners, is limited to 102 military and 28 civil; the second, to 102
military and 50 civil; and the third, to 525 military and 200 civil. The
motto of the order is _Tria juncta in uno_ (Three united in one); and
Henry VI.'s chapel at Westminster is the chapel of the order, with the
plates of the Knights on their stalls, and their banners suspended over
them.


BATHGATE (5), largest town in Linlithgowshire; a mining centre; the
birthplace of Sir J. Simpson, who was the son of a baker in the place.


BATHILDA, ST., queen of France, wife of Clovis II., who governed
France during the minority of her sons, Clovis III., Childeric II., and
Thierry; died 680, in the monastery of Chelles.


BATH`ORI, ELIZABETH, a Polish princess, a woman of infamous memory,
caused some 650 young girls to be put to death, in order, by bathing in
their blood, to renew her beauty; immersed in a fortress for life on the
discovery of the crime, while her accomplices were burnt alive; _d_.
1614.


BATHOS, an anti-climax, being a sudden descent from the sublime to
the commonplace.


BATH`URST (8), the capital of British Gambia, at the mouth of the
river Gambia, in Western Africa; inhabited chiefly by negroes; exports
palm-oil, ivory, gold dust, &c.


BATHURST (10), the principal town on the western slopes of New South
Wales, second to Sydney, with gold mines in the neighbourhood, and in a
fertile wheat-growing district.


BATHURST, a district in Upper Canada, on the Ottawa, a thriving
place and an agricultural centre.


BATHYB`IUS, (i. e. living matter in the deep), substance of a
slimy nature found at great sea depth, over-hastily presumed to be
organic, proved by recent investigation to be inorganic, and of no avail
to the evolutionist.


BATLEY (28), a manufacturing town in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, 8
m. SW. of Leeds; a busy place.


BATN-EL-HAJAR, a stony tract in the Nubian Desert, near the third
cataract of the Nile.


BATON-ROUGE (10), a city on the E. bank of the Mississippi, 130 m.
above New Orleans, and capital of the state of Louisiana; originally a
French settlement.


BATON-SINISTER, a bend-sinister like a marshal's baton, an
indication of illegitimacy.


BATOUM` (10), a town in Transcaucasia, on the E. of the Black Sea; a
place of some antiquity; recently ceded by Turkey to Russia, but only as
a mere trading port; has an excellent harbour, and has improved under
Russian rule.


BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, a mock-heroic poem, "The Battle of the Frogs and
Mice," falsely ascribed to Homer.


BATTAS, a Malay race, native to Sumatra, now much reduced in
numbers, and driven into the interior.


BATTERSEA, a suburb of London, on the Surrey side of the Thames,
opposite Chelsea, and connected with it by a bridge; with a park 185
acres in extent; of plain and recent growth; till lately a quite rural
spot.


BATTHYA`NI, COUNT, an Hungarian patriot, who fought hard to see his
country reinstated in its ancient administrative independence, but failed
in his efforts; was arrested, tried for high treason by court-martial,
and sentenced to be shot, to the horror, at the time, of the civilised
world (1809-1849).


BATTLE, a market-town in Sussex, near Hastings, so called from the
battle of Senlac, in which William the Conqueror defeated Harold in 1066.


BATTLE OF THE SPURS, (_a_) an engagement at Courtrai in 1302 where the
burghers of the town beat the knighthood of France, and the spurs of 4000
knights were collected after the battle; (_b_) an engagement at
Guinegate, 1513, in which Henry VIII. made the French forces take to
their spurs; OF THE BARRIERS (see BARRIERS); OF THE BOOKS, a satire by
Swift on a literary controversy of the time; OF THE STANDARD, a battle in
1138, in which the English, with a high-mounted crucifix for a standard,
beat the Scots at Northallerton.


BATTUE, method of killing game after crowding them by cries and
beating them towards the sportsmen.


BAUCIS. See PHILEMON.


BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES, French poet of the romantic school, born in
Paris; distinguished among his contemporaries for his originality, and
his influence on others of his class; was a charming writer of prose as
well as verse, as his "Petits Poemes" in prose bear witness. Victor Hugo
once congratulated him on having "created a new shudder"; and as has been
said, "this side of his genius attracted most popular attention, which,
however, is but one side, and not really the most remarkable, of a
singular combination of morbid but delicate analysis and reproduction of
the remotest phases and moods of human thought and passion" (1821-1867).


BAUDRICOURT, a French courtier whom Joan of Arc pressed to conduct
her into the presence of Charles VII.


BAUDRY, PAUL, French painter, decorated the _foyer_ of the Grand
Opera in Paris; is best known as the author of the "Punishment of a
Vestal Virgin" and the "Assassination of Marat" (1828-1886).


BAUER, BRUNO, a daring Biblical critic, and violent polemic on political
as well as theological subjects; born at Saxe-Altenburg; regarded the
Christian religion as overlaid and obscured by accretions foreign to it;
denied the historical truth of the Gospels, and, like a true disciple of
Hegel, ascribed the troubles of the 19th century to the overmastering
influence of the "ENLIGHTENMENT" or the "AUFKLAeRUNG" (q. v.) that
characterised the 18th. His last work was entitled "Disraeli's Romantic
and Bismarck's Socialistic Imperialism" (1809-1882).


BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB, professor of Philosophy at
Frankfort-on-the-Oder; disciple of Wolf; born at Berlin; the founder of
AEsthetics as a department of philosophy, and inventor of the name
(1714-1762).


BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, a German theologian of the school of
Schleiermacher; professor of Theology at Jena; born at Merseburg; an
authority on the history of dogma, on which he wrote (1788-1843).


BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN, head of the Tuebingen school of
rationalist divines, born near Stuttgart; distinguished by his
scholarship and his labours in Biblical criticism and dogmatic theology;
his dogmatic treatises were on the Christian Gnosis, the Atonement, the
Trinity, and the Incarnation, while his Biblical were on certain epistles
of Paul and the canonical Gospels, which he regarded as the product of
the 2nd century; regarded Christianity of the Church as Judaic in its
origin, and Paul as distinctively the first apostle of pure Christianity
(1792-1861).


BAUSSET, cardinal, born at Pondicherry, who wrote the Lives of
Bossuet and Fenelon (1748-1824).


BAUTZEN, a town of Saxony, an old town on the Spree, where Napoleon
defeated the Prussians and Russians in 1813; manufactures cotton, linen,
wool, tobacco, paper, etc.


BAVARIA (5,590), next to Prussia the largest of the German States,
about the size of Scotland; is separated by mountain ranges from Bohemia
on the E. and the Tyrol on the S.; Wuertemburg lies on the W., Prussia,
Meiningen, and Saxony on the N. The country is a tableland crossed by
mountains and lies chiefly in the basin of the Danube. It is a busy
agricultural state: half the soil is tilled; the other half is under
grass, planted with vineyards and forests. Salt, coal, and iron are
widely distributed and wrought. The chief manufactures are of beer,
coarse linen, and woollen fabrics. There are universities at Muenich,
Wuerzburg, and Erlangen. Muenich, on the Isar, is the capital; Nueremberg,
where watches were invented, and Angsburg, a banking centre, the other
chief towns. Formerly a dukedom, the palatinate, on the banks of the
Rhine, was added to it in 1216. Napoleon I. raised the duke to the title
of king in 1805. Bavaria fought on the side of Austria in 1866, but
joined Prussia in 1870-71.


BAVIE`CA, the famous steed of the Cid, held sacred after the hero's
death.


BAVOU, ST., a soldier monk, the patron saint of Ghent.


BAXTER, RICHARD, an eminent Nonconformist divine, native of
Shropshire, at first a conformist, and parish minister of Kidderminster
for 19 years; sympathised with the Puritans, yet stopped short of going
the full length with them; acted as chaplain to one of their regiments,
and returned to Kidderminster; became, at the Restoration one of the
king's chaplains; driven out of the Church by the Act of Uniformity, was
thrown into prison at 70, let out, spent the rest of his days in peace;
his popular works, "The Saint's Everlasting Rest," and his "Call to the
Unconverted" (1615-1691).


BAY CITY (27), place of trade, and of importance as a great railway
centre in Michigan, U.S.; the third city in it.


BAYADERE, a dancing-girl in India, dressed in loose Eastern costume.


BAYARD, a horse of remarkable swiftness belonging to the four sons
of Aymon, and which they sometimes rode all at once; also a horse of
Amadis de Gaul.


BAYARD, CHEVALIER DE, an illustrious French knight, born in the
Chateau Bayard, near Grenoble; covered himself with glory in the wars of
Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I.; his bravery and generosity
commanded the admiration of his enemies, and procured for him the
thrice-honourable cognomen of "The Knight _sans peur et sans reproche_";
one of his most brilliant feats was his defence, single-handed, of the
bridge over the Garigliano, in the face of a large body of Spaniards; was
mortally wounded defending a pass at Abblategrasso; fell with his face to
the foe, who carried off his body, but restored it straightway afterwards
for due burial by his friends (1476-1524).


BAYEUX (7), an ancient Norman city in the dep. of Calvados, France;
manufactures lace, hosiery, &c.; is a bishop's seat; has a very old
Gothic cathedral.


BAYEUX TAPESTRY, representations in tapestry of events connected
with the Norman invasion of England, commencing with Harold's visit to
the Norman court, and ending with his death at the battle of Hastings;
still preserved in the public library of Bayeux; is so called because
originally found there; it is 214 ft. long by 20 in. wide, divided into
72 scenes, and contains a variety of figures. It is a question whose work
it was.


BAYLE, PIERRE, a native of Languedoc; first Protestant (as the son
of a Calvinist minister), then Catholic, then sceptic; Professor of
Philosophy at Padua, then at Rotterdam, and finally retired to the
Boompjes in the latter city; known chiefly as the author of the famous
_Dictionnaire Historique et Critique_, to the composition of which he
consecrated his energies with a zeal worthy of a religious devotee, and
which became the fountain-head of the sceptical philosophy that flooded
France on the eve of the Revolution; pronounced by a competent judge in
these matters, a mere "imbroglio of historical, philosophical, and
anti-theological marine stores" (1647-1700).


BAYLEN, a town in the province of Jaen, Spain, where General
Castanos defeated Dupont, and compelled him to sign a capitulation, in
1808.


BAYLEY, SIR JOHN, a learned English judge; author of a standard work
"On the Law of Bills of Exchange"; _d_. 1841.


BAYONNE (24), a fortified French town, trading and manufacturing, in
the dep. of Basses-Pyrenees, at the confluence of the Adour and Nive, 4
m. from the Bay of Biscay; noted for its strong citadel, constructed by
Vauban, and one of his _chef-d'oeuvres_, and its 12th-century cathedral
church; it belonged to the English from 1152 to 1451.


BAZAINE, FRANCOIS ACHILLE, a marshal of France, born at Versailles;
distinguished himself in Algiers, the Crimea, and Mexico; did good
service, as commander of the army of the Rhine, in the Franco-German war,
but after the surrender at Sedan was shut up in Metz, surrounded by the
Germans, and obliged to surrender, with all his generals, officers, and
men; was tried by court-martial, and condemned to death, but was
imprisoned instead; made good his escape one evening to Madrid, where he
lived to write a justification of his conduct, the sale of the book being
prohibited in France (1811-1888).


BAZARD, SAINT-AMAND, a French socialist, founder of the
_Charbonnerie Francaise_; a zealous but unsuccessful propagator of St.
Simonianism, in association with ENFANTIN (q. v.), from whom he
at last separated (1791-1832).


BAZOCHE, a guild of clerks of the parliament of Paris, under a mock
king, with the privilege of performing religious plays, which they
abused.


BEACHES, RAISED, elevated lands, formerly sea beaches, the result of
upheaval, or left high by the recession of the sea, evidenced to be such
by the shells found in them and the nature of the debris.


BEACHY HEAD, a chalk cliff in Sussex, 575 ft. high, projecting into
the English Channel; famous for a naval engagement between the allied
English and Dutch fleets and those of France, in which the latter were
successful.


BEACONSFIELD, capital of the gold-mining district in Tasmania; also
a town in Buckinghamshire, 10 m. N. of Windsor, from which Benjamin
Disraeli took his title on his elevation to the peerage.


BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF, English novelist and
politician, born in London; son of Isaac D'Israeli, litterateur, and thus
of Jewish parentage; was baptized at the age of 12; educated under a
Unitarian minister; studied law, but did not qualify for practice. His
first novel, "Vivian Grey," appeared in 1826, and thereafter, whenever
the business of politics left him leisure, he devoted it to fiction.
"Contarini Fleming," "Coningsby," "Tancred," "Lothair," and "Endymion"
are the most important of a brilliant and witty series, in which many
prominent personages are represented and satirised under thin disguises.
His endeavours to enter Parliament as a Radical failed twice in 1832; in
1835 he was unsuccessful again as a Tory. His first seat was for
Maidstone in 1837; thereafter he represented Shrewsbury and
Buckinghamshire. For 9 years he was a free-lance in the House, hating the
Whigs, and after 1842 leading the Young England party; his onslaught on
the Corn Law repeal policy of 1846 made him leader of the Tory
Protectionists. He was for a short time Chancellor of the Exchequer under
Lord Derby in 1852, and coolly abandoned Protection. Returning to power
with his chief six years later, he introduced a Franchise Bill, the
defeat of which threw out the Government. In office a third time in 1866,
he carried a democratic Reform Bill, giving household suffrage in
boroughs and extending the county franchise. Succeeding Lord Derby in
1868, he was forced to resign soon afterwards. In 1874 he entered his
second premiership. Two years were devoted to home measures, among which
were Plimsoll's Shipping Act and the abolition of Scottish Church
patronage. Then followed a showy foreign policy. The securing of the half
of the Suez Canal shares for Britain; the proclamation of the Queen as
Empress of India; the support of Constantinople against Russia,
afterwards stultified by the Berlin Congress, which he himself attended;
the annexation of Cyprus; the Afghan and Zulu wars, were its salient
features. Defeated at the polls in 1880 he resigned, and died next year.
A master of epigram and a brilliant debater, he really led his party. He
was the opposite in all respects of his protagonist, Mr. Gladstone.
Lacking in zeal, he was yet loyal to England, and a warm personal friend
of the Queen (1804-1881).


BEAR, name given in the Stock Exchange to one who contracts to
deliver stock at a fixed price on a certain day, in contradistinction
from the _bull_, or he who contracts to take it, the interest of the
former being that, in the intervening time, the stocks should fall, and
that of the latter that they should rise.


BEAR, GREAT. See URSA MAJOR.


BEAM, an ancient prov. of France, fell to the crown with the
accession of Henry IV. in 1589; formed a great part of the dep. of
Basses-Pyrenees, capital Pau.


BEATIFICATION, religious honour allowed by the pope to certain who
are not so eminent in sainthood as to entitle them to canonisation.


BEATON, or BETHUNE, DAVID, cardinal, archbishop of St. Andrews,
and primate of the kingdom, born in Fife; an adviser of James V., twice
over ambassador to France; on the death of James secured to himself the
chief power in Church and State as Lord High Chancellor and Papal Legate;
opposed alliance with England; persecuted the Reformers; condemned George
Wishart to the stake, witnessed his sufferings from a window of his
castle in St. Andrews, and was assassinated within its walls shortly
after; with his death ecclesiastical tyranny of that type came to an end
in Scotland (1494-1546).


BEATON, JAMES, archbishop of Glasgow and St. Andrews, uncle of the
preceding, a prominent figure in the reign of James V.; was partial to
affiliation with France, and a persecutor of the Reformers; _d_. 1539.


BEATTIE, JAMES, a poet and essayist, born at Laurencekirk; became
professor of Logic and Moral Philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen;
wrote an "Essay on Truth" against Hume; his most admired poem, "The
Minstrel," a didactic piece, traces the progress of poetic genius,
admitted him to the Johnsonian circle in London, obtained for him the
degree of LL.D. from Oxford, and brought him a pension of L200 per annum
from the king; died at Aberdeen (1735-1803).


BEATRICE, a beautiful Florentine maiden, Portinari, her family name,
for whom Dante conceived an undying affection, and whose image abode with
him to the end of his days. She is his guide through Paradise.


BEAU NASH, a swell notability at Bath; died in beggary (1674-1761).


BEAU TIBBS, a character in Goldsmith's "Citizen of the World," noted
for his finery, vanity, and poverty.


BEAUCAIRE (8), a French town near Avignon, on the Rhone, which it
spans with a magnificent bridge; once a great centre of trade, and
famous, as it still is, for its annual fair, frequented by merchants from
all parts of Europe.


BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, a historian, born at Monaco; wrote the
"Conquest of Peru," "History of Brazil," &c. (1769-1832).


BEAUCLERK, Henry I. of England, so called from his superior
learning.


BEAUCLERK, TOPHAM, a young English nobleman, the only son of Lord
Sydney Beauclerk, a special favourite of Johnson's, who, when he died,
lamented over him, as one whose like the world might seldom see again
(1759-1780).


BEAUFORT, DUKE OF, grandson of Henry IV. of France; one of the
chiefs of the Fronde; was surnamed Roi des Halles (King of the
Market-folk); appointed admiral of France; did good execution against the
pirates; passed into the service of Venice; was killed at the siege of
Candia in 1669.


BEAUFORT, HENRY, cardinal, bishop of Winchester, son of John of
Gaunt, learned in canon law, was several times chancellor; took a
prominent part in all the political movements of the time, exerted an
influence for good on the nation, lent immense sums to Henry V. and Henry
VI., also left bequests for charitable uses, and founded the hospital of
St. Cross at Winchester (1377-1447).


BEAUHAR`NAIS, ALEXANDRE, VICOMTE DE, born at Martinique, where he
married a lady who, afterwards as wife of Napoleon, became the Empress
Josephine; accepted and took part in the Revolution; was secretary of the
National Assembly; coolly remarked, on the news of the flight of the
king, "The king's gone off; let us pass to the next business of the
House"; was convicted of treachery to the cause of the Revolution and put
to death; as the father of Hortense, who married Louis, Napoleon's
brother, he became grandfather of Napoleon III. (1760-1794).


BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE, son of the preceding and of Josephine, born
at Paris, step-son of Napoleon, therefore was made viceroy of Italy; took
an active part in the wars of the empire; died at Muenich, whither he
retired after the fall of Napoleon (1781-1824).


BEAUHARNAIS, HORTENSE EUGENIE, sister of the preceding, ex-queen of
Holland; wife of Louis Bonaparte, an ill-starred union; mother of
Napoleon III., the youngest of three sons (1783-1837).


BEAUMAR`CHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE, a dramatist and pleader of
the most versatile, brilliant gifts, and French to the core, born in
Paris, son of a watchmaker at Caen; ranks as a comic dramatist next to
Moliere; author of "Le Barbier de Seville" (1775), and "Le Mariage de
Figaro" (1784), his masterpiece; astonished the world by his conduct of a
lawsuit he had, for which "he fought against reporters, parliaments, and
principalities, with light banter, clear logic, adroitly, with an
inexhaustible toughness of resource, like the skilfullest fencer." He was
a zealous supporter of the Revolution, and made sacrifices on its behalf,
but narrowly escaped the guillotine; died in distress and poverty. Of the
two plays he wrote, Saintsbury says, "The wit is indisputable, but his
chansons contain as much wit as the Figaro plays." He made a fortune by
speculations in the American war, and lost by others, one of them being
the preparation of a sumptuous edition of Voltaire. For the culmination
and decline, as well as appreciation, of him, see the "French
Revolution," by Carlyle (1732-1799).


BAUMA`RIS, principal town in Anglesea, Wales, on the Menai Strait,
near Bangor, a favourite watering-place, with remains of a castle erected
by Edward I.


BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE, archbishop of Paris, born at Perigord,
"spent his life in persecuting hysterical Jansenists and incredulous
non-confessors"; but scrupled to grant, though he fain would have
granted, absolution on his deathbed to the dissolute monarch of France,
Louis XV.; issued a charge condemnatory of Rousseau's "Emile," which
provoked a celebrated letter from Rousseau in reply (1703-1781).


BEAUMONT, FRANCIS, dramatic poet, born in Leicestershire, of a
family of good standing; bred for the bar, but devoted to literature; was
a friend of Ben Jonson; in conjunction with his friend Fletcher, the
composer of a number of plays, about the separate authorship of which
there has been much discussion, the dramatic power of which comes far
short of that so conspicuous in the plays of their great contemporary
Shakespeare, though it is said contemporary criticism gave them the
preference (1585-1615).


BEAUMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE ELIE DE, French geologist, born in Calvados;
became secretary to the Academy of Sciences; was joint-editor of a
geological map of France. He had a theory of his own of the formation of
the crust of the earth (1798-1874).


BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT, American Confederate general,
born at New Orleans; adopted the cause of the South, and fought in its
behalf (1818-1893).


BEAUREPAIRE, a French officer, noted for his noble defence of Verdun
against the Prussians; preferred death by suicide to the dishonour of
surrender (1748-1792).


BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC, a Huguenot divine, born at Poitou; fled to Holland
on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Berlin, and became a
notability in high quarters there; attracted the notice of the young
Frederick, the Great that was to be, who sought introduction to him, and
the young Frederick "got good conversation out of him"; author of a
"History of Manichaeism," praised by Gibbon, and of other books famous in
their day, a translation of the New Testament for one (1659-1738).


BEAUTIFUL PARRICIDE, BEATRICE CENCI (q. v.).


BEAUTY AND THE BEAST, the hero and heroine of a famous fairy tale.
Beauty falls in love with a being like a monster, who has, however, the
heart of a man, and she marries him, upon which he is instantly
transformed into a prince of handsome presence and noble mien.


BEAUVAIS (19), capital of the dep. of Oise, in France, 34 in. SW. of
Amiens, an ancient town, noted for its cathedral, its tapestry weaving,
and the feat of Jeanne-Hachette and her female following when the town
was besieged by Charles the Bold.


BEAUVAIS, a French prelate, born at Cherbourg, Bishop of Senez,
celebrated as a pulpit orator (1731-1790).


BEAUVILLIER, a statesman, patron of letters, to whom Louis XIV.
committed the governorship of his sons; died of a broken heart due to the
shock the death of the dauphin gave him (1607-1687).


BEBEK BAY, a fashionable resort on the Bosphorus, near
Constantinople, and with a palace of the sultan.


BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO, one of the best painters of the Sienese school,
distinguished also as a sculptor and a worker in mosaic (1486-1550).


BECCA`RIA, CAESARE BONESANA, MARQUIS OF, an Italian publicist, author
of a celebrated "Treatise on Crimes and Punishments," which has been
widely translated, and contributed much to lessen the severity of
sentences in criminal cases. He was a utilitarian in philosophy and a
disciple of Rousseau in politics.


BECHE-DE-MER, a slug, called also the trepang, procured on the coral
reefs of the Pacific, which is dried and eaten as a dainty by the
Chinese.


BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM, chemist, born at Spires; distinguished as a
pioneer in the scientific study of chemistry (1635-1682).


BECHSTEIN, a German naturalist, wrote "Natural History of Cage
Birds" (1757-1822).


BECHUANA-LAND, an inland tract in S. Africa, extends from the Orange
River to the Zambesi; has German territory on the W., the Transvaal and
Matabele-land on the E. The whole country is under British protection;
that part which is S. of the river Molopo was made a crown colony in
1885. On a plateau 4000 ft. above sea-level, the climate is suited for
British emigrants. The soil is fertile; extensive tracts are suitable for
corn; sheep and cattle thrive; rains fall in summer; in winter there are
frosts, sometimes snow. The Kalahari Desert in the W. will be habitable
when sufficient wells are dug. Gold is found near Sitlagoli, and diamonds
at Vryburg. The Bechuanas are the most advanced of the black races of S.
Africa.


BECHUA`NAS, a wide-spread S. African race, totemists, rearers of
cattle, and growers of maize; are among the most intelligent of the Bantu
peoples, and show considerable capacity for self-government.


BECKER, KARL, German philologist; bred to medicine; author of a
German grammar (1775-1842).


BECKER, NICOLAUS, author of the "Wacht am Rhein," was an obscure
lawyer's clerk, and unnoted for anything else (1810-1845).


BECKER, WILLIAM ADOLPHE, an archaeologist, born at Dresden; was
professor at Leipzig; wrote books in reproductive representation of
ancient Greek and Roman life; author of "Manual of Roman Antiquities"
(1796-1846).


BECKET, THOMAS A, archbishop of Canterbury, born in London, of
Norman parentage; studied at Oxford and Bologna; entered the Church; was
made Lord Chancellor; had a large and splendid retinue, but on becoming
archbishop, cast all pomp aside and became an ascetic, and devoted
himself to the vigorous discharge of the duties of his high office;
declared for the independence of the Church, and refused to sign the
CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON (q. v.); King Henry II. grew restive
under his assumption of authority, and got rid of him by the hands of
four knights who, to please the king, shed his blood on the steps of the
altar of Canterbury Cathedral, for which outrage the king did penance
four years afterwards at his tomb. The struggle was one affecting the
relative rights of Church and king, and the chief combatants in the fray
were both high-minded men, each inflexible in the assertion of his claims
(1119-1170).


BECKFORD, WILLIAM, author of "Vathek," son of a rich alderman of
London, who bequeathed him property to the value of L100,000 per annum;
kept spending his fortune on extravagancies and vagaries; wrote "Vathek,"
an Arabian tale, when a youth of twenty-two, at a sitting of three days
and two nights, a work which established his reputation as one of the
first of the imaginative writers of his country. He wrote two volumes of
travels in Italy, but his fame rests on his "Vathek" alone (1759-1844).


BECKMANN, a professor at Goettingen; wrote "History of Discoveries
and Inventions" (1738-1811).


BECKX, PETER JOHN, general of the Jesuits, born in Belgium
(1790-1887).


BECQUEREL, ANTOINE CAESAR, a French physicist; served as engineer in
the French army in 1808-14, but retired in 1815, devoting himself to
science, and obtained high distinction in electro-chemistry, working with
Ampere, Biot, and other eminent scientists (1788-1878).


BED OF JUSTICE, a formal session of the Parlement of Paris, under
the presidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of the royal
edicts, the last session being in 1787, under Louis XVI., at Versailles,
whither the whole body, now "refractory, rolled out, in wheeled vehicles,
to receive the order of the king."


BEDCHAMBER, LORDS or LADIES OF, officers or ladies of the royal
household whose duty it is to wait upon the sovereign--the chief of the
former called Groom of the Stole, and of the latter, Mistress of the
Robes.


BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL, born at Clifton, son of Thomas Beddoes; an
enthusiastic student of science; a dramatic poet, author of "Bride's
Tragedy"; got into trouble for his Radical opinions; his principal work,
"Death's Jest-Book, or the Fool's Tragedy," highly esteemed by Barry
Cornwall (1803-1849).


BEDE, or BEDA, surnamed "The Venerable," an English monk and
ecclesiastical historian, born at Monkwearmouth, in the abbey of which,
together with that of Jarrow, he spent his life, devoted to quiet study
and learning; his writings numerous, in the shape of commentaries,
biographies, and philosophical treatises; his most important work, the
"Ecclesiastical History" of England, written in Latin, and translated by
Alfred the Great; completed a translation of John's Gospel the day he
died. An old monk, it is said, wrote this epitaph over his grave, _Hac
sunt in fossa Bedae ... ossa_, "In this pit are the bones ... of Beda,"
and then fell asleep; but when he awoke he found some invisible hand had
inserted _venerabilis_ in the blank which he had failed to fill up,
whence Bede's epinomen it is alleged.


BEDELL, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh, born in Essex; studied at
Cambridge; superintended the translation of the Old Testament into Irish;
though his virtues saved him and his family for a time from outrage by
the rebels in 1641, he was imprisoned at the age of 70, and though
released, died soon after (1571-1642).


BEDFORD (160), a midland agricultural county of England, generally
level, with some flat fen-land; also the county town (28), on the Great
Ouse, clean and well paved, with excellent educational institutions,
famous in connection with the life of John Bunyan, where relics of him
are preserved, and where a bronze statue of him by Boehm has been erected
to his memory by the Duke of Bedford in 1871; manufactures agricultural
implements, lace, and straw plaiting; Elstow, Bunyan's birthplace, is not
far off.


BEDFORD, JOHN, DUKE OF, brother of Henry V., protector of the
kingdom and regent of France during the minority of Henry VI., whom, on
the death of the French king, he proclaimed King of France, taking up
arms thereafter and fighting for a time victoriously on his behalf, till
the enthusiasm created by Joan of Arc turned the tide against him and
hastened his death, previous to which, however, though he prevailed over
the dauphin, and burnt Joan at the stake, his power had gone (1389-1435).


BEDFORD LEVEL, a flat marshy district, comprising part of six
counties, to the S. and W. of the Wash, about 40 m. in extent each way,
caused originally by incursions of the sea and the overflowing of rivers;
received its name from the Earl of Bedford, who, in the 17th century,
undertook to drain it.


BEDLAM, originally a lunatic asylum in London, so named from the
priory "Bethlehem" in Bishopsgate, first appropriated to the purpose,
Bedlam being a corruption of the name Bethlehem.


BEDMAR, MARQUIS DE, cardinal and bishop of Oviedo, and a Spanish
diplomatist, notorious for a part he played in a daring conspiracy in
1618 aimed at the destruction of Venice, but which, being betrayed, was
defeated, for concern in which several people were executed, though the
arch-delinquent got off; he is the subject of Otway's "Venice Preserved";
it was after this he was made cardinal, and governor of the Netherlands,
where he was detested and obliged to retire (1572-1655).


BEDOUINS, Arabs who lead a nomadic life in the desert and subsist by
the pasture of cattle and the rearing of horses, the one element that
binds them into a unity being community of language, the Arabic namely,
which they all speak with great purity and without variation of dialect;
they are generally of small stature, of wiry constitution, and dark
complexion, and are divided into tribes, each under an independent chief.


BEE, THE, a periodical started by Goldsmith, in which some of his
best essays appeared, and his "Citizen of the World."


BEECHER, HENRY WARD, a celebrated American preacher, born at
Litchfield, Connecticut; pastor of a large Congregational church,
Brooklyn; a vigorous thinker and eloquent orator, a liberal man both in
theology and politics; wrote "Life Thoughts"; denied the eternity of
punishment, considered a great heresy by some then, and which led to his
secession from the Congregational body (1813-1887).


BEECHER-STOWE, HARRIET ELIZABETH, sister of the above, authoress of
"Uncle Tom's Cabin," of which probably over a million copies have been
sold. Born at Litchfield, Connecticut, U.S.A., in 1812; _d_. 1896.


BEECHY, REAR-ADMIRAL, born in London, son of the following;
accompanied Franklin in 1818 and Parry in 1819 to the Arctic regions;
commanded the _Blossom_ in the third expedition of 1825-1828 to the same
regions; published "Voyage of Discovery towards the North Pole"
(1796-1856).


BEECHY, SIR WILLIAM, portrait-painter, born in Oxfordshire; among
his portraits were those of Lord Nelson, John Kemble, and Mrs. Siddons
(1753-1839).


BEEF-EATERS, yeomen of the royal guard, whose institution dates from
the reign of Henry VII., and whose office it is to wait upon royalty on
high occasions; the name is also given to the warders of the Tower,
though they are a separate body and of more recent origin; the name
simply means (royal) dependant, a corruption of the French word
_buffetier_, one who attends the sideboard.


BEEHIVE HOUSES, small stone structures, of ancient date, remains of
which are found (sometimes in clusters) in Ireland and the W. of
Scotland, with a conical roof formed of stones overlapping one another,
undressed and without mortar; some of them appear to have been monks'
cells.


BEEL`ZEBUB, the god of flies, protector against them, worshipped by
the Phoenicians; as being a heathen deity, transformed by the Jews into a
chief of the devils; sometimes identified with Satan, and sometimes his
aide-de-camp.


BEERBOHM TREE, HERBERT, actor, born in London, son of a grain
merchant; his first appearance was as the timid curate in the "Private
Secretary," and then as the spy Macari in "Called Back"; is lessee of the
Haymarket Theatre, London, and has had many notable successes; he is
accompanied by his wife, who is a refined actress; _b_. 1852.


BEER`SHEBA, a village in the S. of Canaan, and the most southerly,
27 m. from Hebron; associated with Dan, in the N., to denote the limit of
the land and what lies between; lies in a pastoral country abounding in
wells, and is frequently mentioned in patriarchal history; means "the
Well of the Oath."


BEESWING, a gauze-like film which forms on the sides of a bottle of
good port.


BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VON, one of the greatest musical composers, born
in Bonn, of Dutch extraction; the author of symphonies and sonatas that
are known over all the world; showed early a most precocious genius for
music, commenced his education at five as a musician; trained at first by
a companion named Pfeiffer, to whom he confessed he owed more than all
his teachers; trained at length under the tuition of the most illustrious
of his predecessors, Bach and Haendel; revealed the most wonderful musical
talent; quitted Bonn and settled in Vienna; attracted the attention of
Mozart; at the age of 40 was attacked with deafness that became total and
lasted for life; continued to compose all the same, to the admiration of
thousands; during his last days was a prey to melancholy; during a
thunderstorm he died. Goethe pronounced him at his best "an utterly
untamed character, not indeed wrong in finding the world detestable,
though his finding it so did not," he added, "make it more enjoyable to
himself or to others" (1770-1827).


BEETS, NICOLAS, a Dutch theologian and poet, born at Haarlem; came,
as a poet, under the influence of Byronism; _b_. 1814.


BEFA`NA, an Italian female Santa Claus, who on Twelfth Night fills
the stockings of good children with good things, and those of bad with
ashes.


BEGG, JAMES, Scotch ecclesiastic, born at New Monkland, Lanark; was
a stalwart champion of old Scottish orthodoxy, and the last (1808-1883).


BEGHARDS, a religious order that arose in Belgium in the 13th
century, connected with the Beguins, a mystic and socialistic sect.


BEGUINS, a sisterhood confined now to France and Germany, who,
without taking any monastic vow, devote themselves to works of piety and
benevolence.


BEGUM, name given in the E. Indies to a princess, mother, sister, or
wife of a native ruler.


BEHAIM, MARTIN, a geographer and chartographer, born in Nueremberg;
accompanied Diego Cam on a voyage of discovery along W. coast of Africa;
constructed and left behind him a famous terrestrial globe; some would
make him out to be the discoverer of America (1459-1507).


BEHAR (24,393), a province of Bengal, in the valley of the Ganges,
which divides it into two; densely peopled; cradle of Buddhism.


BEHE`MOTH, a large animal mentioned in Job, understood to be the
hippopotamus.


BEHIS`TUN, a mountain in Irak-Ajemi, a prov. of Persia, on which
there are rocks covered with inscriptions, the principal relating to
Darius Hystaspes, of date about 515 B.C., bearing on his genealogy,
domains, and victories.


BEHM, ERNST, a German geographer, born in Gotha (1830-1884).


BEHN, AFRA, a licentious writer, born in Kent, for whom, for her
free and easy ways, Charles II. took a liking; sent by him as a spy to
Holland, and through her discovered the intention of the Dutch to burn
the shipping in the Thames. She wrote plays and novels (1640-1689).


BEHRING STRAIT, a strait about 50 m. wide between Asia and N.
America, which connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific; discovered by
the Danish navigator Vitus Behring in 1728, sent out on a voyage of
discovery by Peter the Great.


BEIRA (1,377), a central province of Portugal, mountainous and
pastoral; gives title to the heir-apparent to the Portuguese throne.


BEKE, DR., traveller, born in London; travelled in Abyssinia and
Palestine; author of "Origines Biblicae," or researches into primeval
history as shown not to be in keeping with the orthodox belief.


BEKKER, IMMANUEL, philologist, born in Berlin, and professor in
Halle; classical textual critic; issued recensions of the Greek and Latin
classics (1780-1871).


BEL AND THE DRAGON, HISTORY OF, one of the books of the Apocrypha, a
spurious addition to the book of Daniel, relates how Daniel persuaded
Cyrus of the vanity of idol-worship, and is intended to show its
absurdity.


BELA I., king of Hungary from 1061 to 1063; an able ruler;
introduced a great many measures for the permanent benefit of the
country, affecting both religion and social organisation.


BELA IV., king of Hungary, son of Andreas II., who had in 1222 been
compelled to sign the Golden Bull, the _Magna Charta_ of Hungarian
liberty; faithfully respected the provisions of this charter, and
incurred the enmity of the nobles by his strenuous efforts to subdue them
to the royal power.


BELCH, SIR TOBY, a reckless, jolly, swaggering character in "Twelfth
Night."


BELCHER, SIR EDWARD, admiral, was engaged in several exploring and
surveying expeditions; sailed round the world, and took part in the
operations in China (1812-1877).


BELFAST (256), county town of Antrim, and largest and most
flourishing city in the N. of Ireland; stands on the Lagan, at the head
of Belfast Lough, 100 m. N. of Dublin; is a bright and pleasant city,
with some fine streets and handsome buildings, Presbyterian, Catholic,
and Methodist colleges. It is the centre of the Irish linen and cotton
manufactures, the most important shipbuilding centre, and has also
rope-making, whisky, and aerated-water industries. Its foreign trade is
larger than even Dublin's. It is the capital of Ulster, and head-quarters
of Presbyterianism in Ireland.


BELFORT (83), a fortified town in dep. of Haut-Rhin, and is its
capital, 35 m. W. by N. of Basel; capitulated to the Germans in 1870;
restored to France; its fortifications now greatly strengthened. The
citadel was by Vauban.


BELGAE, Caesar's name for the tribes of the Celtic family in Gaul N.
of the Seine and Marne; mistakenly rated as Germans by Caesar.


BELGIUM (6,136), a small European State bordering on the North Sea,
with Holland to the N., France to the S., and Rhenish Prussia and
Luxemburg on the E.; is less than a third the size of Ireland, but it is
the most densely populated country on the Continent. The people are of
mixed stock, comprising Flemings, of Teutonic origin; Walloons, of Celtic
origin; Germans, Dutch, and French. Roman Catholicism is the predominant
religion. Education is excellent; there are universities at Ghent, Liege,
Brussels, and Louvain. French is the language of educated circles and of
the State; but the prevalence of dialects hinders the growth of a
national literature. The land is low and level and fertile in the N. and
W., undulating in the middle, rocky and hilly in the S. and E. The Meuse
and Scheldt are the chief rivers, the basin of the latter embracing most
of the country. Climate is similar to the English, with greater extremes.
Rye, wheat, oats, beet, and flax are the principal crops. Agriculture is
the most painstaking and productive of the world. The hilly country is
rich in coal, iron, zinc, and lead. After mining, the chief industries
are textile manufactures and making of machinery: the former at Antwerp,
Ghent, Brussels, and Liege; the latter at Liege, Mons, and Charleroi. The
trade is enormous; France, Germany, and Britain are the best customers.
Exports are coal to France; farm products, eggs, &c., to England; and raw
material imported from across seas, to France and the basin of the Rhine.
It is a small country of large cities. The capital is Brussels (480), in
the centre of the kingdom, but communicating with the ocean by a ship
canal. The railways, canals, and river navigation are very highly
developed. The government is a limited monarchy; the king, senate, and
house of representatives form the constitution. There is a conscript army
of 50,000 men, but no navy. Transferred from Spain to Austria in 1713.
Belgium was under French sway from 1794 till 1814, when it was united
with Holland, but established its independence in 1830.


BELGRADE (54), the capital of Servia, on the confluence of the Save
and Danube; a fortified city in an important strategical position, and
the centre of many conflicts; a commercial centre; once Turkish in
appearance, now European more and more.


BELGRA`VIA, a fashionable quarter in the southern part of the West
End of London.


BELIAL, properly a good-for-nothing, a child of worthlessness; an
incarnation of iniquity and son of perdition, and the name in the Bible
for the children of such.


BELIEF, a word of various application, but properly definable as
that which lies at the heart of a man or a nation's convictions, or is
the heart and soul of all their thoughts and actions, "the thing a man
does practically lay to heart, and know for certain concerning his vital
relations to this mysterious universe, and his duty and destiny there."


BELINDA, ARABELLA FERMOR, the heroine in Pope's "Rape of the Lock."


BELISA`RIUS, a general under the Emperor Justinian, born in Illyria;
defeated the Persians, the Vandals, and the Ostrogoths; was falsely
accused of conspiracy, but acquitted, and restored to his dignities by
the emperor; though another tradition, now discredited, alleges that for
the crimes charged against him he had his eyes put out, and was reduced
to beggary (505-565).


BELIZE, British Honduras, a fertile district, and its capital (6);
exports mahogany, rosewood, sugar, india-rubber, &c.


BELL, ACTON. See BRONTE.


BELL, ANDREW, LL.D., educationist, born at St. Andrews; founder of
the Monitorial system of education, which he had adopted, for want of
qualified assistants, when in India as superintendent of an orphanage in
Madras, so that his system was called "the Madras system"; returned from
India with a large fortune, added to it by lucrative preferments, and
bequeathed a large portion of it, some L120,000, for the endowment of
education in Scotland, and the establishment of schools, such as the
Madras College in his native city (1753-1832).


BELL, BESSY, and MARY GRAY, the "twa bonnie lassies" of a
Scotch ballad, daughters of two Perthshire gentlemen, who in 1666 built
themselves a bower in a spot retired from a plague then raging; supplied
with food by a lad in love with both of them, who caught the plague and
gave it to them, of which they all sickened and died.


BELL, BOOK, AND CANDLE, a ceremony at one time attending the greater
excommunication in the Romish Church, when after sentence was read from
the "book," a "bell" was rung, and the "candle" extinguished.


BELL, CURRER. See BRONTE.


BELL, ELLIS. See BRONTE.


BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH, a brother of Sir Charles, distinguished in law;
author of "Principles of the Law of Scotland" (1770-1843).


BELL, HENRY, bred a millwright, born in Linlithgowshire; the first
who applied steam to navigation in Europe, applying it in a small
steamboat called the _Comet_, driven by a three horse-power engine
(1767-1830).


BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD, born in Glasgow, a lawyer and literary man,
sheriff of Lanarkshire; wrote a vindication of Mary, Queen of Scots, and
some volumes of poetry (1803-1874).


BELL, JOHN, of Antermony, a physician, born at Campsie; accompanied
Russian embassies to Persia and China; wrote "Travels in Asia," which
were much appreciated for their excellency of style (1690-1780).


BELL, PETER, Wordsworth's simple rustic, to whom the primrose was
but a yellow flower and nothing more.


BELL, ROBERT, journalist and miscellaneous writer, born at Cork;
edited "British Poets, from Chaucer to Cowper," his best-known work,
which he annotated, and accompanied with careful memoirs of each
(1800-1867).


BELL, SIR CHARLES, an eminent surgeon and anatomist, born in
Edinburgh, where he became professor of Surgery; distinguished chiefly
for his discoveries in connection with the nervous system, which he
published in his "Anatomy of the Brain" and his "Nervous System," and
which gained him European fame; edited, along with Lord Brougham, Paley's
"Evidences of Natural Religion" (1774-1842).


BELL, THOMAS, a naturalist, born at Poole; professor of Zoology in
King's College, London; author of "British Quadrupeds" and "British
Reptiles," "British Stalk-eyed Crustacea," and editor of "White's Natural
History of Selborne" (1792-1880).


BELL ROCK, or INCHCAPE ROCK, a dangerous reef of sandstone
rocks in the German Ocean, 12 m. SE. of Arbroath, on which a lighthouse
120 ft. high was erected in 1807-10; so called from a bell rung by the
sway of the waves, which the abbot of Arbroath erected on it at one time
as a warning to seamen.


BELL-THE-CAT, Archibald Douglas, Earl of Arran, so called from his
offer to dispose by main force of an obnoxious favourite of the king,
James III.


BELLA, STEPHANO DELLA, a Florentine engraver of great merit,
engraved over 1000 plates; was patronised by Richelieu in France, and the
Medici in Florence (1610-1664).


BELL`AMY, JACOB, a Dutch poet, born at Flushing; his poems highly
esteemed by his countrymen (1752-1821).


BELLANGE, a celebrated painter of battle-pieces, born at Paris
(1800-1866).


BELLAR`MINE, ROBERT, cardinal, born in Tuscany; a learned Jesuit,
controversial theologian, and in his writings, which are numerous, a
valiant defender at all points of Roman Catholic dogma; the greatest
champion of the Church in his time, and regarded as such by the
Protestant theologians; he was at once a learned man and a doughty
polemic (1542-1621).


BELLAY, JOACHIM DU, French poet; author of sonnets entitled
"Regrets," full of vigour and poetry; wrote the "Antiquites de Rome"; was
called the Apollo of the Pleiade, the best poet and the best prose-writer
among them (1524-1560).


BELLE FRANCE, (i. e. Beautiful France), a name of endearment
applied to France, like that of "Merry" applied to England.


BELLE-ISLE (60), a fortified island on the W. coast of France, near
which Sir Edward Hawke gained a brilliant naval victory over the French,
under M. de Conflans, in 1759.


BELLEISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET, COUNT OF, marshal of
France; distinguished in the war of the Spanish Succession; an ambitious
man, mainly to blame for the Austrian Succession war; had grand schemes
in his head, no less than the supremacy in Europe and the world of
France, warranting the risk; expounded them to Frederick the Great;
concluded a fast and loose treaty with him, which could bind no one;
found himself blocked up in Prague with his forces; had to force his way
out and retreat, but it was a retreat the French boast comparable only to
the retreat of the Ten Thousand; was made War Minister after, and wrought
important reforms in the army (1684-1761). See CARLYLE'S
"FREDERICK" for a graphic account of him and his schemes, specially
in Bk. xii. chap. ix.


BELLENDEN, JOHN, of Moray, a Scottish writer in the 16th century;
translated, at the request of James V., Hector Boece's "History of
Scotland," and the first five books of Livy, which remain the earliest
extant specimens of Scottish prose, and remarkable specimens they are,
for the execution of which he was well rewarded, being made archdeacon of
Moray for one thing, though he died in exile; _d_. 1550.


BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, a Scottish writer, distinguished for diplomatic
services to Queen Mary, and for the purity of his Latin composition; a
professor of belles-lettres in Paris University (1550-1613).


BELLER`OPHON, a mythical hero, son of Glaucus and grandson of
Sisyphus; having unwittingly caused the death of his brother, withdrew
from his country and sought retreat with Proetus, king of Argos, who,
becoming jealous of his guest, but not willing to violate the laws of
hospitality, had him sent to Iobates, his son-in-law, king of Lycia, with
instructions to put him to death. Iobates, in consequence, imposed upon
him the task of slaying the Chimaera, persuaded that this monster would
be the death of him. Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus, the winged horse
given him by Pallas, slew the monster, and on his return received the
daughter of Iobates to wife.


BELLEROPHON, LETTERS OF, name given to letters fraught with mischief
to the bearer. See SUPRA.


BELLES-LETTRES, that department of literature which implies literary
culture and belongs to the domain of art, whatever the subject may be or
the special form; it includes poetry, the drama, fiction, and criticism.


BELLEVILLE, a low suburb of Paris, included in it since 1860; the
scene of one of the outrages of the Communists.


BELLIARD, COMTE DE, a French general and diplomatist; fought in most
of the Napoleonic wars, but served under the Bourbons on Napoleon's
abdication; was serviceable to Louis Philippe in Belgium by his diplomacy
(1769-1832).


BELLI`NI, the name of an illustrious family of Venetian painters.


BELLINI, GENTILE, the son of Jacopo Bellini, was distinguished as a
portrait-painter; decorated along with his brother the council-chamber of
the ducal palace; his finest picture the "Preaching of St. Mark"
(1421-1508).


BELLINI, GIOVANNI, brother of the preceding, produced a great many
works; the subjects religious, all nobly treated; had Giorgione and
Titian for pupils; among his best works, the "Circumcision," "Feast of
the Gods," "Blood of the Redeemer"; did much to promote painting in oil
(1426-1516).


BELLINI, JACOPO, a painter from Florence who settled in Venice, the
father and founder of the family; _d_. 1470.


BELLINI, VINCENZO, a musical composer, born at Catania, Sicily; his
works operas, more distinguished for their melody than their dramatic
power; the best are "Il Pirati," "La Somnambula," "Norma," and "Il
Puritani" (1802-1835).


BELLMANN, the poet of Sweden, a man of true genius, called the
"Anacreon of Sweden," patronised by Gustavus Adolphus (1741-1795).


BELLO`NA, the goddess of fury in war among the Romans, related by
the poets to Mars as sister, wife, or daughter; inspirer of the
war-spirit, and represented as armed with a bloody scourge in one hand
and a torch in the other.


BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE, a naval officer, born in Paris, distinguished
in the expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and one of those who went in
quest of Sir John Franklin; drowned while crossing the ice (1826-1853).


BELLOY, a French poet, born at St. Flour; author of "Le Siege du
Calais" and numerous other dramatic works (1727-1775).


BELON, PIERRE, a French naturalist, one of the founders of natural
history, and one of the precursors of Cuvier; wrote in different
departments of natural history, the chief, "Natural History of Birds";
murdered by robbers while gathering plants in the Bois de Boulogne
(1518-1564).


BEL`PHEGOR, a Moabite divinity.


BELPHOEBE (i. e. Beautiful Diana), a huntress in the "Faerie
Queene," the impersonation of Queen Elizabeth, conceived of, however, as
a pure, high-spirited maiden, rather than a queen.


BELSHAM, THOMAS, a Unitarian divine, originally Calvinist, born at
Bedford; successor to the celebrated Priestley at Hackney, London; wrote
an elementary work on psychology (1750-1829).


BELSHAZZAR, the last Chaldean king of Babylon, slain, according to
the Scripture account, at the capture of the city by Cyrus in 538 B.C.


BELT, GREAT and LITTLE, gateways of the Baltic: the Great
between Zealand and Fuenen, 15 m. broad; the Little, between Fuenen and
Jutland, half as broad; both 70 m. long, the former of great depth.


BELT OF CALMS, the region in the Atlantic and Pacific, 4 deg. or 5 deg.
latitude broad, where the trade-winds meet and neutralise each other, in
which, however, torrents of rain and thunder-storms occur almost daily.


BELTANE, or BELTEIN, an ancient Celtic festival connected with
the sun-worship, observed about the 1st of May and the 1st of November,
during which fires were kindled on the tops of hills, and various
ceremonies gone through.


BELTED WILL, name given to Lord William Howard, warden in the 16th
and 17th centuries of the Western Marches of England.


BELU`CHISTAN (200 to 400), a desert plateau lying between Persia and
India, Afghanistan and the Arabian Sea; is crossed by many mountain
ranges, the Suliman, in the N., rising to 12,000 ft. Rivers in the NE.
are subject to great floods. The centre and W. is a sandy desert exposed
to bitter winds in winter and sand-storms in summer. Fierce extremes of
temperature prevail. There are few cattle, but sheep are numerous; the
camel is the draught animal. Where there is water the soil is fertile,
and crops of rice, cotton, indigo, sugar, and tobacco are raised; in the
higher parts, wheat, maize, and pulse. Both precious and useful metals
are found; petroleum wells were discovered in the N. in 1887. The
population comprises Beluchis, robber nomads of Aryan stock, in the E.
and W., and Mongolian Brahuis in the centre. All are Mohammedan. Kelat is
the capital; its position commands all the caravan routes. Quetta, in the
N., is a British stronghold and health resort. The Khan of Kelat is the
ruler of the country and a vassal of the Queen.


BE`LUS, another name for BAAL (q. v.), or the legendary god
of Assyria and Chaldea.


BEL`VEDERE, name given a gallery of the Vatican at Rome, especially
that containing the famous statue of Apollo, and applied to
picture-galleries elsewhere.


BELZO`NI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, a famous traveller and explorer in
Egypt, born at Padua, of poor parents; a man of great stature; figured as
an athlete in Astley's Circus, London, and elsewhere, first of all in
London streets; applied himself to the study of mechanics; visited Egypt
as a mechanician and engineer at the instance of Mehemet Ali; commenced
explorations among its antiquities, sent to the British Museum trophies
of his achievements; published a narrative of his operations; opened an
exhibition of his collection of antiquities in London and Paris;
undertook a journey to Timbuctoo, was attacked with dysentery, and died
at Gato (1778-1823).


BEM, JOSEPH, a Polish general, born in Galicia; served in the French
army against Russia in 1812; took part in the insurrection of 1830;
joined the Hungarians in 1848; gained several successes against Austria
and Russia, but was defeated at Temesvar; turned Mussulman, and was made
pasha; died at Aleppo, where he had gone to suppress an Arab
insurrection; he was a good soldier and a brave man (1791-1850).


BEMBA, a lake in Africa, the highest feeder of the Congo, of an oval
shape, 150 m. long and over 70 m. broad, 3000 ft. above the sea-level.


BEMBO, PIETRO, cardinal, an erudite man of letters and patron of
literature and the arts, born at Venice; secretary to Pope Leo X.;
historiographer of Venice, and librarian of St. Mark's; made cardinal by
Paul III., and bishop of Bergamo; a fastidious stylist and a stickler
for purity in language (1470-1547).


BEN LAWERS, a mountain in Perthshire, 3984 ft. high, on the W. of
Loch Tay.


BEN LEDI, a mountain in Perthshire, 2873 ft. high, 41/2 m. NW. of
Callander.


BEN LOMOND, a mountain in Stirlingshire, 3192 ft. high, on the E. of
Loch Lomond.


BEN NEVIS, the highest mountain in Great Britain, in SW.
Inverness-shire, 4406 ft. high, and a sheer precipice on the NE. 1500 ft.
high, and with an observatory on the summit supported by the Scottish
Meteorological Society.


BEN RHYDDING, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 15 m. NW.
of Leeds, with a thoroughly equipped hydropathic establishment, much
resorted to.


BENARES (219), the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an important
town in the NW. Provinces; is on the Ganges, 420 m. by rail NW. of
Calcutta. It presents an amazing array of 1700 temples and mosques with
towers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laid
with continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the city
itself is narrow, crocked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousand pilgrims
visit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also a
government college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railway
bridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods,
jewellery, and gems; while its brass-work, "Benares ware," is famous.


BENBOW, JOHN, admiral, born at Shrewsbury; distinguished himself in
an action with a Barbary pirate; rose rapidly to the highest post in the
navy; distinguished himself well in an engagement with a French fleet in
the W. Indies; he lost a leg, and at this crisis some of his captains
proved refractory, so that the enemy escaped, were tried by
court-martial, and two of them shot; the wound he received and his
vexation caused his death. He was a British tar to the backbone, and of a
class extinct now (1653-1702).


BENCOOLEN, a town and a Dutch residency in SW. of Sumatra; exports
pepper and camphor.


BENDER, a town in Bessarabia, remarkable for the siege which Charles
XII. of Sweden sustained there after his defeat at Pultowa.


BENEDEK, LUDWIG VON, an Austrian general, born in Hungary;
distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1848-1849; was defeated by the
Prussians at Sadowa; superseded and tried, but got off; retired to Graetz,
where he died (1804-1871).


BENEDETTI, COUNT VINCENT, French diplomatist, born at Bastia, in
Corsica; is remembered for his draft of a treaty between France and
Prussia, published in 1870, and for his repudiation of all responsibility
for the Franco-German war; _b_. 1817.


BENEDICT, the name of fourteen popes: B. I., from 574 to 575;
B. II., from 684 to 685; B. III., from 855 to 858; B. IV.,
from 900 to 907; B. V., FROM 964 TO 965; B. VI., from 972 to
974; B. VII., from 975 to 984; B. VIII., from 1012 to 1024;
extended the territory of the Church by conquest, and effected certain
clerical reforms; B. IX., from 1033 to 1048, a licentious man, and
deposed; B. X., from 1058 to 1059; B. XI., from 1303 to 1304;
B. XII., from 1334 to 1342; B. XIII., from 1724 to 1730;
B. XIV., from 1740 to 1758. Of all the popes of this name it would
seem there is only one worthy of special mention.


BENEDICT XIV., a native of Bologna, a man of marked scholarship and
ability; a patron of science and literature, who did much to purify the
morals and elevate the character of the clergy, and reform abuses in the
Church.


BENEDICT, BISCOP, an Anglo-Saxon monk, born in Northumbria; made two
pilgrimages to Rome; assumed the tonsure as a Benedictine monk in
Provence; returned to England and founded two monasteries on the Tyne,
one at Wearmouth and another at Jarrow, making them seats of learning;
_b_. 628.


BENEDICT, ST., the founder of Western monachism, born near Spoleto;
left home at 14; passed three years as a hermit, in a cavern near
Subiaco, to prepare himself for God's service; attracted many to his
retreat; appointed to an abbey, but left it; founded 12 monasteries of
his own; though possessed of no scholarship, composed his "Regula
Monachorum," which formed the rule of his order; represented in art as
accompanied by a raven with sometimes a loaf in his bill, or surrounded
by thorns or by howling demons (480-543). See BENEDICTINES.


BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS, musician and composer, native of Stuttgart;
removed to London in 1835; author of, among other pieces, the "Gipsy's
Warning," the "Brides of Venice," and the "Crusaders"; conducted the
performance of "Elijah" in which Jenny Lind made her first appearance
before a London audience, and accompanied her as pianist to America in
1850 (1806-1885).


BENEDICTINES, the order of monks founded by St. Benedict and
following his rule, the cradle of which was the celebrated monastery of
Monte Casino, near Naples, an institution which reckoned among its
members a large body of eminent men, who in their day rendered immense
service to both literature and science, and were, in fact, the only
learned class of the Middle Ages; spent their time in diligently
transcribing manuscripts, and thus preserving for posterity the classic
literature of Greece and Rome.


BENEDICTUS, part of the musical service at Mass in the Roman
Catholic Church; has been introduced into the morning service of the
English Church.


BENEFIT OF CLERGY, exemption of the persons of clergymen from
criminal process before a secular judge.


BE`NEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD, a German philosopher and professor in
Berlin of the so-called empirical school, that is, the Baconian; an
opponent of the methods and systems of Kant and Hegel; confined his
studies to psychology and the phenomena of consciousness; was more a
British thinker than a German (1798-1854).


BENENGE`LI, an imaginary Moorish author, whom Cervantes credits with
the story of "Don Quixote."


BENETIER, the vessel for holding the holy water in Roman Catholic
churches.


BENEVENTO (20), a town 33 m. NE. of Naples, built out of and amid
the ruins of an ancient one; also the province, of which Talleyrand was
made prince by Napoleon.


BENEVOLENCE, the name of a forced tax exacted from the people by
certain kings of England, and which, under Charles I., became so
obnoxious as to occasion the demand of the PETITION OF RIGHTS (q. v.),
that no tax should be levied without consent of Parliament; first
enforced in 1473, declared illegal in 1689.


BENFEY, THEODOR, Orientalist, born near Goettingen, of Jewish birth;
a great Sanskrit scholar, and professor of Sanskrit and Comparative
Philology at his native place; author of "Lexicon of Greek Roots,"
"Sanskrit Grammar," &c. (1809-1881).


BENGAL (76,643), one of the three Indian presidencies, but more
particularly a province lying in the plain of the Lower Ganges and the
delta of the Ganges-Brahmaputra, with the Himalayas on the N. At the base
of the mountains are great forests; along the seaboard dense jungles. The
climate is hot and humid, drier at Behar, and passing through every
gradation up to the snow-line. The people are engaged in agriculture,
raising indigo, jute, opium, rice, tea, cotton, sugar, &c. Coal, iron,
and copper mines are worked in Burdwan. The manufactures are of cotton
and jute. The population is mixed in blood and speech, but Hindus
speaking Bengali predominate. Education is further advanced than
elsewhere; there are fine colleges affiliated to Calcutta University, and
many other scholastic institutions. The capital, Calcutta, is the capital
of India; the next town in size is Patna (165).


BENGA`ZI (7), the capital of Barca, on the Gulf of Sidra, in N.
Africa, and has a considerable trade.


BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT, a distinguished Biblical scholar and
critic, born at Wuertemberg; best known by his "Gnomon Novi Testamenti,"
being an invaluable body of short notes on the New Testament; devoted
himself to the critical study of the text of the Greek Testament
(1687-1752).


BENGUE`LA, a fertile Portuguese territory in W. Africa, S. of
Angola, with considerable mineral wealth; has sunk in importance since
the suppression of the slave-trade.


BENICIA, the former capital of California, 30 m. NE. of San
Francisco; has a commodious harbour and a U.S. arsenal.


BENI-HASSAN, a village in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile, above Minieh, with remarkable catacombs that have been excavated.


BENI-ISRAEL (i. e. Sons of Israel), a remarkable people, few in
number, of Jewish type and customs, in the Bombay Presidency, and that
have existed there quite isolatedly for at least 1000 years, with a
language of their own, and even some literature; they do not mingle with
the Jews, but they practise similar religious observances.


BENIN`, a densely populated and fertile country in W. Africa,
between the Niger and Dahomey, with a city and river of the name; forms
part of what was once a powerful kingdom; yields palm-oil, rice, maize,
sugar, cotton, and tobacco.


BENI-SOUEF`, a town in Middle Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile,
70 m. above Cairo; a centre of trade, with cotton-mills and quarries of
alabaster.


BENJAMIN, Jacob's youngest son, by Rachel, the head of one of the
twelve tribes, who were settled in a small fertile territory between
Ephraim and Judah; the tribe to which St. Paul belonged.


BENNETT, JAMES GORDON, an American journalist, born at Keith,
Scotland; trained for the Catholic priesthood; emigrated, a poor lad of
19, to America, got employment in a printing-office in Boston as
proof-reader; started the _New York Herald_ in 1835 at a low price as
both proprietor and editor, an enterprise which brought him great wealth
and the success he aimed at (1795-1872).


BENNETT, JAMES GORDON, son of preceding, conductor of the _Herald_;
sent Stanley out to Africa, and supplied the funds.


BENNETT, SIR STERNDALE, an English musical composer and pianist,
born at Sheffield, whose musical genius recommended him to Mendelssohn
and Schumann; became professor of Music in Cambridge, and conductor of
the Philharmonic Concerts; was president of the Royal Academy of Music
(1816-1873).


BENNETT, WM., a High-Churchman, celebrated for having provoked the
decision that the doctrine of the Real Presence is a dogma not
inconsistent with the creed of the Church of England (1804-1886).


BEN`NINGSEN, COUNT, a Russian general, born at Brunswick; entered
the Russian service under Catherine II.; was commander-in-chief at Eylau,
fought at Borodino, and victoriously at Leipzig; he died at Hanover,
whither he had retired on failure of his health (1745-1826).


BENTHAM, GEORGE, botanist, born near Plymouth, nephew of Jeremy and
editor of his works, besides a writer on botany (1800-1884).


BENTHAM, JEREMY, a writer on jurisprudence and ethics, born in
London; bred to the legal profession, but never practised it; spent his
life in the study of the theory of law and government, his leading
principle on both these subjects being utilitarianism, or what is called
the greatest happiness principle, as the advocate of which he is chiefly
remembered; a principle against which Carlyle never ceased to protest as
a philosophy of man's life, but which he hailed as a sign that the crisis
which must precede the regeneration of the world was come; a lower
estimate, he thought, man could not form of his soul than as "a dead
balance for weighing hay and thistles, pains and pleasures, &c.," an
estimate of man's soul which he thinks mankind will, when it wakes up
again to a sense of itself, be sure to resent and repudiate (1748-1832).


BENTINCK, LORD GEORGE, statesman and sportsman, a member of the
Portland family; entered Parliament as a Whig, turned Conservative on the
passing of the Reform Bill of 1832; served under Sir Robert Peel; assumed
the leadership of the party as a Protectionist when Sir Robert Peel
became a Free-trader, towards whom he conceived a strong personal
animosity; died suddenly; the memory of him owes something to the memoir
of his life by Lord Beaconsfield (1802-1848).


BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH, Indian statesman, governor
of Madras in 1806, but recalled for an error which led to the mutiny at
Vellore; but was in 1827 appointed governor-general of India, which he
governed wisely, abolishing many evils, such as Thuggism and Suttee, and
effecting many beneficent reforms. Macaulay held office under him. He
returned to England in 1835, became member for Glasgow in 1837, and died
before he made any mark on home politics (1774-1839).


BENTINCK, WILLIAM, a distinguished statesman, first Earl of
Portland, born in Holland; a favourite, friend, and adviser of William
III., whom he accompanied to England, and who bestowed on him for his
services great honours and large domains, which provoked ill-will against
him; retired to Holland, after the king died in his arms, but returned
afterwards (1648-1709).


BENTIVOGLIO, an Italian family of princely rank, long supreme in
Bologna; B., Guido, cardinal, though a disciple of Galileo, was one of
the Inquisitors-General who signed his condemnation (1579-1641).


BENTLEY, RICHARD, scholar and philologist, born in Yorkshire; from
the first devoted to ancient, especially classical, learning; rose to
eminence as an authority on literary criticism, his "Dissertation upon
the Epistles of Phalaris," which he proved to be a forgery, commending
him to the regard and esteem of all the scholars of Europe, a work which
may be said to have inaugurated a new era in literary historical
criticism (1662-1742).


BENUE, an affluent of the Niger, 300 m. long, falling into it 230 m.
up, described by Dr. Barth and explored by Dr. Baikic, and offers great
facilities for the prosecution of commerce.


BENVOLIO, a cantankerous, disputatious gentleman in "Romeo and
Juliet."


BENYOW`SKY, COUNT, a Hungarian, fought with the Poles against
Russia; taken prisoner; was exiled to Kamchatka; escaped with the
governor's daughter; came to France; sent out to Madagascar; was elected
king by the natives over them; fell in battle against the French
(1741-1786).


BENZENE, a substance compounded of carbon and hydrogen, obtained by
destructive distillation from coal-tar and other organic bodies, used as
a substitute for turpentine and for dissolving grease.


BENZOIN, a fragrant concrete resinous juice flowing from a
styrax-tree of Sumatra, used as a cosmetic, and burned as incense.


BEOWULF, a very old Anglo-Saxon romance consisting of 6356 short
alliterative lines, and the oldest extant in the language, recording the
exploits of a mythical hero of the name, who wrestled Hercules-wise, at
the cost of his life, with first a formidable monster, and then a dragon
that had to be exterminated or tamed into submission before the race he
belonged to could live with safety on the soil.


BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE, a celebrated French song-writer, born at
Paris, of the lower section of the middle class, and the first of his
countrymen who in that department rose to the high level of a true lyric
poet; his first struggles with fortune were a failure, but Lucien
Bonaparte took him up, and under his patronage a career was opened up for
him; in 1815 appeared as an author, and the sensation created was
immense, for the songs were not mere personal effusions, but in stirring
accord with, and contributed to influence, the great passion of the
nation at the time; was, as a Republican--which brought him into trouble
with the Bourbons--a great admirer of Napoleon as an incarnation of the
national spirit, and contributed not a little to the elevation of his
nephew to the throne, though he declined all patronage at his hands,
refusing all honours and appointments; has been compared to Burns, but he
lacked both the fire and the humour of the Scottish poet. "His poetical
works," says Professor Saintsbury, "consist entirely of chansons
political, amatory, bacchanalian, satirical, philosophical after a
fashion, and of almost every other complexion that the song can possibly
take" (1780-1859).


BERAR` (896), one of the central provinces of India, E. of Bombay;
it occupies a fertile, well-watered valley, and yields large quantities
of grain, and especially cotton.


BERAT, FREDERIC, a French poet and composer, author of a great
number of popular songs (1800-1853).


BERBER, native language spoken in the mountainous parts of Barbary.


BERBER (8), a town in Nubia, on the Nile, occupied by the English;
starting-point of caravans for the Red Sea; railway was begun to Suakim,
but abandoned.


BER`BERAH, the seaport of Somaliland, under Britain, with an annual
fair that brings together at times as many as 30,000 people.


BERBERS (3,000), a race aboriginal to Barbary and N. Africa, of a
proud and unruly temper; though different from the Arab race, are of the
same religion.


BERBICE, the eastern division of British Guiana; produces sugar,
cocoa, and timber.


BERBRUGGER, a French archaeologist and philologist; wrote on Algiers,
its history and monuments (1801-1869).


BERCHTA, a German Hulda, but of severer type. See BERTHA.


BERCY, a commune on the right bank of the Seine, outside Paris,
included in it since 1860; is the great mart for wines and brandies.


BERE`ANS, a sect formed by John Barclay in 1778, who regard the
Bible as the one exclusive revelation of God.


BERENGER, or BERENGA`RIUS, OF TOURS, a distinguished
theologian, born at Tours; held an ecclesiastical office there, and was
made afterwards archdeacon of Angers; ventured to deny the doctrine of
transubstantiation, a denial for which he was condemned by successive
councils of the Church, and which he was compelled more than once
publicly to retract, though he so often and openly recalled his
retractation that the pope, notwithstanding the opposition of the
orthodox, deemed it prudent at length to let him alone. After this he
ceased to trouble the Church, and retired to an island on the Loire,
where he gave himself up to quiet meditation and prayer (998-1088).


BERENGER I., king of Italy, grandson of Louis the Debonnaire, an
able general; provoked the jealousy of the nobles, who dreaded the
abridgment of their rights, which led to his assassination at their hands
in 934. B. II., king of Italy, grandson of the preceding, was
dethroned twice by the Emperor Otho, who sent him a prisoner to Bamberg,
where he died, 966.


BERENGER, THOMAS, a French criminalist and magistrate (1785-1866).


BERENI`CE, a Jewish widow, daughter of Herod Agrippa, with whom
Titus was fascinated, and whom he would have taken to wife, had not the
Roman populace protested, from their Anti-Jewish prejudice, against it.
The name was a common one among Egyptian as well as Jewish princesses.


BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR, VISCOUNT, an English general, natural son
of the first Marquis of Waterford; distinguished himself in many a
military enterprise, and particularly in the Peninsular war, for which he
was made a peer; he was a member of the Wellington administration, and
master-general of the ordnance (1770-1854).


BERESI`NA, a Russian river, affluent of the Dnieper, into which it
falls after a course of 350 m.; it is serviceable as a water conveyance
for large rafts of timber to the open sea, and is memorable for the
disastrous passage of the French in their retreat from Moscow in 1812.


BEREZOV`, a town in Siberia, in the government of Tobolsk; a place
of banishment.


BERG, DUCHY OF, on right bank of the Rhine, between Duesseldorf and
Cologne, now part of Prussia; Murat was grand-duke of it by Napoleon's
appointment.


BER`GAMO (42), a Lombard town, in a province of the same name, and
34 m. NE. of Milan, with a large annual fair in August, the largest in
Italy; has grindstone quarries in the neighbourhood.


BERGASSE, French jurisconsult, born at Lyons; celebrated for his
quarrel with Beaumarchais; author of an "Essay on Property" (1750-1832).


BERGEN (52), the old capital of Norway, on a fjord of the name, open
to the Gulf Stream, and never frozen; the town, consisting of wooden
houses, is built on a slope on which the streets reach down to the sea,
and has a picturesque appearance; the trade, which is considerable, is in
fish and fish products; manufactures gloves, porcelain, leather, etc.;
the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral.


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM (11), a town in N. Brabant, once a strong place, and
much coveted and frequently contested for by reason of its commanding
situation; has a large trade in anchovies.


BER`GENROTH, GUSTAV ADOLPH, historian, born in Prussia; held a State
office, but was dismissed and exiled because of his sympathy with the
revolutionary movement of 1848; came to England to collect materials for
a history of the Tudors; examined in Simancas, in Spain, under great
privations, papers on the period in the public archives; made of these a
collection and published it in 1862-68, under the title of "Calendar of
Letters, Despatches, &c., relating to Negotiations between England and
Spain" (1813-1869).


BERGERAC (11), a manufacturing town in France, 60 m. E. of Bordeaux,
celebrated for its wines; it was a Huguenot centre, and suffered greatly
in consequence.


BERGERAC, SAVINIEN CYRANO DE, an eccentric man with comic power, a
Gascon by birth; wrote a tragedy and a comedy; his best work a fiction
entitled "Histoire Comique des Etats et Empires de la Lune et du Soleil";
fought no end of duels in vindication, it is said, of his preposterously
large nose (1619-1655).


BERGHAUS, HEINRICH, a geographer of note, born at Cleves; served in
both the French and Prussian armies as an engineer, and was professor of
mathematics at Berlin; his "Physical Atlas" is well known (1797-1884).


BERGHEM, a celebrated landscape-painter of the Dutch school, born at
Haarlem (1624-1683).


BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF, a Swedish chemist, studied under Linnaeus, and
became professor of Chemistry at Upsala; discovered oxalic acid; was the
first to arrange and classify minerals on a chemical basis (1735-1784).


BERI, a town in the Punjab, 40 m. NW. of Delhi, in a trading centre.


BERKELEY, a town in Gloucestershire, famous for its cattle.


BERKELEY, GEORGE, bishop of Cloyne, born in Kilkenny; a
philanthropic man, who conducted in a self-sacrificing spirit practical
schemes for the good of humanity, which failed, but the interest in whom
has for long centred, and still centres, in his philosophic teaching, his
own interest in which was that it contributed to clear up our idea of God
and consolidate our faith in Him, and it is known in philosophy as
Idealism; only it must be understood, his idealism is not, as it was
absurdly conceived to be, a denial of the existence of matter, but is an
assertion of the doctrine that the universe, with every particular in it,
_as man sees it and knows it_, is not the creation of matter but the
creation of mind, and a reflex of the Eternal Reason that creates and
dwells in both it and him; for as Dr. Stirling says, "the object can only
be known in the subject, and therefore is subjective, and if subjective,
ideal." The outer, as regards our knowledge of it, is within; such is
Berkeley's fundamental philosophical principle, and it is a principle
radical to the whole recent philosophy of Europe (1684-1753).


BERKSHIRE (238), a midland county of England, with a fertile,
well-cultivated soil on a chalk bottom, in the upper valley of the
Thames, one of the smallest but most beautiful counties in the country.
In the E. part of it is Windsor Forest, and in the SE. Bagshot Heath. It
is famous for its breed of pigs.


BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ VON, surnamed "The Iron Hand," a brave but
turbulent noble of Germany, of the 15th and 16th centuries, the story of
whose life was dramatised by Goethe, "to save," as he said, "the memory
of a brave man from darkness," and which was translated from the German
by Sir Walter Scott.


BERLIN` (1,579), capital of Prussia and of the German empire; stands
on the Spree, in a flat sandy plain, 177 m. by rail SE. of Hamburg. The
royal and imperial palaces, the great library, the university, national
gallery and museums, and the arsenal are all near the centre of the city.
There are schools of science, art, agriculture, and mining; technical and
military academies; a cathedral and some old churches; zoological and
botanical gardens. Its position between the Baltic and North Seas, the
Spree, the numerous canals and railways which converge on it, render it a
most important commercial centre; its staple trade is in grain, cattle,
spirits, and wool. Manufactures are extensive and very varied; the chief
are woollens, machinery, bronze ware, drapery goods, and beer.


BERLIN DECREE, a decree of Napoleon of Nov. 21, 1806, declaring
Britain in a state of blockade, and vessels trading with it liable to
capture.


BERLIOZ, HECTOR, a celebrated musical composer and critic, born near
Grenoble, in the dep. of Isere, France; sent to study medicine in Paris;
abandoned it for music, to which he devoted his life. His best known
works are the "Symphonie Fantastique," "Romeo and Juliet," and the
"Damnation of Faust"; with the "Symphonie," which he produced while he
was yet but a student at the Conservatoire in Paris, Paganini was so
struck that he presented him with 20,000 francs (1803-1869).


BER`MONDSEY, a busy SE. suburb of London, on the S. bank of the
Thames.


BERMOO`THES, the Bermudas.


BERMU`DAS (15), a group of 400 coral islands (five inhabited) in
mid-Atlantic, 677 m. SE. of New York; have a delightful, temperate
climate, and are a popular health resort for Americans. They produce a
fine arrowroot, and export onions. They are held by Britain as a valuable
naval station, and are provided with docks and fortifications.


BERNADOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE JULES, a marshal of France, born at Pau;
rose from the ranks; distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolution
and the Empire, though between him and Napoleon there was constant
distrust; adopted by Charles XIII., king of Sweden; joined the Allies as
a naturalised Swede in the war against France in alliance with Russia;
became king of Sweden himself under the title of Charles XIV., to the
material welfare, as it proved, of his adopted country (1764-1844).


BERNARD, CLAUDE, a distinguished French physiologist, born at St.
Julien; he studied at Paris; was Majendie's assistant and successor in
the College of France; discovered that the function of the pancreas is
the digestion of ingested fats, that of the liver the transformation into
sugar of certain elements in the blood, and that there are nervous
centres in the body which act independently of the great cerebro-spinal
centre (1813-1878).


BERNARD, ST., abbot of Clairvaux, born at Fontaines, in Burgundy;
pronounced one of the grandest figures in the church militant; studied in
Paris, entered the monastery of Citeaux, founded in 1115 a monastery at
Clairvaux, in Champagne; drew around him disciples who rose to eminence
as soldiers of the cross; prepared the statutes for the Knights-Templar;
defeated Abelard in public debate, and procured his condemnation; founded
160 monasteries; awoke Europe to a second crusade; dealt death-blows all
round to no end of heretics, and declined all honours to himself, content
if he could only awake some divine passion in other men; represented in
art as accompanied by a white dog, or as contemplating an apparition of
the Virgin and the Child, or as bearing the implements of Christ's
passion (1091-1174). Festival, Aug. 20.


BERNARD, SIMON, a French engineer, born at Dole; distinguished as
such in the service of Napoleon, and for vast engineering works executed
in the United States, in the construction of canals and forts
(1779-1839).


BERNARD OF MENTHON, an ecclesiastic, founder of the monasteries of
the Great and the Little St. Bernard, in the passage of the Alps
(923-1008). Festival, June 15.


BERNARD OF MORLAIX, a monk of Cluny, of the 11th century; wrote a
poem entitled "De Contemptu Mundi," translated by Dr. Neale, including
"Jerusalem the Golden."


BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, commonly called Saint-Pierre simply, a
celebrated French writer, born at Havre; author of "Paul and Virginia,"
written on the eve of the Revolution, called by Carlyle "the swan-song of
old dying France," (1739-1814).


BERNARDINE, ST., OF SIENA, born at Massa Carrara, in Italy, of noble
family; founder of the Observantines, a branch, and restoration on strict
lines, of the Franciscan order; established 300 monasteries of the said
branch; his works, written in a mystical vein, fill five folio vols.
(1380-1444).


BERNAUER, AGNES, wife of Duke Albrecht of Bavaria, whom his father,
displeased at the marriage, had convicted of sorcery and drowned in the
Danube.


BERNE (47), a fine Swiss town on the Aar, which almost surrounds it,
in a populous canton of the same name; since 1848 the capital of the
Swiss Confederation; commands a magnificent view of the Bernese Alps; a
busy trading and manufacturing city.


BERNERS, JOHN BOUCHIER, LORD, writer or translator of romance; was
Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1516, and governor of Calais from 1520;
translated Froissart's "Huon of Bordeaux," &c.


BERNERS, JULIANA, writer on hunting and hawking; lived in the 14th
century; said to have been prioress of a nunnery.


BERNESE ALPS, a chain in the Middle Alps, of which the eastern half
is called the Bernese Oberland; form the watershed between the Aar and
the Rhone.


BERNHARD, DUKE OF WEIMAR, a great German general; distinguished
himself on the Protestant side in the Thirty Years' war; fought under the
standard of Gustavus Adolphus; held command of the left wing at the
battle of Luetzen, and completed the victory after the fall of Gustavus;
died at Neuburg, as alleged, without sufficient proof, by poison
(1604-1639).


BERNHARDT, SARAH, a dramatic artiste, born in Paris; of Jewish
descent, but baptized as a Christian; distinguished specially as a
tragedienne; of abilities qualifying her to shine in other departments of
the profession and of art, of which she has given proof; _b_. 1844.


BERNI, FRANCESCO, an Italian poet, born in Tuscany, who excelled in
the burlesque, to whom the Italian as a literary language owes much;
remodelled Boiardo's "Orlando Innamorato" in a style surpassing that of
the original.


BERNIER, a French physician and traveller, born at Angers; physician
for 12 years to Aurungzebe, the Great Mogul; published "Travels," a work
full of interest, and a model of exactitude (1625-1688).


BERNIER, THE ABBE, born in Mayenne, France; one of the principal
authors of the Concordat; promoted afterwards to be Bishop of Orleans
(1762-1806).


BERNI`NA, a mountain in the Swiss canton of Grisons, 13,290 ft.
high, remarkable for its extensive glaciers.


BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO, an Italian painter, sculptor, and
architect, born at Naples; produced his "Apollo and Daphne" at eighteen,
his masterpiece; was architect to the Pope, and designed the colonnade of
St. Peter's; he died wealthy (1598-1680).


BERNOUIL`LI, name of a Swiss family of mathematicians, born at
Basel, though of Dutch origin--JAMES, JOHN, and DANIEL, of
whom John is the most celebrated; was professor first at St. Petersburg
and then at Basel; discovered the exponential calculus and the method of
integrating rational fractions, as well as the line of swiftest descent
(1667-1748).


BERNSTORFF, COUNT, a celebrated statesman, diplomatist, and
philanthropist of Denmark; called the Danish Oracle by Frederick the
Great; founded an Agricultural Society and an hospital at Copenhagen, and
obtained the emancipation of the serfs (1711-1772).


BERNSTORFF, COUNT, a nephew of the preceding; also statesman and
diplomatist (1712-1772).


BERNSTORFF, PIERRE, Danish minister, son of the preceding, a
guardian of civil and political liberty (1735-1797).


BERO`SUS, a priest of the temple of Belus in Babylon, who, 3rd
century B.C., translated into Greek certain records of Babylonish
history, valuable fragments of which are preserved by Josephus and
Eusebius; these have been collected and published by W. Richter, in
Germany.


BERRI, an ancient province of France, forms dep. of Indre and Cher,
which became crown property in 1100 under Philippe I., and a duchy in
1630, giving title to a succession of French princes.


BERRI, DUC DE, second son of Charles X. and father of Count de
Chambord, a benevolent man; assassinated by a fanatic, Louvel, as he was
leaving the Opera House (1778-1820).


BERRI, DUCHESSE DE, dowager of preceding, distinguished herself by
her futile efforts to restore the Bourbon dynasty in the reign of Louis
Philippe (1798-1890).


BERRYER, PIERRE ANTOINE, an eminent French barrister, born at Paris;
a red-hot Legitimist, which brought him into trouble; was member of the
National Assembly of 1848; inimical to the Second Empire, and openly
protested against the _coup d'etat_ (1790-1868).


BER`SERKER, a Norse warrior who went into battle unharnessed, whence
his name (which means bare of sark or shirt of mail), and is said to have
been inspired with such fury as to render him invulnerable and
irresistible.


BERT, PAUL, a French physiologist and statesman, born at Auxerre;
was professor of Physiology at Paris; took to politics after the fall of
the Empire; Minister of Public Instruction under Gambetta; sent governor
to Tonquin; died of fever soon after; wrote a science primer for children
entitled "La Premiere Annee d'Enseignement Scientifique" (1833-1886).


BERTHA, goddess in the S. German mythology, of the spinning-wheel
principally, and of the household as dependent on it, in behalf of which
and its economical management she is often harsh to idle spinners; at her
festival thrift is the rule.


BERTHA, ST., a British princess, wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent;
converted him to Christianity.


BERTHE "au Grand Pied" (i. e. Long Foot), wife of Pepin the Short,
and mother of Charlemagne, so called from her club foot.


BERTHELIER, a Swiss patriot, an uncompromising enemy of the Duke of
Savoy in his ambition to lord it over Geneva.


BERTHELOT, PIERRE EUGENE, a French chemist, born at Paris; professor
in the College of France; distinguished for his researches in organic
chemistry, and his attempt to produce organic compounds; the dyeing trade
owes much to his discoveries in the extraction of dyes from coal-tar; he
laid the foundation of thermo-chemistry; _b_. 1827.


BERTHIER, ALEXANDRE, prince of Wagram and marshal of France, born at
Versailles; served with Lafayette in the American war, and rose to
distinction in the Revolution; became head of Napoleon's staff, and his
companion in all his expeditions; swore fealty to the Bourbons at the
restoration of 1814; on Napoleon's return retired with his family to
Bamberg; threw himself from a window, maddened at the sight of Russian
troops marching past to the French frontier (1753-1815).


BERTHOLLET, COUNT, a famous chemist, native of Savoy, to whom we owe
the discovery of the bleaching properties of chlorine, the employment of
carbon in purifying water, &c., and many improvements in the
manufactures; became a senator and officer of the Legion of Honour under
Napoleon; attached himself to the Bourbons on their return, and was
created a peer (1744-1822).


BERTHOUD, a celebrated clockmaker, native of Switzerland; settled in
Paris; invented the marine chronometer to determine the longitude at sea
(1727-1807).


BERTIN "l'Aine," or the Elder, a French journalist, born at Paris;
founder and editor of the _Journal des Debats_, which he started in 1799;
friend of Chateaubriand (1766-1841).


BERTIN, PIERRE, introduced stenography into France, invented by
Taylor in England (1751-1819).


BERTIN, ROSE, milliner to Marie Antoinette, famed for her devotion
to her.


BERTINAZZI, a celebrated actor, born at Turin, long a favourite in
Paris (1710-1788).


BERTRAND and RATON, two personages in La Fontaine's fable of
the Monkey and the Cat, of whom R. cracks the nut and B. eats it.


BER`TRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE, a French general, and faithful
adherent of Napoleon, accompanied him in all his campaigns, to and from
Elba, as well as in his exile at St. Helena; conducted his remains back
to France in 1840 (1770-1844).


BERTRAND DE MOLLEVILLE, Minister of Marine under Louis XVI.; a fiery
partisan of royalty, surnamed the _enfant terrible_ of the monarchy
(1744-1818).


BERTON, PIERRE, French composer of operas (1726-1780). Henri, his
son, composed operas; wrote a treatise on harmony (1761-1844).


BERULLE, CARDINAL, born at Troyes; founder of the order of
Carmelites, and of the Congregation of the Oratory (1576-1629).


BERWICK, JAMES FITZ-JAMES, DUKE OF, a natural son of James II., a
naturalised Frenchman; defended the rights of his father; was present
with him at the battle of the Boyne; distinguished himself in Spain,
where he gained the victory of Almanza; was made marshal of France; fell
at the siege of Philippsburg; left "Memoirs" (1670-1734).


BERWICK, NORTH, a place on the S. shore of the Forth, in
Haddingtonshire; a summer resort, specially for the golfing links.


BERWICK-ON-TWEED (13), a town on the Scotch side of the Tweed, at
its mouth, reckoned since 1835 in Northumberland, though at one time
treated as a separate county; of interest from its connection with the
Border wars, during which it frequently changed hands, till in 1482 the
English became masters of it.


BERWICKSHIRE (32), a fertile Scottish county between the
Lammermoors, inclusive, and the Tweed; is divided into the Merse, a
richly fertile plain in the S., the Lammermoors, hilly and pastoral,
dividing the Merse from Mid and East Lothian, and Lauderdale, of hill and
dale, along the banks of the Leader; Greenlaw the county town.


BERZE`LIUS, JOHAN JAKOB, Baron, a celebrated Swedish chemist, one of
the creators of modern chemistry; instituted the chemical notation by
symbols based on the notion of equivalents; determined the equivalents of
a great number of simple bodies, such as cerium and silenium; discovered
silenium, and shared with Davy the honour of propounding the
electro-chemical theory; he ranks next to Linnaeus as a man of science in
Sweden (1779-1848).


BESANCON (57), capital of the dep. of Doubs, in France; a very
strong place; fortified by Vauban; abounds in relics of Roman and
mediaeval times; watchmaking a staple industry, employing some 15,000 of
the inhabitants; manufactures also porcelain and carpets.


BESANT, MRS. ANNIE, _nee_ WOOD, born in London; of Irish
descent; married to an English clergyman, from whom she was legally
separated; took a keen interest in social questions and secularism;
drifted into theosophy, of which she is now an active propagandist; is an
interesting woman, and has an interesting address as a lecturer; _b_.
1847.


BESANT, SIR WALTER, a man of letters, born at Portsmouth; eminent
chiefly as a novelist of a healthily realistic type; wrote a number of
novels jointly with James Rice, and is the author of "French Humourists,"
as well as short stories; champion of the cause of Authors _versus_
Publishers, and is chairman of the committee; _b_. 1838.


BESENVAL, BARON, a Swiss, commandant of Paris under Louis XVI.; a
royalist stunned into a state of helpless dismay at the first outbreak of
the Revolution in Paris; could do nothing in the face of it but run for
his life (1722-1791).


BESIKA BAY, a bay on the Asiatic coast, near the mouth of the
Dardanelles.


BESME, a Bohemian in the pay of the Duke of Guise; assassinated
Coligny, and was himself killed by Berteauville, a Protestant gentleman,
in 1571.


BESS, GOOD QUEEN, a familiar name of Queen Elizabeth.


BESSARA`BIA (1,688), a government in the SW. of Russia, between the
Dniester and the Pruth; a cattle-breeding province; exports cattle, wool,
and tallow.


BESSAR`ION, JOHN, cardinal, native of Trebizond; contributed by his
zeal in Greek literature to the fall of scholasticism and the revival of
letters; tried hard to unite the Churches of the East and the West;
joined the latter, and was made cardinal; too much of a Grecian to
recommend himself to the popehood, to which he was twice over nearly
elevated (1395-1472).


BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, a Prussian astronomer of prominent
ability, born at Minden; professor of Mathematics at Koenigsberg, and
director of the Observatory; discovered--what was a great
achievement--the parallax of the fixed star 61 Cygne; his greatest work,
"Fundamenta Astronomiae," on which he spent 10 years, a marvel, like all
he did, of patient toil and painstaking accuracy (1784-1846).


BESSEMER, SIR HENRY, civil engineer and inventor, born at Charlton,
Herts; of his many inventions the chief is the process, named after him,
of converting pig-iron into steel at once by blowing a blast of air
through the iron while in fusion till everything extraneous is expelled,
and only a definite quantity of carbon is left in combination, a process
which has revolutionised the iron and steel trade all over the world,
leading, as has been calculated, to the production of thirty times as
much steel as before and at one-fifth of the cost per ton (1813-1898).


BESSEMER PROCESS. See BESSEMER.


BESSIERES, JEAN BAPTISTE, DUKE OF ISTRIA, marshal of France,
born at Languedoc, of humble parentage; rose from the ranks; a friend and
one of the ablest officers of Napoleon, and much esteemed by him;
distinguished himself in the Italian campaign, in Egypt, and at Marengo;
was shot at Luetzen the day before the battle (1768-1813).


BESSUS, a satrap of Bactria under Darius, who assassinated his
master after the battle of Arbela, but was delivered over by Alexander to
Darius's brother, by whom he was put to death, 328 B.C.


BESTIARY, a name given to a class of books treating of animals,
viewed allegorically.


BETHANY, village on E. of the Mount of Olives, abode of Lazarus and
his sisters.


BETHEL (i. e. house of God), a place 11 m. N. of Jerusalem, scene
of Jacob's dream, and famous in the history of the patriarchs.


BETHENCOURT, a Norman baron, in 1425 discovered and conquered the
Canaries, and held them as a fief of the crown of Castile.


BETHLEHEM (3), a village 6 m. S. of Jerusalem, the birthplace of
Jesus Christ and King David, with a convent containing the Church of the
Nativity; near it is the grotto where St. Jerome translated the Bible
into Latin.


BETHLEN-GABOR, prince of Transylvania, assumed the title of king of
Hungary; assisted Bohemia in the Thirty Years' war (1580-1629).


BETHNAL GREEN (129), an eastern suburb of London, a parliamentary
borough, a poor district, and scene of benevolent enterprises.


BETTERTON, THOMAS, born at Westminster, a tragic actor, and as such
an interpreter of Shakespeare on, it is believed, the traditional lines.


BETTINA, the Countess of Arnim, a passionate admirer of Goethe.


BETTY, W. HENRY, a boy actor, known as the Infant Roscius; amassed a
fortune; lived afterwards retired (1791-1874).


BEULE, a French statesman and archaeologist; superintended
excavations on the Acropolis of Athens; held office under Macmahon
(1826-1874).


BEUST, COUNT VON, a German statesman, born at Dresden; Minister for
Foreign Affairs in Saxony; of strong conservative leanings, friendly to
Austria; became Chancellor of the Austro-Hungarian empire; adopted a
liberal policy; sympathised with France in the Franco-German war;
resigned office in 1871; left "Memoirs" (1809-1886).


BEUTHEN (36), a manufacturing town in Prussian Silesia, in the
centre of a mining district.


BEVERLEY (12), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, 8 m. NW. of Hull,
with a Gothic minster, which contains the tombs of the Percys.


BEVERLEY, JOHN, a learned man, tutor to the Venerable Bede,
archbishop of York, and founder of a college for secular priests at
Beverley; was one of the most learned men of his time; _d_. 721.


BEVIS OF SOUTHAMPTON, or HAMPTON, SIR, a famous knight of
English mediaeval romance, a man of gigantic stature, whose marvellous
feats are recorded in Drayton's "Polyolbion."


BEWICK, THOMAS, a distinguished wood-engraver, born in
Northumberland, apprenticed to the trade in Newcastle; showed his art
first in woodcuts for his "History of Quadrupeds," the success of which
led to the publication of his "History of British Birds," in which he
established his reputation both as a naturalist, in the truest sense, and
an artist (1753-1828).


BEWICK, WILLIAM, a great wood-engraver; did a cartoon from the Elgin
Marbles for Goethe (1795-1866).


BEYLE, MARIE HENRI, French critic and novelist, usually known by his
pseudonym "De Stendal," born at Grenoble; wrote in criticism "De
l'Amour," and in fiction "La Chartreuse de Parme" and "Le Rouge et le
Noir"; an ambitious writer and a cynical (1788-1842).


BEYPUR, a port in the Madras presidency, a railway terminus, with
coal and iron in the neighbourhood.


BEYROUT (200), the most nourishing commercial city on the coast of
Syria, and the port of Damascus, from which it is distant 55 m.; a very
ancient place.


BEZA, THEODORE, a French Protestant theologian, born in Burgundy, of
good birth; professor of Greek at Lausanne; deputed from Germany to
intercede for the Huguenots in France, persuaded the king of Navarre to
favour the Protestants; settled in Geneva, became the friend and
successor of Calvin; wrote a book, "De Hereticis a Civili Magistratu
Puniendis," in which he justified the burning of Servetus, and a "History
of the Reformed Churches" in France; died at 86 (1519-1605).


BEZANTS, Byzantine gold coins of varying weight and value,
introduced by the Crusaders into England, where they were current till
the time of Edward III.


BEZIERS (42), a manufacturing town in the dep. of Herault, 49 m. SW.
of Montpellier; manufactures silk fabrics and confectionary.


BHAGALPUR` (69), a town in Bengal, on the right bank of the Ganges,
265 m. NW. of Calcutta.


BHAGAVAD GITA, (i. e. Song of Krishna), a poem introduced into the
Mahabharata, divided into three sections, and each section into six
chapters, called Upanishads; being a series of mystical lectures
addressed by Krishna to his royal pupil Arjuna on the eve of a battle,
from which he shrunk, as it was with his own kindred; the whole conceived
from the point of view or belief, calculated to allay the scruples of
Arjuna, which regards the extinction of existence as absorption in the
Deity.


BHAMO` (6), a town in Burmah, the chief centre of trade with China,
conducted mainly by Chinese, and a military station, only 40 m. from the
Chinese frontier.


BHARTPUR` (68), a town in Rajputana, in a native state of the name;
yielding wheat, maize, cotton, sugar, with quarries of building stone; 30
m. W. of Agra; carries on an industry in the manufacture of chowries.


BHARTRIHARI, Indian author of apothegms, who appears to have lived
in the 11th century B.C., and to have been of royal rank.


BHILS, a rude pro-Aryan race of Central India, still untrained to
settled life; number 750,000.


BHOD-PA, name given to the aborigines of Thibet, and applied by the
Hindus to all the Thibetan peoples.


BHOPAL` (952), a well-governed native state in Central India, under
British protection, with a capital city (70) of the same name; under a
government that has been always friendly to Britain.


BHUTAN (20), an independent state in the Eastern Himalayas, with
magnificent scenery; subsidised by Britain; has a government like that of
Thibet; religion the same, though the people are at a low stage of
civilisation; the country exports horses, musk, and salt.


BIAF`RA, BIGHT OF, a large bay in the Gulf of Guinea, in W. Africa;
includes several islands, and receives into it the waters of the Calabar
rivers.


BIARD, AUGUSTE FRANCOIS, French _genre_ painter, born at Lyons;
journeyed round the world, sketching by the way; was successful in
rendering burlesque groups (1800-1882).


BIARRITZ, a bathing-place on the Bay of Biscay, 6 m. SW. of Bayonne;
became a place of fashionable resort by the visits of the Empress
Eugenie.


BIAS, one of the seven wise men of Greece, born at Priene, in Ionia;
lived in the 6th century B.C.; many wise sayings are ascribed to him;
was distinguished for his indifference to possessions, which moth and
rust can corrupt, and thieves break through and steal.


BIBLE, THE (i. e. the Book _par excellence_, and not so much a
book as a library of books), a collection of sacred writings divided into
two parts, the Old Testament and the New; the Old, written in Hebrew,
comprehending three groups of books, the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and
the Hagiographa, bearing on the religion, the history, the institutions,
and the manners of the Jews; and the New, written in Greek, comprehending
the Four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles. The Old
Testament was translated into Greek at Alexandria by 72 Jews, 280 B.C.,
and is known as the Septuagint; and the whole book, Old and New, was
translated into Latin in a grotto near Bethlehem by St. Jerome, A.D.
385-404, and is known as the Vulgate, after which the two came to be
regarded by the Church as of equal divine authority and as sections of
one book. It may be permitted to note that the Bible is written
throughout, not in a speculative or a scientific, but a spiritual
interest, and that its final aim is to guide men in the way of life. The
spirit in which it is composed is the spirit of conviction; its essence,
both in the root of it and the fruit of it, is faith, and that primarily
in a moral power above, and ultimately a moral principle within, both
equally divine. The one principle of the book is that loyalty to the
divine commands is the one foundation of all well-being, individual and
social.


BIBLIA PAUPERUM (i. e. Bible of the Poor), a book consisting of
some 50 leaves, with pictures of scenes in the Life of Christ, and
explanatory inscriptions, printed, from wooden blocks, in the 15th
century, and before the invention of printing by movable types.


BIBULUS, a colleague of Julius Caesar; a mere cipher, a _faineant_.


BICETRE, a hospital, originally a Carthusian monastery, in the S.
side of Paris, with a commanding view of the Seine and the city; since
used for old soldiers, and now for confirmed lunatics.


BICHAT, MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER, an eminent French anatomist and
physiologist; physician to the Hotel-Dieu, Paris; one of the first to
resolve the structure of the human body into, as "Sartor" has it,
"cellular, vascular, and muscular tissues;" his great work "Anatomie
Generale appliquee a la Physiologie et a la Medecine"; died at 31
(1771-1802).


BICKERSTAFF, ISAAC, an Irish dramatist of 18th century, whose name
was adopted as a _nom de plume_ by Swift and Steele.


BICKERSTETH, EDWARD, English clergyman; author of several
evangelical works, and one of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance
(1786-1850).


BICKERTON, SIR RICHARD, vice-admiral, served in several naval
engagements, and died commander-in-chief at Plymouth in 1792.


BIDDERY WARE, ware of tin, copper, lead, and zinc, made at Bidar, in
India.


BIDDING PRAYER, an exhortation to prayer in some special reference,
followed by the Lord's Prayer, in which the congregation joins.


BIDDLE, JOHN, a Socinian writer in the time of Charles I. and the
Commonwealth; much persecuted for his belief, and was imprisoned, but
released by Cromwell; regarded as the founder of English Unitarianism;
author of a "Confession of Faith concerning the Holy Trinity"
(1615-1662).


BIDPAI, or PILPAI, the presumed author of a collection of Hindu
fables of ancient date, in extensive circulation over the East, and
widely translated.


BIELA'S COMET, a comet discovered by Biela, an Austrian officer, in
1826; appears, sometimes unobserved, every six years.


BIELEFELD (39), a manufacturing town in Westphalia, with a large
trade in linen, and the centre of the trade.


BIELU`KA, with its twin peaks, highest of the Altai Mountains,
11,100 ft.


BIENNE, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Berne; the Aar is led into
it when in flood, so as to prevent inundation below; on the shores of it
are remains of lake-dwellings, and an island in it, St. Pierre, the
retreat of Rousseau in 1765.


BIFROeST, a bridge in the Norse mythology stretching from heaven to
earth, of firm solidity and exquisite workmanship, represented in the
rainbow, of which the colours are the reflections of the precious stones.


BIGELOW, ERASTUS BRIGHAM, American inventor of weaving machines,
born in Massachusetts (1814-1879).


BIG-ENDIANS, a name given to the Catholics, as Little-endians is the
name given to the Protestants, in the imaginary kingdom of Lilliput, of
which the former are regarded as heretics by the latter because they
break their eggs at the big end.


BIGGAR, a town in Lanarkshire, birthplace of Dr. John Brown and of
the Gladstone ancestry.


BIGLOW, imaginary author of poems in the Yankee dialect, written by
James Russell Lowell.


BIJAPUR`, city in the presidency of Bombay, once the capital of an
extensive kingdom, now deserted, but with remains of its former
greatness.


BILBA`O (50), capital of the Basque prov. of Biscay, in Spain; a
commercial city of ancient date, famous at one time for its steel,
specially in Queen Elizabeth's time, when a rapier was called a "bilbo."


BILDERDIJK, WILLEM, Dutch poet, born at Amsterdam (1756-1831).


BILE, a fluid secreted from the blood by the liver to aid in
digestion, the secretion of which is most active after food.


BILLAUD-VARENNES, JEAN NICOLAS, "a grim, resolute, unrepentant"
member of the Jacobin Club; egged on the mob during the September
massacres in the name of liberty; was president of the Convention;
assisted at the fall of Robespierre, but could not avert his own; was
deported to Surinam, and content to die there rather than return to
France, which Bonaparte made him free to do; died at Port-au-Prince
(1756-1819).


BILLAUT, ADAM, the carpenter poet, called "Maitre Adam," born at
Nevers, and designated "Virgile au Rabot" (a carpenter's plane); _d_.
1662.


BILLINGS, ROBERT WILLIAM, architect, born in London; delineator of
old historical buildings; his great work "Baronial and Ecclesiastical
Antiquities of Scotland," richly illustrated; was engaged in the
restoration of old buildings, as well as delineating them (1813-1874).


BILLINGSGATE, a fish-market in London, below London Bridge; also a
name given to low, coarse language indulged in there.


BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH, _nee_ WEICHSEL, a celebrated singer,
born in London, of German descent; kept up her celebrity to the last;
died at Venice in 1817.


BILNEY, THOMAS, martyr, born in Norfolk, a priest who adopted the
reformed doctrine; was twice arraigned, and released on promise not to
preach, but could not refrain, and was at last burned as a heretic in
1531.


BILOCATION, the power or state, ascribed to certain of the saints,
of appearing in two places at the same time.


BIMETALLISM, the employment of two metals (gold and silver) in the
currency of a country as legal tender at a fixed relative value, the
ratio usually proposed being 1 to 151/2.


BIMINI, a fabulous island with a fountain possessed of the virtue of
restoring youth.


BINET, a French litterateur, translator of Horace and Virgil
(1732-1812).


BINGEN, a manufacturing and trading town on the left bank of the
Rhine, in Grand-Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt, opposite which is the tower
associated with the myth of Bishop Hatto.


BINGHAM, JOSEPH, an English divine, born at Wakefield; author of
"Origines Ecclesiasticae," a laborious and learned work; lost his all in
the South-Sea Scheme and died (1668-1723).


BIOGENESIS, name of the theory that derives life from life, and
opposed to ABIOGENESIS (q. v.).


BIOLOGY, the science of animal life in a purely physical reference,
or of life in organised bodies generally, including that of plants, in
its varied forms and through its successive stages.


BION, a Greek pastoral poet of 3rd century B.C., born at Smyrna; a
contemporary of Theocritus; settled in Sicily; was poisoned, it is said,
by a rival; little of his poetry survives.


BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE, an eminent French mathematician, astronomer,
and physicist, born at Paris; professor of Physics in the College of
France; took part in measuring an arc of the meridian along with Arago;
made observations on the polarisation of light, and contributed numerous
memoirs to scientific journals; wrote works on astronomy (1774-1862).


BIRAGUE, RENE DE, cardinal and chancellor of France, born at Milan;
charged, especially by contemporary historians, as the chief instigator
of the St. Bartholomew Massacre (1507-1583).


BIRCH, SAMUEL, archaeologist and Egyptologist, born in London; keeper
of Oriental antiquities in the British Museum; had an extensive knowledge
of Egyptology, wrote largely, and contributed articles on that and
kindred archaeological subjects (1813-1885).


BIRCH, THOMAS, antiquary, born in London; wrote a history of the
Royal Society (1705-1765).


BIRCH-PFEIFFER, CHARLOTTE, actress, born in Stuttgart; acted in
Berlin; wrote dramas (1800-1868).


BIRD, EDWARD, an English _genre_ painter, born in Wolverhampton,
settled in Bristol; among his works are the "Choristers Rehearsing," the
"Field of Chevy Chase," and the "Day after the Battle," pronounced his
masterpiece (1772-1819).


BIRD, GOLDING, M.D., a great authority in kidney disease, of which
he himself died (1815-1854).


BIRD, WILLIAM, a musician in the time of Elizabeth, composed
madrigals; "Non Nobis, Domine," is ascribed to him (1563-1623).


BIRD'S NEST, the nest of a species of swift, formed from a marine
plant that has been first digested by a bird, and esteemed a great luxury
by the Chinese.


BIREN, DUKE OF COURLAND, son of a peasant, favourite of the Russian
Empress Anne; held the reins of government even after her death; ruled
with great cruelty; was banished to Siberia, but recalled, and had his
honours restored to him, which in six years after he relinquished in
favour of his eldest son (1687-1772).


BIRKBECK, GEORGE, M.D., a Yorkshireman, a zealous promoter all over
the country of mechanics' institutes, was founder of the London
Institute, in consociation with Brougham and others interested in the
diffusion of useful knowledge (1776-1841).


BIRKENHEAD (100), in Cheshire, on the Mersey, opposite Liverpool and
a suburb of it; a town of rapid growth, due to the vicinity of Liverpool;
has large shipbuilding-yards and docks.


BIRKENHEAD, SIR JOHN, a political writer, several times imprisoned
during the Commonwealth for his obtrusive royalism (1615-1679).


BIRMINGHAM (478), in the NW. of Warwickshire, 112 m. NW. of London
by rail; is the chief town of the Midlands, and celebrated all over the
world for its metal ware. All kinds of engines and machinery, fine gold,
silver, copper, and brass ware, cutlery and ammunition are made here;
steel pens, buttons, nails, and screws are specialties. It is a
picturesque town with many fine buildings, libraries, art gallery and
museums, educational institutions, a cathedral, and a great town-hall,
where the triennial musical festival is held. Of this town Burne-Jones
was a native, and Priestley, George Dawson, and Dale were dissenting
ministers.


BIRNAM, a hill near Dunkeld, in Perthshire; contains part of a
forest mentioned in "Macbeth."


BIRON, a madcap lord in "Love's Labour's Lost."


BIRON, BARON DE, marshal of France, born at Perigord; served bravely
under Henry IV.; though a Catholic, favoured the Huguenots; narrowly
escaped at the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; was killed at the siege of
Epernay; carried a note-book with him everywhere, and so observant was he
that it passed into proverb, "You will find it in Biron's note-book"
(1524-1592).


BIRON, DUC DE, son of the preceding; served also bravely under Henry
IV.; but being a man of no principle and discontented with the reward he
got for his services, intrigued with the Duke of Savoy and with Spain
against Henry; was arrested and sent to the Bastille, where, after trial,
he was beheaded (1562-1602).


BISCAY, BAY OF, a bay in the Atlantic, extending from Cape Ortegal,
in Spain, to Cape Finisterre, in France, and 400 m. broad, of depth
varying from 20 to 200 fathoms, and, under SW. winds particularly, one of
the stormiest of seas.


BISCHOF, KARL GUSTAV, chemist, born at Nueremberg, professor at Bonn;
experimented on the inflammable power of gas (1792-1870).


BISCHOFF, THEODOR LUDWIG WILHELM, distinguished biologist, born at
Hanover; made a special study of embryology; was professor of Anatomy at
Heidelberg, of Physiology at Giessen, and of both at Muenich (1807-1882).


BISHOP, originally an overseer of souls, eventually an overseer of
churches, especially of a district, and conceived of by High-Churchmen as
representing the apostles and deriving his powers by transmission from
them.


BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY, an English composer, born in London,
composer and director of music in Covent Garden Theatre for 14 years;
produced 60 pieces, of which "Guy Mannering," "The Miller and his Men,"
are still in favour; was for a brief space professor of Music in
Edinburgh University, and eventually held a similar chair in Oxford
(1786-1855).


BISHOP OF HIPPO, St. Augustine, as once in office there.


BISHOP-AUCKLAND (10), a market-town 9 m. SW. of Durham, where the
bishop of Durham has his residence, a palatial structure; it has
coal-mines close by; manufactures machinery and cotton goods.


BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO (188), an archipelago formerly called New
Britain, NE. of New Guinea; under the protectorate of Germany.


BISMARCK-SCHOeNHAUSEN, EDUARD LEOPOLD, PRINCE VON, born at
Schoenhausen; woke up into civil life by the events of 1848; took a bold
stand against revolutionary ideas and measures; conceived the idea of
freeing the several States of Germany from foreign control, and welding
them into one under the crown of Prussia. Summoned in 1862 by King
William to be his political adviser, his influence was at first
distrusted, but the annexation of Sleswig-Holstein by force of arms in
1863 raised him into general favour. His next feat, the humiliation of
Austria at Koeniggraetz in 1866, and the consequent erection of a German
Confederation, with Prussia at its head, made him the idol of the nation.
His treatment of Napoleon III. provoked the latter into a declaration of
war, and to an advance on the part of the French against Berlin. To the
surprise of nearly all Europe, the Germans proved to be a nation of
soldiers, marshalled as army never was before, and beat the French
ignominiously back from the Rhine. Count Bismarck had the satisfaction of
seeing the power of France, that still threatened, as well as that of
Austria, helpless at his feet, the German empire restored under a
Hohenzollern king, and himself installed as chancellor of the monarch he
had served so well. Nothing he did after this--though he reformed the
coinage, codified the law, established protection, increased the army,
and repressed Socialism--equalled this great feat, and for this a
grateful nation must ever honour his name. If he ceased to be chancellor
of Germany on the accession of William II., it was because the young king
felt he would have a freer hand with a minister more likely to be under
his control (1815-1898).


BISSA`GOS, a group of some 20 volcanic islands off the coast of
Senegambia, with a large negro population; yield tropical products, and
belong now to Portugal.


BISSEN, a Danish sculptor, born in Sleswig; a pupil of Thorwaldsen;
intrusted by him to finish a statue he left unfinished at his death; he
produced some fine works, but his best known are his "Cupid Sharpening
his Arrow" and "Atalanta Hunting" (1798-1868).


BITHUR, a town on the right bank of the Ganges, 12 m. above
Cawnpore, where Nana Sahib lived, and concocted the conspiracy which
developed into the mutiny of 1857.


BITHYNIA, a country in the NW. of Asia Minor, anciently so called;
the people of it were of Thracian origin.


BITLIS (25), a high-lying town in Asiatic Turkey, 62 m. W. of Van;
stands in a valley 8470 ft. above, the sea-level, with a population of
Mohammedans and Armenians.


BITUMEN, an inflammable mineral substance, presumably of vegetable
origin, called Naphtha when liquid and light-coloured, Petroleum when
less fluid and darker, Maltha when viscid, and Asphalt when solid.


BITZIUS, a Swiss author, composed stories of Swiss life under the
_nom de plume_ of Jeremias Gotthelf, fascinating from their charming
simplicity and truth; he is much admired by Ruskin; was by profession a
Protestant pastor, the duties of which he continued to discharge till his
death (1797-1854).


BIZERTA (10), a seaport of Tunis, northernmost town in Africa, 38 m.
NW. of the capital, with an excellent harbour.


BIZET, GEORGES, an operatic composer, born at Paris; his greatest
work "Carmen"; died of heart-disease shortly after its appearance
(1838-1875).


BJOeRNSEN, a Norwegian author, born at Kvikne; composed tales,
dramas, and lyrics, all of distinguished merit and imbued with a
patriotic spirit; his best play "Sigurd the Bastard"; an active and
zealous promoter of liberalism, sometimes extreme, both in religion and
politics; his writings are numerous, and they rank high; his songs being
highly appreciated by his countrymen; _b_. 1832.


BLACK, JOSEPH, a celebrated chemist, born at Bordeaux, of Scotch
parents; the discoverer of what has been called latent heat, but what is
really transformed energy; professor of Chemistry, first in Glasgow, then
in Edinburgh, where his lectures were very popular; his discoveries in
chemistry were fruitful in results (1728-1799).


BLACK, WILLIAM, novelist, born in Glasgow; started life as a
journalist in connection with the _Morning Star_; has written several
novels, over 30 in number, about the West Highlands of Scotland, rich in
picturesque description; the best known and most admired, "A Daughter of
Heth," the "Madcap Violet," "Macleod of Dare," "The Strange Adventures of
a Phaeton," and "A Princess of Thule." "But when are you going to write a
book, Mr. Black?" said Carlyle to him one day (1841-1898).


BLACK ART, name given to the presumed power of evoking evil spirits.


BLACK ASSIZE, a plague at Oxford in 1557, which carried off 300
victims; caught at the assize from the prisoners under trial.


BLACK DEATH, a name given to a succession of fatal epidemics that
devastated the world from China to Ireland in the 14th century, believed
to be the same as the Oriental plague, though attended with peculiar
symptoms; the most serious was that of 1348, which, as is reckoned,
stripped England alone of one-third of its inhabitants.


BLACK FOREST (488), a wooded mountain chain 4000 ft. high (so called
from the black pines that cover it), which runs parallel with the Rhine,
and E. of it, through Wuertemberg and Baden, from the Swiss frontier to
Carlsruhe; is remarkable for its picturesque scenery and its mineral
wealth; it possesses many health resorts, as Baden-Baden and Wildbad,
where are mineral springs; silver, copper, cobalt, lead, and iron are
wrought in many places; the women and children of the region make
articles of woodwork, such as wooden clocks, &c.


BLACK FRIARS, monks of the Dominican order; name of a district in
London where they had a monastery.


BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA, a confined apartment 13 ft. square, into
which 146 English prisoners were crammed by the orders of Surajah Dowia
on the 19th June 1756; their sufferings were excruciating, and only 23
survived till morning.


BLACK LANDS, lands in the heart of Russia, extending between the
Carpathians and the Urals, constituting one-third of the soil, and
consisting of a layer of black earth or vegetable mould, of from 3 to 20
ft. in thickness, and a chief source, from its exhaustless fertility, of
the wealth of the country.


BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday in 1351, remarkable for the extreme
darkness that prevailed, and an intense cold, under which many died.


BLACK PRINCE, Prince of Wales, son of Edward III., so called, it is
said, from the colour of his armour; distinguished himself at Crecy,
gained the battle of Poitiers, but involved his country in further
hostilities with France; returned to England, broken in health, to die
(1330-1376).


BLACK ROD, GENTLEMAN USHER OF, an official of the House of Lords,
whose badge of office is a black rod surmounted by a gold lion; summons
the Commons to the House, guards the privileges of the House, &c.


BLACK SATURDAY, name given in Scotland to Saturday, 4th August 1621;
a stormy day of great darkness, regarded as a judgment of Heaven against
Acts then passed in the Scottish Parliament tending to establish
Episcopacy.


BLACK SEA, or EUXINE, an inland sea, lying between Europe and
Asia, twice the size of Britain, being 700 m. in greatest length and 400
m. in greatest breadth; communicates in the N. with the Sea of Azov, and
in the SW., through the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the
Dardanelles, with the Mediterranean. It washes the shores of Turkey,
Rumelia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Asia Minor; receives the waters of the
Danube, Dneister, Bug, and Don, from Europe, and the Kizil-Irmak and
Sakaria from Asia--three times as much as is received by the
Mediterranean. It has but one island, Adassi, off the mouths of the
Danube; no reefs or shoals; hence in summer navigation is very safe. In
winter it is harassed by severe storms. Among the chief ports are Odessa,
Kherson, Batoum, Trebizond, and Sinope; the first two are ice-bound in
January and February. For three centuries the Turks excluded all other
nations from its waters; but the Russians (1774), Austrians (1784),
French and English (1802) secured trading rights. Russia and Turkey keep
fleets in it, but other warships are excluded. Its waters are fresher
than those of the ocean, and it has no noticeable tides.


BLACK WATCH, two Highland regiments, the 42nd and 73rd, so called
from the dark colour of the tartan; raised originally for the
preservation of the peace in the Highlands.


BLACKBURN (120), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 21 m. NW. of
Manchester, a centre of the cotton industry, and the greatest in the
world; is the birthplace of Hargreaves, the inventor of the
spinning-jenny.


BLACKHEATH, a common 7 m. SE. of London, once a favourite haunt of
highwaymen, now a place of holiday resort for Londoners; for long
provided the only golfing-course in England.


BLACKIE, JOHN STUART, a man of versatile gifts and warm human
sympathies, born in Glasgow; bred to the bar, but devoted to literary
pursuits; studied German; executed a metrical translation of Goethe's
"Faust," Part I.; filled the chair of Humanity in Aberdeen, and
afterwards that of Greek in Edinburgh; was a zealous educational
reformer; took an active interest in everything affecting the welfare and
honour of Scotland; founded a Celtic Chair in Edinburgh University; spoke
much and wrote much in his day on manifold subjects; AEschylus, and
Homer's "Iliad" in verse; among his works, which are numerous,
"Self-Culture" is the most likely to survive him longest (1809-1895).


BLACKLOCK, THOMAS, a clergyman, born in Annan, blind from early
infancy; after occupying a charge for two years, set up as a teacher in
Edinburgh; was influential in inducing Burns to abandon his intention to
emigrate, and may be credited, therefore, with saving for his country and
humanity at large one of the most gifted of his country's sons
(1721-1791).


BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE, novelist, born in Berks; bred to the
bar; has written several novels, the best known "Lorna Doone," which,
though coldly received at first, became highly popular; he is pronounced
unrivalled in his day as a writer of rustic comedy; _b_. 1825.


BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD, physician, born in Wilts; the most
voluminous of poetasters, published four long worthless poems, besides
essays and psalms, &c., and made himself the butt of all the wits of the
period; _d_. 1729.


BLACKPOOL (23), a watering-place on the coast of Lancashire, 18 m.
NW. of Preston, sometimes called the "Brighton of the North."


BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent jurist and judge, born in
London, the son of a silk-mercer; was fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford,
and in 1746 called to the bar; became first Vinerian professor of Law at
Oxford; had Jeremy Bentham for one of his pupils; author of the
well-known "Commentaries on the Laws of England," an authority on the
subject and a work that has appeared in many editions (1723-1780).


BLACKWELL, ALEXANDER, adventurer, born in Aberdeen; studied
medicine; took to printing; thrown into prison for debt; was supported by
his wife; on his release went to Sweden, was patronised by the king;
convicted of conspiracy, and beheaded in 1747.


BLACKWELL, ELIZABETH, a lady doctor, born in Bristol, and the first
to hold a medical diploma in the United States; graduated in 1849; was
admitted into the Maternity Hospital in Paris, and to St. Bartholomew's
in London, and has since distinguished herself as a social reformer; _b_.
1821.


BLACKWOOD, SIR HENRY, British admiral, much trusted by Nelson;
distinguished at Aboukir Bay and Trafalgar; was present at Nelson's
death; held subsequently high naval positions (1770-1832).


BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM, born in Edinburgh, originator of _Blackwood's
Magazine_; originally a bookseller; started _Maga_, as it was called, in
1817, his principal literary advisers being Professor Wilson and
Lockhart; conducted it as editor till his death (1776-1834). JOHN,
his third son, his successor, no less distinguished in the cause of
literature (1818-1879).


BLAEU, WILLEM JANZSOON, Dutch cartographer, born at Alkmaar; his
terrestrial and celestial globes have been admired for their excellence
and accuracy (1571-1638). His son JAN edited a valuable atlas called
"Atlas Major," in 11 volumes; _d_. 1673.


BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE, a French naturalist; devoted himself to
medicine; became assistant to Cuvier; succeeded him as professor of
Comparative Anatomy; wrote largely on natural science, and particularly
on subjects connected with his appointment as a professor (1777-1850).


BLAIR, HUGH, clergyman, born in Edinburgh; held in succession
several charges in Scotland, and became professor of Rhetoric in
Edinburgh University; author of "Lectures on Rhetoric" and "Sermons,"
which latter are of the nature of moral essays rather than sermons, were
much esteemed at one time for their polished style, and procured him a
pension of L200 from the king; he was a man of great critical acumen, and
the celebrated Schleiermacher did not think it beneath him to translate
some of them into German (1718-1800).


BLAIR, ROBERT, author of "The Grave," a thoughtful and cultured man,
born in Edinburgh; minister of Athelstaneford, where he was succeeded by
Home, the author of "Douglas." His poem has the merit of having been
illustrated by William Blake (1699-1743).


BLAKE, ROBERT, the great English admiral and "Sea King," born at
Bridgewater; successful as a soldier under the Commonwealth, before he
tried seamanship; took first to sea in pursuit of Prince Rupert and the
royalist fleet, which he destroyed; beat the Dutch under Van Tromp de
Ruyter and De Witt; sailed under the great guns of Tunis into the
harbour, where he fired a fleet of Turkish pirates; and finally, his
greatest feat, annihilated a Spanish fleet in Santa Cruz Bay under the
shadow of the Peak of Teneriffe, "one of the fiercest actions ever fought
on land or water" (1598-1657).


BLAKE, WILLIAM, poet, painter, and engraver, born in London, where,
with rare intervals, he spent his life a mystic from his very boyhood;
apprenticed to an engraver, whom he assisted with his drawings; started
on original lines of his own as illustrator of books and a painter;
devoted his leisure to poetry; wrote "Songs of Innocence," "Marriage of
Heaven and Hell," "Gates of Paradise," and "Songs of Experience"; was an
intensely religious man of deep spiritual insight, most vivid feeling and
imagination; illustrated Young's "Night Thoughts," Blair's "Grave," and
the "Book of Job." He was a man of stainless character but eccentric
habits, and had for wife an angel, Catherine Boucher (1757-1828).


BLANC, CHARLES, a French art critic, brother of Louis Blanc
(1813-1882).


BLANC, JEAN JOSEPH LOUIS, a French Socialist, born at Madrid;
started as a journalist, founded the _Revue du Progres_, and published
separately in 1840 "Organisation of Labour," which had already appeared
in the _Revue_, a work which gained the favour of the working-classes;
was member of the Provisional Government of 1848, and eventually of the
National Assembly; threatened with impeachment, fled to England; returned
to France on the fall of the Empire, and was elected to the Chamber of
Deputies in 1871; wrote an "elaborate and well-written" "History of the
French Revolution"; died at Cannes (1811-1882).


BLANC, MONT, the highest mountain in Europe, 15,780 ft., almost
entirely within France; sends numerous glaciers down its slopes, the Mer
de Glace the chief.


BLANCHARD, FRANCOIS, a celebrated French aeronaut, inventor of the
parachute; he fell from his balloon and was killed at the Hague
(1738-1809).


BLANCHARD, LAMAN, a prolific periodical and play writer, born at
Yarmouth; a man of a singularly buoyant spirit, crushed by calamities;
died by suicide (1803-1845).


BLANCHE OF CASTILE, wife of Louis VIII. of France and mother of St.
Louis; regent of France during the minority of her son and during his
absence in crusade; governed with great discretion and firmness; died of
grief over the long absence of her son and his rumoured intention to stay
in the Holy Land (1186-1252).


BLANCHET, THE ABBE, French litterateur; author of "Apologues and
Tales," much esteemed (1707-1784).


BLANDRATA, GIORGIO, Piedmontese physician, who for his religious
opinions was compelled to take refuge, first in Poland, then in
Transylvania, where he sowed the seeds of Unitarianism (1515-1590).


BLANQUI, ADOLPHE, a celebrated French publicist and economist, born
at Nice; a disciple of J. B. Say, and a free-trader; his principal work,
"History of Political Economy in Europe" (1798-1854).


BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE, a brother of the preceding, a French
republican of extreme views and violent procedure; would appear to have
posed as a martyr; spent nearly half his life in prison (1805-1881).


BLARNEY-STONE, a stone in Castle Blarney, Cork, of difficult access,
which is said to endow whoso kisses it with a fair-spoken tongue, hence
the application of the word.


BLASIUS, ST., bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia; the patron of
wool-combers; suffered martyrdom in 316.


BLASPHEMY, defined by Ruskin as the opposite of euphemy, and as
wishing ill to anything, culminating in wishing ill to God, as the height
of "ill-manners."


BLATANT BEAST, Spenser's name for the ignorant, slanderous, clamour
of the mob.


BLAVATSKY, MME., a theosophist, born in Russia; a great authority on
theosophy, the doctrines of which she professed she derived from the
fountain-head in Thibet (1813-1891).


BLEEK, FRIEDRICH, eminent German Biblical exegete and critic of the
Schleiermacher school, born in Holstein; professor at Bonn; his chief
work, "Commentary on the Hebrews," a great work; others are Introductions
to the Old and to the New Testaments (1793-1859).


BLEEK, WM., son of preceding, a philologist; accompanied Colenso to
Natal; author of "Comparative Grammar of the S. African Languages"
(1827-1875).


BLEFUSCU, an island separated from Lilliput by a strait 800 yards
wide, inhabited by pigmies; understood to represent France.


BLENHEIM, a village in Bavaria, near Augsburg; famous for
Marlborough's victory in 1704, and giving name to it.


BLENHEIM PARK, near Woodstock, Oxford, the gift, with the Woodstock
estate, of the country to the Duke of Marlborough, for his military
services in the Spanish Succession war.


BLESSINGTON, COUNTESS OF, an Irish lady celebrated for her beauty
and wit; figured much in intellectual circles in London; had her salon at
Kensington; was on intimate terms with Byron, and published
"Conversations with Byron," and wrote several novels; being extravagant,
fell into debt, and had to flee the country (1789-1849).


BLICHER, STEEN STEENSEN, Danish poet of rural life (1782-1848).


BLIGH, WM., a naval officer; served under Captain Cook; commanded
the _Bounty_ at Tahiti, when his crew mutinied under his harsh treatment,
and set him adrift, with 18 others, in an open boat, in which, after
incredible privations, he arrived in England; was afterwards governor of
N.S. Wales, but dismissed for his rigorous and arbitrary conduct
(1753-1817).


BLIMBER, MRS. CORNELIA, a prim school-matron in "Dombey & Son."


BLIND, KARL, revolutionist and journalist, born at Mannheim; took
part in the risings of 1848, and sentenced to prison in consequence of a
pamphlet he wrote entitled "German Hunger and German Princes," but
rescued by the mob; found refuge in England, where he interested himself
in democratic movements, and cultivated his literary as well as his
political proclivities by contributing to magazines, and otherwise; _b_.
1826.


BLIND HARRY, a wandering Scottish minstrel of the 15th century;
composed in verse "The Life of that Noble Champion of Scotland, Sir
William Wallace."


BLINKERT DUNE, a dune near Haarlem, 197 ft. above the sea-level.


BLOCH, MARCUS ELIESER, a naturalist, born at Anspach, of Jewish
descent; his "Ichthyology" is a magnificent national work, produced at
the expense of the wealthiest princes of Germany (1723-1799).


BLOEMAERT, a family of Flemish painters and engravers in 16th and
17th centuries.


BLOIS, capital of the deps. of Loire and Cher, France, on the Loire,
35 m. S. of Orleans; a favourite residence of Francis I. and Charles IX.,
and the scene of events of interest in the history of France.


BLOMEFLELD, FRANCIS, a clergyman, born at Norfolk; author of
"Topographical History of the County of Norfolk" (1705-1751).


BLOMFIELD, bishop of London, born at Bury St. Edmunds; Greek
scholar; active in the Church extension of his diocese (1785-1857).


BLONDEL, a troubadour of the 12th century; a favourite of Richard
Coeur de Lion, who, it is said, discovered the place of Richard's
imprisonment in Austria by singing the first part of a love-song which
Richard and he had composed together, and by the voice of Richard in
responding to the strain.


BLONDIN, CHARLES, an acrobat and rope-dancer, born at St. Omer,
France; celebrated for his feats in crossing Niagara Falls on the
tight-rope; _b_. 1824.


BLOOD, THOMAS, COLONEL, an Irish desperado, noted for his daring
attempts against the life of the Duke of Ormonde, and for carrying off
the regalia in the Tower; unaccountably pardoned by Charles II., and
received afterwards into royal favour with a pension of L500 per annum.
He was afterwards charged with conspiracy, and committed to the King's
Bench, and released.


BLOODY ASSIZES, the judicial massacres and cruel injustices
perpetrated by Judge Jeffreys during Circuit in 1685.


BLOODY BONES, a hobgoblin feared by children.


BLOODY STATUTE, statute of Henry VIII. making it a crime involving
the heaviest penalties to question any of the fundamental doctrines of
the Romish Church.


BLOOMFLELD, ROBERT, an English poet, born in Suffolk, by trade a
shoemaker; author of the "Farmer's Boy," a highly popular production,
translated into French and Italian; spent his last days in ill-health
struggling with poverty, which brought on dejection of mind (1766-1823).


BLOUNT, CHARLES, a deist, born in London; assailant of revealed
religion; was involved in all the controversies of the time; died by his
own hand (1654-1693).


BLOWPIPE, a contrivance by which a current of air is driven through
a flame, and the flame directed upon some fusible substance to fuse or
vitrify it.


BLUeCHER, Prussian field-marshal, familiarly named "Marshal
Forwards," born at Rostock; served first in the Swedish army, then in the
Prussian; distinguished as a leader of cavalry, and met with varying
fortune; at the age of 70 commanded the centre of the Allied Army in
1813; distinguished himself at Luetzen and Leipzig; pursued the French
across the Rhine; pressed forward to Paris at the time of Napoleon's
abdication; defeated by Napoleon at Ligny, 16th June 1815; arrived on the
field of Waterloo just as the French were preparing to make their last
charge, and contributed to decide the fate of the day (1742-1819).


BLUE MOUNTAINS, a range of thickly wooded mountains traversing
Jamaica from E. to W., from 5000 to 7000 ft. in height; also a chain of
mountains in New South Wales of two parallel ranges, with a deep chasm
between, and full of gloomy ravines and beetling precipices, the highest
4100 ft.


BLUE NOSE, a nickname given to an inhabitant of Nova Scotia or New
Brunswick.


BLUEBEARD, a wealthy seigneur, the owner of a castle; marries a
beautiful woman, and leaves her in charge of the keys of the apartments
in his absence, with injunctions not to unlock any of the doors, an
injunction which she fails to respect, and finds to her horror the
remains of his former wives locked up in one of them; her disobedience is
discovered, and she is to prepare for death, but is rescued, as she lies
with her head on the block, by the timely arrival of her brothers, who at
once despatch the husband to his merited doom.


BLUE-BOOKS, Parliamentary documents bound in _blue_ paper, as the
corresponding documents in France are in _yellow_; they have been
published regularly since the beginning of the 18th century, those of a
single session now forming a collection of some 60 folio volumes.


BLUE-COAT SCHOOL, a name given to Christ's Hospital, London, founded
in the reign of Edward VI., from the blue coats worn by the boys.


BLUE-GOWN, in Scotland a beggar, a bedesman of the king, who wore a
blue gown, the gift of the king, and had his license to beg.


BLUE-STOCKING, a female pedant or _femme savante_, a name derived
from a learned coterie, formed in the 15th century, at Venice, who wore
blue stockings as a badge.


BLUFF HAL, or HARRY, Henry VIII. of England.


BLUM, a German politician, born at Cologne; tried by court-martial
and shot for abetting a political movement in Vienna in 1848, a
proceeding which created a wide-spread sensation at the time all over
Europe; _b_. 1807.


BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH, a distinguished German naturalist and
ethnologist, born at Gotha; studied at Jena; became professor at
Goettingen, an office he filled for 60 years; his works gave a great
impulse to scientific research in all directions; the chief were
"Institutiones Physiologicae," "Manual of Natural History," "Manual of
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology"; he made craniology a special study;
was a great advocate for religious liberty (1752-1840).


BLUMENTHAL, LEONARD VON, field-marshal in the Prussian army;
distinguished in the wars with Denmark, Austria, and France; an eminent
strategist; _b_. 1810.


BLUMI`NE, the siren that Calypsowise in "Sartor" seduced
Teufelsdroeckh at the commencement of his career, but who opened his eyes
to see that it is not in sentiment, however fine, that the soul's
cravings can find satisfaction.


BLUNT, JOHN HENRY, D.D., born at Chelsea; wrote largely on
theological and ecclesiastical subjects (1823-1884).


BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR, a distinguished jurist, born at Zurich;
an authority in international law; a liberal conservative both in Church
and State; founder and president of the Protestant Union called the
_Protestantenverein_ (1808-1881).


BOABDIL, or ABU-ABDALLAH, surnamed "The Unfortunate," the last
Moorish king of Granada, from 1481 to 1492; expelled from his throne by
Ferdinand of Castile and Aragon; as he rode off he halted on a hill
called "The Last Sigh of the Moor," and wept as he looked back on the
Alhambra, while his mother added to his bitterness with the cutting
sarcasm, "Weep as a woman for a throne you have not been able to defend
as a man"; died shortly after in Africa, recklessly throwing away his
life on a field of battle.


BOADICE`A, a British heroine, queen of the Iceni, who occupied
Norfolk and Suffolk; roused by indignity done to her and her people by
the Romans, gathered round her an army, who, with a murderous onslaught,
attacked their settlements and destroyed them; but being attacked and
defeated in turn by Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman governor, she put, in
her despair, an end to her life by poison, A.D. 61. Cowper made her the
theme of one of his poems.


BOANERGES (i. e. Sons of Thunder), applied by Christ to the sons
of Zebedee for the vehemence of their zeal.


BOAZ and JACHIN, two pillars of brass at the entrance of
Solomon's Temple, signifying respectively strength and stability.


BOB`ADIL, CAPTAIN, a braggadocio in Ben Jonson's "Every Man in his
Humour."


BOBECHE, a French theatrical clown, under the Empire and the
Restoration, son of an upholsterer of the St. Antoine faubourg, the type
of the merry-andrew at country fairs.


BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI, the celebrated Italian _raconteur_, born near
Florence; showed early a passion for literature; sent by his father to
Naples to pursue a mercantile career; gave himself up to story-telling in
prose and verse; fell in love with Maria, a beautiful woman, daughter of
the king, styled by him Fiammetta, for whom he wrote several of his
works, and his great work, the "Decameron"; early formed a lifelong
friendship with Petrarch, along with whom he contributed to the revival
and study of classic literature; lectured on Dante in Florence;
Petrarch's death deeply affected him, and he died the year after
(1313-1375).


BOCCHERINI, LUIGI, a celebrated Italian musical composer, born at
Lucca; was associated with Manfredi, the violinist; his works were
numerous; appears to have lived in poverty and obscurity (1740-1805).


BOCHART, SAMUEL, a Protestant divine, born at Rouen; pastor at Caen;
a geographer and an Orientalist; wrote a treatise on sacred geography;
celebrated for a nine-days' discussion with the Jesuit Verin (1599-1667).


BODE, JOHANN ELERT, an astronomer, born at Hamburg; was professor of
Astronomy and director of Observatory at Berlin; produced a number of
astronomical works, one of his best, "An Introduction to the Knowledge of
the Starry Heavens;" gave name to the law of the planetary distances,
called Bode's Law, although it was observed by Kepler long before his day
(1747-1826).


BODEL, a celebrated troubadour of the 13th century, born at Arras.


BODENSEE, another name for the Lake of Constance, well called the
filter of the Rhine.


BODIN, JEAN, a publicist and diplomatist, born at Angers; author of
"The Republic," in six books, published at first in French and then in
Latin, which summed up all the political philosophy of his time, and
contributed to prepare the way for subsequent speculations; was the
precursor of Hobbes and Montesquieu (1530-1596).


BODLEIAN LIBRARY, the university library of Oxford, founded, or
rather restored, by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1593; enlarged from time to time
by bequests, often munificent. It possesses 400,000 printed volumes and
30,000 MSS.


BODLEY, SIR THOMAS, born at Exeter; employed on embassies by
Elizabeth on the Continent, where he collected a number of valuable
books; bequeathed them and his fortune to the university library of
Oxford, named after him (1545-1613).


BODMER, JOHANN JACOB, a distinguished Swiss critic, born near
Zurich; the first, by study of the masters in literature of Greece and
Rome, France, England, and Italy, to wake up Germany to a sense of its
poverty in that line, and who aided, along with others, in the
inauguration of a new era, which he did more by his republication of the
Minnesingers and part of the "Nibelungen Lied" than by his advocacy
(1698-1783).


BODMIN (5), the county town of Cornwall, supersedes Truro as
capital; an important agricultural centre; has large annual fairs for
cattle, horses, and sheep.


BODONI, an Italian printer; settled at Parma, where his press was
set up in the ducal palace, whence issued magnificent editions of the
classics, Horace, Virgil, Tacitus, Tasso, and, last of all, Homer. He was
often tempted to Rome, but he refused to quit Parma and the patronage of
the ducal house there (1740-1813).


BOeDTCHER, LUDWIG, a Danish lyric poet, born at Copenhagen; lived
chiefly in Italy (1793-1874).


BOECE, HECTOR, a humanist and Scottish historian, born at Dundee;
professor of Philosophy at Paris; friend of Erasmus; was principal of
university at Aberdeen; wrote "History of Bishops of Mortlach and
Aberdeen," and "History of Scotland" in excellent Latin (1465-1536).


BOECKH, PHILIP AUGUST, classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe;
professor of Ancient Literature in Berlin; a classic of the first rank,
and a contributor on a large scale to all departments of Greek classical
learning; was an eminently learned man, and an authority in different
departments of learning (1785-1867).


BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, sculptor, born in Vienna, of Hungarian
parentage; settled in England; executed a colossal statue of the Queen at
Windsor, a seated statue of Carlyle on the Thames Embankment, a statue of
Bunyan at Bedford, &c.; patronised by the Queen and royal family; buried
in St. Paul's by the Queen's desire (1785-1869).


BOEHME, JACOB, a celebrated German mystic, born at Goerlitz; of an
imaginatively meditative turn from boyhood as a neat-herd, and afterwards
in his stall as a shoemaker; spent his whole life in meditation on divine
things; saw in the Bible a revelation of these as in no other book;
seemed to have eyes given him to see visions of these things himself, for
which he felt he had no organ to express, and which he conveyed to others
in mystical, apocalyptical speech; a thinker very fascinating to all
minds of the seer class. He was subject to persecution, as all of his
stamp are, by the men of the letter, and bore up with the meekness which
all men of his elevation of character ever do--"quiet, gentle, and
modest," as they all are to the very core, in his way of thinking; and
his philosophy would seem to have anticipated the secret of Hegel, who
acknowledges him as one of the fathers of German philosophy. He left
writings which embody a scheme of mystical theology, setting forth the
trinity in unity of the Hegelian system, that is, viewing the divine as
it is in itself, as it comes out in nature, and as it returns to itself
in the human soul (1575-1624).


BOEHMER, a German historian, born at Frankfort; author of works on
the Carlovingian period of history (1795-1863).


BOEO`TIA, a country of ancient Greece, N. of the Gulf of Corinth;
the natives, though brave, were mere tillers of the soil under a heavy
atmosphere, innocent of culture, and regarded as boors and dullards by
the educated classes of Greece, and particularly of Athens, and yet
Hesiod, Pindar, and Plutarch were natives of Boeotia.


BOERHAAVE, a great physician, born near Leyden, and son of a pastor;
ultimately professor of Medicine and Botany there, as well as of
Chemistry; chairs of which he filled and adorned with the greatest
distinction; his reputation spread over Europe, and even as far as
China--a letter from which bore the simple address, "To M. Boerhaave,
Europe," and found him; his system was adopted by the profession, and
patients from far and wide came to consult him--among others, Pope
Benedict VIII. and Peter the Great; his character was as noble as his
abilities were great; his principal works were "Institutiones Medicae,"
"Aphorismi de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morbis," "Libellus de Materia
Medica," and "Institutiones Chemicae" (1668-1738).


BOERS (i. e. peasants engaged in tillage), Dutch colonists of an
independent republican temper, who in the 17th century squatted in S.
Africa; gave themselves to agriculture and cattle-rearing; settled at
length in the Transvaal in a self-governed community by themselves.


BOETHIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS, a Roman statesman, born at
Rome, of Consular rank, a profoundly learned man, held the highest
offices, Consul among others, under Theodoric the Goth; his integrity and
opposition to injustice procured him enemies, who accused him of treason;
he was cast into prison, and finally put to death; wrote in prison his
"De Consolatione Philosophiae," in five parts, employing verse and prose
alternately, which King Alfred translated into Anglo-Saxon; he was
canonised as a martyr, and his influence was great during the Middle Ages
(470-524).


BOEUF, FRONT DE, a character in "Ivanhoe."


BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON, religious writer; wrote hymns and an
autobiography; is best known as the author of the "Golden Treasury"
(1690-1744).


BOGDANOVITCH, a Russian poet, called by his countrymen the "Russian
Anacreon"; his best-known poem "Psyche" (1743-1803).


BOGERMANN, JOHANN, Dutch divine, translated the Bible into Dutch,
and was President of the Synod of Dort (1576-1633).


BOGOTA` (100), capital of the United State of Colombia, situated on
a remarkable, almost mountain-encircled, plateau, on the river Bogota, 65
m. SE. of its port, Honda, the highest navigable point of the Magdalena,
is 8600 ft. above sea-level, and has a spring-like climate. It is
regularly built, with innumerable churches, a mint, university, library,
and observatory, and several schools. Though the country is fertile and
the mountains rich in coal, iron, salt, and precious metals, its
situation and the want of a railway hinder trade.


BOG-TROTTER, a name given to the Scottish moss-troopers, now to
certain Irish for their agility in escaping over bogs.


BOGUE, DAVID, born in Berwickshire, a Congregational minister; one
of the founders of the London Foreign Missionary, the Foreign Bible, and
the Religious Tract Societies (1750-1825).


BOHEMIA (5,843), the most northerly province in Austria, two-thirds
the size of Scotland; is encircled by mountains, and drained by the upper
Elbe and its tributaries. The Erzgebirge separate it from Saxony; the
Riesengebirge, from Prussia; the Boehmerwald, from Bavaria; and the
Moravian Mountains, from Moravia. The mineral wealth is varied and great,
including coal, the most useful metals, silver, sulphur, and porcelain
clay. The climate is mild in the valleys, the soil fertile; flax and hops
the chief products; forests are extensive. Dyeing, calico-printing, linen
and woollen manufactures, are the chief industries. The glassware is
widely celebrated; there are iron-works and sugar-refineries. The transit
trade is very valuable. The people are mostly Czechs, of the Slavonic
race, Roman Catholics in religion; there is a large and influential
German minority of about two millions, with whom the Czechs, who are
twice as numerous, do not amalgamate; the former being riled at the
official use of the Czech language, and the latter agitating for the
elevation of the province to the same status as that of Hungary.
Education is better than elsewhere in Austria; there is a university at
Prague, the capital. In the 16th century the crown was united with the
Austrian, but in 1608 religious questions led to the election of the
Protestant Frederick V. This was followed by the Thirty Years' War, the
extermination of the Protestants, and the restoration of the Austrian
House.


BOHEMIAN, name given to one who lives by his wits and shuns
conventionality.


BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a fraternity of an extreme sect of the Hussites,
organised as United Brethren in 1455; broken up in the Thirty Years' War,
met in secret, and were invited, under the name of Moravians or
Herrnhuters, by Count Zinzendorf to settle on his estate.


BOHEMOND, first prince of Antioch, son of Robert Guiscard; set out
on the first crusade; besieged and took Antioch; was besieged in turn by
the Saracens, and imprisoned for two years; liberated, he collected
troops and recaptured the city (1056-1111).


BOHLEN, VON, a German Orientalist, professor at Koenigsberg
(1796-1840).


BONN, HENRY GEORGE, an enterprising publisher, a German, born in
London; issued a series of works identified with his name (1796-1884).


BOeHTLINGK, OTTO, Sanskrit scholar, a German, born in St. Petersburg;
author, among other works, of a Sanskrit dictionary in 7 vols.; _b_.1815.


BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA, Count of Scandiano, surnamed the "Flower of
Chivalry"; an Italian poet, courtier, diplomatist, and statesman; author
of "Orlando Innamorato" (1456), the model of Ariosto's "Orlando Furioso,"
which eclipsed it (1434-1494).


BOIELDIEU, ADRIEN FRANCOIS, a distinguished French musical composer
of operas; author of the "Calife de Bagdad," "Telemaque," and "La Dame
Blanche," reckoned his masterpiece; called the French Mozart (1775-1834).


BOIGNE, COUNT DE, a French soldier of fortune, born at Chambery;
served under France, Russia, East India Company, and the prince of the
Mahrattas, to whom he rendered signal service; amassed wealth, which he
dealt out generously and for the benefit of his country (1751-1830).


BOII, an ancient people of Gaul, occupying territory between the
Allier and the Loire.


BOILEAU, NICOLAS (surnamed Despreaux, to distinguish him from his
brother), poet and critic, born in Paris; brought up to the law, but
devoted to letters, associating himself with La Fontaine, Racine, and
Moliere; author of "Satires" and "Epistles," "L'Art Poetique," "Le
Lutrin," &c., in which he attached and employed his wit against the bad
taste of his time; did much to reform French poetry, as Pascal did to
reform the prose, and was for long the law-giver of Parnassus; was an
imitator of Pope, but especially of Horace (1636-1711).


BOISARD, a French fabulist of remarkable fecundity (1743-1831).


BOIS-GUILLEBERT, a French economist, cousin of Vauban; advocate of
free trade; _d_. 1714.


BOIS-LE-DUC (27), capital of North Brabant, 45 m. SE. of Amsterdam,
and with a fine cathedral; seat of an archbishop.


BOISMONT, THE ABBE, one of the best French pulpit orators of the
18th century (1715-1786).


BOISROBERT, THE ABBE, a French poet, one of the first members of the
French Academy; patronised by Richelieu (1592-1662).


BOISSONADE, JEAN FRANCOIS, a French Greek scholar; for a time
carried away by the revolutionary movement, but abandoned politics for
letters (1774-1857).


BOISSIERE, a French lexicographer (1806-1885).


BOISSY D'ANGLAS, COUNT, a member and president of the Convention in
Paris, noted for his firmness and coolness during the frenzy of the
Revolution: one day the Parisian mob burst in upon the Convention, shot
dead a young deputy, Feraud, "sweeping the members of it before them to
the upper-bench ... covered, the president sat unyielding, like a rock in
the beating of seas; they menaced him, levelled muskets at him, he
yielded not; they held up Feraud's bloody head to him; with grave, stern
air he bowed to it, and yielded not"; became a senator and commander of
the Legion of Honour under Napoleon; was made a peer by Louis XVIII.
(1756-1826).


BOISTE, a French lexicographer (1765-1824).


BOKHA`RA (1,800), a Mohammedan State in Central Asia, N. of
Afghanistan, nominally independent; but the Khan is a vassal of the Czar.
The surface is arid, and cultivation possible only near the rivers-the
Oxus, Zarafshan, and Karshi. In the sands of the Oxus, gold and salt are
found. Rice, cotton, and cereals are grown; silk, cotton-thread,
jewellery, cutlery, and firearms are manufactured. The people are of Turk
and Persian origin. The capital, Bokhara (70), is on the plain of the
Zarafshan, a walled, mud-built city, 8 or 9 m. in circumference, with
numerous colleges and mosques, the centre of learning and religious life
in Central Asia. It has important trade and large slave markets.


BOLAN` PASS, a high-lying, deep, narrow gorge, extending between
Quetta (Beluchistan) and Kandahar (Afghanistan), sloping upwards at an
inclination of 90 ft. a mile; is traversed by a torrent.


BOLESLAUS, the name of several dukes of Poland, of whom the most
famous is Boleslaus I. the Great, who ruled from 992 to 1025.


BOLEYN, ANNE, or BULLEN, second wife of Henry VIII. and mother
of Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Thoman Bullen (afterwards Earl of
Wiltshire); after a three years' residence at the French Court became
maid of honour to Queen Katherine; attracted the admiration of Henry; was
married to him, and became queen; charged with adultery and conspiracy,
was found guilty and beheaded; was of the Reformed faith; her marriage
with Henry had important bearings on the English Reformation (1507-1536).


BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST. JOHN, VISCOUNT, English statesman, orator,
and political writer, born at Battersea; Prime Minister of Queen Anne in
the Tory interest, after her dismissal of the Whigs; on the accession of
George I. fled to France and joined the Pretender; was impeached and
attainted; returned in 1723 to his estates, but denied a seat in the
House of Lords, an indignity which he resented by working the overthrow
of Walpole; was the friend of Pope and Swift, and the author of "Letters"
bearing upon politics and literature. "Bolingbroke," says Prof.
Saintsbury, "is a rhetorician pure and simple, but the subjects of his
rhetoric were not the great and perennial subjects, but puny ephemeral
forms of them--the partisan and personal politics of his day, the
singularly shallow form of infidelity called Deism and the like; and his
time deprived him of many, if not most, of the rhetorician's most telling
weapons. The 'Letter to Windham,' a sort of apologia, and the 'Ideal of a
Patriot King,' exhibit him at his best." It was he who suggested to Pope
his "Essay on Man" (1678-1751).


BOLIVAR, SIMON, surnamed the Liberator, general and statesman, born
at Caracas; a man of good birth and liberal education; seized with the
passion for freedom during a visit to Madrid and Paris, devoted himself
to the cause of S. American independence; freed from the yoke of Spain
Venezuela and New Grenada, which, in 1819, he erected into a republic
under the name of Colombia; achieved in 1824 the same for Upper Peru,
henceforth called Bolivia, after his name; accused of aspiring to the
Dictatorship, he abdicated, and was preparing to leave the country when
he died of fever, with the sage reflection on his lips, "The presence of
a soldier, however disinterested he may be, is always dangerous in a
State that is new to freedom"; he has been called the Washington of S.
America (1783-1830).


BOLIVIA (1,500), an inland republic of S. America, occupying lofty
tablelands E. of the Andes, and surrounded by Peru, Brazil, Paraguay,
Argentina, and Chili. The S. is chiefly desert; in the N. are Lake
Titicaca and many well-watered valleys. The very varied heights afford
all kinds of vegetation, from wheat and maize to tropical fruits. In the
lower plains coffee, tobacco, cotton, and cinchona are cultivated. The
most important industry is mining: gold, silver, copper, and tin. Trade
is hampered by want of navigable rivers, but helped by railways from
Chili, Peru, and Argentina. Silver is the chief export; manufactured
goods are imported. The country has been independent since 1825; it lost
its sea provinces in the war with Chili, 1879-83. The capital is Sucre
(12), but La Pay (45) and Cochabamba (14) are larger towns.


BOLLAND, JOHN, a Jesuit of Antwerp, born in Belgium; compiled five
vols. of the Lives of the Saints called "Acta Sanctorum," which was
continued by others, called after him "Bollandists."


BOLLANDISTS, a succession of Jesuits who produced the Lives of the
Saints, now extended to sixty vols.


BOLOGNA (147), an ancient walled city of Italy, on a fertile plain,
at the foot of the Lower Apennines, 83 m. N. of Florence; has many fine
buildings, a university, one of the oldest in Europe, schools of music
and art, libraries, and art collections. There are some silk and other
industries, and considerable trade.


BOLOGNA, JOHN OF, one of the most celebrated sculptors of art in his
time, born at Douai, settled at Florence (1524-1608).


BOLOR-TAGH, a high tableland in Central Asia, stretching from the
Hindu Kush mountains northwards to the Tian Shan.


BOLSE`NA, a small town in Italy, on the E. shore of Lake Bolsena.


BOLSENA, a lake with clear water in a hollow crater of a volcano,
and abounding with fish, but with an unwholesome atmosphere.


BOLTON (115), manufacturing town of Lancashire.


BOLTON ABBEY, an old abbey in Yorkshire, 6 m. E. of Skipton; was
founded by the Augustinian canons.


BOMA, a station on the Lower Congo, in the Congo Independent State;
once a great slave mart.


BOMARSUND, a fortress of the island of Aland occupied by Russia,
destroyed by the Anglo-French fleet in 1854; the Russians bound not to
restore it.


BOMBA, nickname of Ferdinand II., late king of the Two Sicilies,
given him, it is alleged, from his calling upon his soldiers to bombard
his people during an insurrection.


BOMBASTES FURIOSO, an opera by Thomas Rhodes in ridicule of the
bombastic style of certain tragedies in vogue.


BOMBAY (26,960), the western Presidency of India, embraces 26
British districts and 19 feudatory states. N. of the Nerbudda River the
country is flat and fertile; S. of it are mountain ranges and tablelands.
In the fertile N. cotton, opium, and wheat are the staple products. In
the S., salt, iron, and gold are mined; but coal is wanting. The climate
is hot and moist on the coast and in the plains, but pleasant on the
plateaux. Cotton manufacture has developed extensively and cotton cloths,
with sugar, tea, wool, and drugs are exported. Machinery, oil, coal, and
liquors are imported. BOMBAY (822), the chief city, stands on an
island, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificent
harbour and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, and
is one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it the
most important commercial centre in the East, as it already is in the
cotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and its
merchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of the
ancient fire-worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It came
to England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife of
Charles II., who leased it to the East India Company for L10 a year. Its
prosperity began when the Civil War in America afforded it an opening for
its cotton.


BON GAULTIER, _nom de plume_ assumed by Professor Aytoun and Sir
Theodore Martin.


BONA (30), a seaport in Algeria, in the province of Constantine, on
a bay of the Mediterranean, with an excellent harbour and a growing
trade; is much improved since its occupation by the French in 1832. Near
it are the ruins of Hippo, the episcopal city of Augustine.


BONA, an ascetic writer, surnamed the Fenelon of Italy, one of
feuillant order of monks (1609-1674).


BONA DEA (the good goddess), a Roman goddess of fertility,
worshipped by women; her priests vestals and her worship by rites from
which men were excluded. Her symbol was a serpent, but the name under
which she was worshipped is not known.


BONALD, VICOMTE DE, a French publicist, a violent royalist and
ultramontanist; looked upon the Catholic religion and the royal authority
as fundamental to the stability of the social fabric, and was opposed to
the law of divorce, which led to its alteration. He denied that language
was innate, but revealed, and that causation was inherent in matter
(1758-1840).


BONAPARTE, name of a celebrated family of Italian origin settled in
Corsica; the principal members of it were: CHARLES MARIE, born at
Ajaccio, 1744; died at Montpellier, 1785; married, 1767. MARIE-LAETITIA
RAMOLINO, born at Ajaccio, 1750; died at Rome, 1836; of this union were
born eight children: JOSEPH, became king of Naples, 1806; king of Spain
from 1808 to 1813; retired to United States after Waterloo; returned to
Europe, and died at Florence, 1844. NAPOLEON I. (q. v.). LUCIEN, _b_.
1775; became president of the Council of the Five Hundred, and prince of
Canino; died in Viterbo, 1840. MARIE-ANNE-ELIZA, _b_. 1777; married Felix
Bacciochi, who became prince of Lucca; died at Trieste, 1826. LOUIS, _b_.
1778; married Hortense de Beauharnais; father of Napoleon III.; king of
Holland (from 1806 to 1810); died at Leghorn, 1846. MARIE PAULINE, _b_.
1780; married General Leclerc, 1801; afterwards, in 1803, Prince Camille
Borghese; became Duchess of Guastalla; died at Florence, 1825.
CAROLINE-MARIE, _b_. 1782; married Marat in 1800; became Grand-duchess of
Berg and Cleves, then queen of Naples; died at Florence, 1839. Jerome,
_b_. 1784, king of Westphalia (from 1807 to 1813); marshal of France in
1850; married, by second marriage, Princess Catherine of Wuertemburg; died
in 1860; his daughter, the Princess Mathilde, _b_. 1820, and his son,
Prince Napoleon, called Jerome, _b_. 1822, married Princess Clothilde,
daughter of Victor Emmanuel, of which marriage was born Prince Victor
Napoleon in 1862.


BONAR, HORATIUS, a clergyman of the Free Church of Scotland, and a
celebrated hymn writer, born at Edinburgh (1808-1889).


BONAVENTURA, ST., cardinal, surnamed the Seraphic Doctor, his real
name John Fidenza, born in Tuscany; entered the Franciscan Order; was
chosen general of the Order and papal legate at the Council of Lyons in
1274, during the session of which he died; was a mystic in theology;
ascribed knowledge of the truth to union with God, such as existed
between man and his Maker prior to the Fall, a state which could be
recovered only by a life of purity and prayer; his writings were admired
by Luther (1221-1274).


BONCHAMP, CHARLES, MARQUIS DE, French general, born in Anjou, served
in the American war; became one of the chiefs of the Vendean army; fell
at the battle of Cholet, and when dying, relented over the blood already
shed; ordered the release of 5000 prisoners which his party, in their
revenge, was about to massacre; _d_. 1793.


BOND, WILLIAM, a distinguished American astronomer (1789-1815), who
with his son, GEORGE PHILLIPS, discovered a satellite of Neptune and
an eighth satellite of Saturn (1826-1865).


BONDU (30), a country of Senegambia, a dependency of France; yields
maize, cotton, fruits.


BONE, HENRY, a celebrated enamel painter, especially in miniature on
ivory; born at Truro (1755-1834).


BONER, ULRICH, a German fabulist and Dominican monk of the 14th
century, author of "Der Edelstein" (The Jewel), a book of fables.


BONHEUR, ROSA, a celebrated French animal painter, born at Bordeaux;
brought up in poverty from ill-fortune; taught by her father; exhibited
when she was 19; her best-known works are the "Horse Fair" and the "Hay
Harvest in Auvergne," "Ploughing with Oxen," considered her masterpiece;
through the Empress Eugenie she received the Cross of the Legion of
Honour; during the siege of Paris her studio was spared by order of the
Crown Prince; _b_. 1822.


BONHOMME, JACQUES, a name of contempt given by the nobility of
France to the peasants in the 14th century.


BONIFACE, the name of nine popes. B. I., pope from 418 to 422, assumed
the title of First Bishop of Christendom; B. II., pope from 530 to 532;
B. III., pope for 10 months, from 607 to 608; B. IV., pope from 608 to
614; B. V., pope from 617 to 625; B. VI., pope in 896; B. VII., pope from
974 to 985; B. VIII., pope from 1294 to 1303, a strenuous assertor of the
papal supremacy over all princes, and a cause of much turmoil in Europe,
provoked a war with Philip the Fair of France, who arrested him at
Anagni, and though liberated by the citizens died on his way to Rome; B.
IX., pope from 1389 to 1405, the first pope to wear the Triple Crown.


BONIFACE, ST., the Apostle of Germany, born in Devonshire, his real
name Winfried; consecrated Pepin le Bref; was made Primate of Germany;
was, with 53 companions, massacred by the barbarians of Friesland, whom
he sought to convert (680-755).


BONIN`, a group of rocky islands SE. of Japan, and since 1878
subject to it.


BONINGTON, RICHARD, an eminent English landscape painter of
exceptional precocity, born near Nottingham; painted the "Ducal Palace"
and "Grand Canal" at Venice, his masterpieces (1801-1828).


BONIVARD, FRANCOIS DE, a Genevese patriot and historian, twice
imprisoned by Charles III., a Duke of Savoy, for his sympathy with the
struggles of the Genevese against his tyranny, the second time for six
years in the Castle of Chillon; immortalised by Lord Byron in his
"Prisoner of Chillon"; he was released at the Reformation, and adopted
Protestantism (1496-1571).


BONN (38), a Prussian town on the Rhine, SE. of Cologne, an old
Roman station, with a famous university; the birthplace of Beethoven,
with a monument to his memory; it is a stronghold of the old Catholics.


BONNAT, JOSEPH LEON, a French painter, born at Bayonne; imitated for
a time the religious paintings of the old masters, but since 1862 has
followed a style of his own; "Christ at the Cross" in the Palais de
Justice, Paris, is his work; _b_. 1833.


BONNER, EDMUND, bishop of London, born at Worcester; was chaplain to
Wolsey; sided with Henry VIII. against the Pope; fell into disgrace under
Edward VI.; was restored by Mary, whom he served in her Anti-Protestant
zeal; affected to welcome Elizabeth to the throne; was again deposed and
imprisoned for refusing to take the oath of supremacy under Elizabeth;
died in the Marshalsea Prison: he does not deserve all the odium that has
been heaped on his memory; he was faithful as a bishop, consistent in his
conduct, and bore the indignities done him with manly fortitude
(1495-1569).


BONNET, CHARLES DE, Swiss naturalist and philosopher, born at
Geneva; his studies as a naturalist gave a materialistic cast to his
philosophy; though he did not deny the existence of mind, still less that
of its sovereign Author, he gave to material impressions a dominant
influence in determining its manifestations (1720-1793).


BONNET-PIECE, a gold coin of James V. of Scotland, so called from
the king being represented on it as wearing a bonnet instead of a crown.


BONNEVAL, CLAUDE-ALEXANDRE, COMTE DE. See ACHMED PASHA.


BONNIE DUNDEE, Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee.


BONPLAND, AIME, a French botanist and traveller, born at Rochelle;
companion of Alexander von Humboldt in his S. American scientific
explorations; brought home a large collection of plants, thousands of
species of them new to Europe; went out again to America, arrested by Dr.
Francia in Paraguay as a spy, kept prisoner there for about nine years;
released, settled in the prov. of Corrientes, where he died; wrote
several works bearing on plants (1773-1858).


BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE, a Swiss publicist and judge, born at
Berne; wrote on anthropology, psychology, &c. (1745-1832).


BONTEMPS, ROGER, a French personification of a state of leisure and
freedom from care.


BONZE, a Buddhist priest in China, Japan, Burmah, &c.


BOOLE, English mathematician, born at Lincoln; mathematical
professor at Cork; author of "Laws of Thought," an original work, and
"Differential Equations" (1815-1864).


BOOMERANG, a missile of hard curved wood used by the Australian
aborigines of 21/2 ft. long; a deadly weapon, so constructed that, though
thrown forward, it takes a whirling course upwards till it stops, when it
returns with a swoop and falls in the rear of the thrower.


BOONE, DANIEL, a famous American backwoodsman; _d_. 1822, aged 84.


BOOeTES (the ox-driver or waggoner), a son of Ceres; inventor of the
plough in the Greek mythology; translated along with his ox to become a
constellation in the northern sky, the brightest star in which is
Arcturus.


BOOTH, BARTON, English actor, acted Shakespearean, characters and
Hamlet's ghost (1681-1733).


BOOTH, JOHN WILKES, son of an actor, assassinated Lincoln, and was
shot by his captors (1839-1865).


BOOTH, WILLIAM, founder and general of the Salvation Army, born in
Nottingham; published "In Darkest England"; a man of singular
self-devotion to the religious and social welfare of the race; _b_. 1839.


BOOTHIA, a peninsula of British N. America, W. of the Gulf of
Boothia, and in which the N. magnetic pole of the earth is situated;
discovered by Sir John Boss in 1830.


BOOTON, an island in the Malay Archipelago, SE. of Celebes; subject
to the Dutch.


BOPP, FRANZ, a celebrated German philologist and Sanskrit scholar,
born at Mayence; was professor of Oriental Literature and General
Philology at Berlin; his greatest work, "A Comparative Grammar of
Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slave, Gothic, and German";
translated portions of the "MAHABHARATA," q. v. (1791-1867).


BORA, KATHARINA, the wife of Luther, born in Meissen, originally a
nun, who, with eight others, was at Luther's instance released from her
convent; proved "a pious and faithful wife" to Luther, as he says of her,
and became the mother to him of six children, three sons and three
daughters (1499-1552).


BORDA, a French mathematician and physicist, born at Dax, in the
dep. of Landes, served in both army and navy; one of those employed in
measuring an arc of the meridian to establish the metric system in France
(1733-1799).


BORDEAUX (256), a great industrial and commercial city, and chief
seat of the wine trade in France and the third seaport on the Garonne;
cap. of the dep. of Gironde; the birthplace of Rosa Bonheur and Richard
II., his father, the Black Prince, having had his seat here as governor
of Aquitaine. There are sugar-refineries, potteries, foundries, glass and
chemical works. The cod-fishing industry has its base here. A cathedral
dates from the 11th century. There are schools of science, art, theology,
medicine, and navigation, a library, museum, and rich picture-gallery.


BORDER MINSTREL, Sir Walter Scott.


BORDERS, THE, the shifting boundary between Scotland and England
before the Union, a centre of endless fighting and marauding on the
opposite sides for centuries.


BORDONE, an Italian painter, born at Treviso, a pupil of Titian and
Giorgione; his most celebrated picture, "The Gondolier presenting the
Ring of St. Mark to the Doge" (1500-1570).


BORE, a watery ridge rushing violently up an estuary, due to a
strong tidal wave travelling up a gradually narrowing channel. Bores are
common in the estuary of the Ganges and other Asiatic rivers, in those of
Brazil, and at the mouth of the Severn, in England.


BOREAS, the god of the north wind, and son of the Titan Astraeus and
of Aurora.


BORGHESE, name of a family of high position and great wealth in
Rome: Camillo, having become Pope in 1605 under the title of Paul V.; and
Prince Borghese having married Pauline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, who
separated himself from her on the fall of her brother (1775-1832); the
palace of the family one of the finest in Rome, and has a rich collection
of paintings.


BORGHESI, COUNT, an Italian savant skilled in numismatics
(1781-1860).


BORGIA, CAESAR, fourth son of Pope Alexander VI.; was made cardinal
at the age of 17, an honour he relinquished to become a soldier, in which
capacity it is alleged he gave himself up to deeds of inhumanity, which
have made his name a synonym for every action that is most crafty,
revolting, and cruel; a portrait of him by Raphael, in the Borghese
gallery, is a masterpiece. Notwithstanding the execration in which his
memory is held, he is reputed to have been just as a ruler in his own
domain, and a patron of art and literature; _d_. 1507.


BORGIA, FRANCESO, third general of the Order of the Jesuits, a post
he filled with great zeal as well as prudent management; was beatified by
Urban VIII., and canonised by Clement IX., 1671 (1510-1572).


BORGIA, LUCRETIA, sister of Caesar Borgia, born at Rome; her father
annulled her first marriage, and gave her to a nephew of the king of
Naples, who was murdered by her brother's assassins, when she married the
Duke of Ferrara; was celebrated for her beauty and her patronage of
letters, though she has been accused of enormities as well as her brother
(1480-1523).


BORGU, fertile and densely-peopled state in Africa, traversed by the
Niger, subject to the Royal Niger Company, in one of the chief towns of
which Mungo Park lost his life.


BORLASE, WILLIAM, antiquary and naturalist, born in St. Just,
Cornwall; author of "Observations on the Antiquities of Cornwall" and
"Natural History of Cornwall"; was vicar in his native parish
(1696-1772).


BORN, BERTRAND, one of the most celebrated troubadours of the 12th
century, born in Perigord; aggravated the quarrel between Henry II. of
England and his sons; is placed by Dante in the "Inferno."


BORNE, LUDWIG, a political writer, born at Frankfort, of Jewish
parentage; disgusted with the state of things in Germany, went to Paris
after the Revolution there of 1830; was disappointed with the result, and
turned Radical; he and Heine were at deadly feud (1787-1837).


BORNEO (1,800), an island in the Malay Archipelago, the third
largest in the globe, Australia and New Guinea being larger; its length
800 m., and its breadth 700, covered with mountains in the interior,
Kinabalu the highest (13,000 ft.); has no volcanoes; bordered all round
with wide plains and low marshy ground; rich in vegetation and in
minerals, in gold and precious stones; its forests abound with valuable
timber, teak, ebony, &c.; all tropical crops and spices are cultivated;
the population is Dyak, Malay, and Chinese; possessed in great part by
the Dutch, and in the north part by the British.


BORNHOLM (35), an island belonging to Denmark, in the Baltic; has no
good harbour; agriculture, cattle-breeding, and fishing the occupation of
the inhabitants.


BORNU (5,000), a Mohammedan State in the Central Soudan, W. and S.
of Lake Tehad; famed for a breed of horses; population mostly negroes;
the ruling race of Arab descent, called Shuwas; climate hot and unhealthy
in the low ground, but temperate in the high.


BORO BUDOR, the ruin of a magnificent Buddhist temple in Java,
ornamented with figures of Buddha and scenes in his life, with
representations of battles, processions, chariot races, &c.


BORODINO, a village 70 m. W. of Moscow; the scene of a bloody battle
between Napoleon and the Russians, Sept. 7, 1812.


BORORO, a large Brazilian nation between Cuyaba and Goyaz.


BOROUGH, in Scotland BURGH, is in its modern sense primarily a
town that sends a representative to Parliament; but it is further an area
of local government, exercising police, sanitary, and sometimes
educational, supervision, and deriving its income from rates levied on
property within its bounds, and in Scotland sometimes from "common good"
and petty customs. Its charter may be held from the Crown or granted by
Parliament.


BOROUGH ENGLISH, descent of lands to a youngest son.


BOROWLASKI, COUNT, a Polish dwarf, of perfect symmetry, though only
three feet in height; attained the age of 98.


BORROME`AN ISLANDS, four islands in Lago Maggiore, of which three
were converted into gardens by Count Borromeo in 1671, on one of which
stands a palace of the Borromeos, enriched with fine paintings and other
works of art.


BORROME`O, ST. CARLO, cardinal and archbishop of Milan, a prominent
member of the Council of Trent, and contributed to the Tridentine
Catechism; conspicuous by his self-sacrificing offices during a plague in
the city of which he was the archbishop (1538-1584).


BORROMEO, FREDERIGO, nephew and successor of the preceding, of equal
status in the Church, and similar character (1584-1631).


BORROW, GEORGE HENRY, traveller and philologist, born in Norfolk;
showed early a passion for adventure and a facility in languages; was
appointed agent for the Bible Society in Russia and Spain; in his
fondness for open-air life, associated much with the gipsies; wrote an
account of those in Spain, and a famous book, entitled "The Bible In
Spain"; wrote "Lavengro," his masterpiece (a gipsy designation applied to
him, meaning "word-master," which he was), which is chiefly
autobiography (1803-1831).


BORROWDALE, a valley in the Lake District, W. Cumberland, celebrated
for its beautiful scenery.


BORTHWICK CASTLE, a ruined peel tower, 13 m. SE. of Edinburgh, where
Queen Mary and Bothwell spent four days together in June 1567.


BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French traveller and
naturalist (1780-1846).


BOSCAWEN, EDWARD, a British admiral, known from his fearlessness as
"Old Dreadnought"; distinguished himself in engagements at Puerto Bello,
Cathagena, Cape Finisterre, and the Bay of Lagos, where, after a "sea
hunt" of 24 hours, he wrecked and ruined a fine French fleet, eager to
elude his grasp (1711-1761).


BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH, an Italian mathematician and astronomer,
born at Ragusa; entered the Order of the Jesuits; was professor in Pavia,
and afterwards at Milan; discovered the equator of the sun and the period
of its rotation; advocated the molecular theory of physics, with which
his name is associated; died insane (1701-1787).


BOSIO, BARON, a celebrated Italian sculptor; patronised in France
(1769-1845).


BOSNA-SERAI (38), capital of Bosnia, and seat of authority.


BOSNIA (1,200), a province in NW. of the Balkan Peninsula, under
Austria-Hungary; the inhabitants of Servian nationality.


BOS`PHORUS (Ox-ford), a channel 17 m. long and from 3 to 1/2 m. broad,
and about 30 fathoms deep, strongly defended by forts, extending from the
Sea of Marmora to the Black Sea; subject to Turkey. It derives its name
from the channel which, according to the Greek myth, Zeus, in the form of
an ox, crossed into Europe with Europa on his back.


BOS`QUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH, a marshal of France, distinguished
in Algiers and the Crimea; was wounded at the storming of the Malakoff
(1810-1861).


BOS`SUET, JACQUES BENIGNE, bishop of Meaux, born at Dijon, surnamed
the "Eagle of Meaux," of the see of which he became bishop; one of the
greatest of French pulpit orators, and one of the ablest defenders of the
doctrines of the Catholic Church; the great aim of his life the
conversion of Protestants back to the Catholic faith; took a leading part
in establishing the rights of the Gallican clergy, or rather of the
Crown, as against the claims of the Pope; proved himself more a
time-server than a bold, outspoken champion of the truth; conceived a
violent dislike to Madame Guyon, and to Fenelon for his defence of her
and her Quietists; and he is not clear of the guilt of the Revocation of
the Edict of Nantes; wrote largely; his "Discourse on Universal History"
is on approved lines, and the first attempt at a philosophy of history;
his Funeral Orations are monuments of the most sublime eloquence; while
his "Politique founded on Holy Scripture" is a defence of the divine
right of kings. "Bossuet," says Professor Saintsbury, "was more of a
speaker than a writer. His excellence lies in his wonderful survey and
grasp of the subject, in the contagious enthusiasm and energy with which
he attacks his point, and in his inexhaustible metaphors and
comparisons.... Though he is always aiming at the sublime, he scarcely
ever oversteps it, or falls into the bombastic or ridiculous.... The most
unfortunate incident of his life was his controversy with Fenelon"
(1627-1704).


BOSSUT, CHARLES, French mathematician, born near Lyons, _confrere_
of the Encyclopaedists; his chief work "L'Histoire Generale des
Mathematiques"; edited Pascal's works (1730-1814).


BOSTON (19), a Lincolnshire seaport, on the Witham, 30 m. SE. of
Lincoln; exports coal, machinery, corn, and wool, and imports timber and
general goods. There is a large cattle and sheep market, also canvas and
sail-cloth works. Fox, the martyrologist, was a native. It has a spacious
church, which is a conspicuous landmark and beacon at sea.


BOSTON (561), on Massachusetts Bay, is the capital of Massachusetts
and the chief city of New England, one of the best-built and
best-appointed cities of the Union. With an excellent harbour and eight
converging railways it is an emporium of trade, and very wealthy. Sugar,
wool, hides, and chemicals are imported; farm produce, cattle, cotton,
and tobacco exported; boot and shoe making is one of many varied
industries. The many educational institutions and its interest in
literature and art have won for it the title of American Athens. Among
famous natives were Franklin, Poe, and Emerson; while most American men
of letters have been associated with it. The Boston riots of 1770 and
1773 were the heralds of the revolution, and the first battle was fought
at Bunker Hill, not far off, now included in it.


BOSTON, THOMAS, a Scottish divine, born at Duns, educated at
Edinburgh, became minister of Ettrick; author of the "Fourfold State," a
popular exposition of Calvinism, and "The Crook in the Lot," both at one
time much read and studied by the pious Presbyterian burghers and
peasantry of Scotland; the former an account of the state of man, first
in innocence, second as fallen, third as redeemed, and fourth as in
glory. He was a shrewd man and a quaint writer; exercised a great
influence on the religious views of the most pious-minded of his
countrymen (1676-1732).


BOSTON TEA-PARTY, the insurgent American colonists who, disguised as
Indians, boarded, on Dec. 16, 1773, three English ships laden with tea,
and hurled several hundred chests of it into Boston harbour, "making it
black with unexpected tea."


BOSWELL, JAMES, the biographer of Johnson, born at Edinburgh, showed
early a penchant for writing and an admiration for literary men; fell in
with Johnson on a visit to London in 1763, and conceived for him the most
devoted regard; made a tour with him to the Hebrides in 1773, the
"Journal" of which he afterwards published; settled in London, and was
called to the English bar; succeeded, in 1782, to his father's estate,
Auchinleck, in Ayrshire, with an income of L1600 a year. Johnson dying in
1784, Boswell's "Life" of him appeared five years after, a work unique in
biography, and such as no man could have written who was not a
hero-worshipper to the backbone. He succumbed in the end to intemperate
habits, aggravated by the death of his wife (1740-1795).


BOSWELL, SIR ALEXANDER, son and heir of the preceding, an antiquary;
mortally wounded in a duel with James Stuart of Dunearn, who had impugned
his character, for which the latter was tried, but acquitted (1775-1822).


BOSWORTH, a town in Leicestershire, near which Richard III. lost
both crown and life in 1485, an event which terminated the Wars of the
Roses and led to the accession of the Tudor dynasty to the throne of
England in the person of Henry VII.


BOSWORTH, JOSEPH, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, born in Derbyshire; became
professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford; was the author of an Anglo-Saxon
Grammar and Dictionary (1789-1876).


BOTANY BAY, an inlet in New South Wales, 5 m. S. of Sydney;
discovered by Captain Cook in 1770; so called, by Sir Joseph Banks, from
the variety and beauty of its flora; was once an English convict
settlement.


BOTH, JOHN AND ANDREW, Flemish painters of the 17th century, the
former a landscape and the latter a figure painter; worked frequently on
the same canvas.


BOTHNIA, a prov. of Sweden, divided into E. and W. by a gulf of the
name.


BOTHWELL, a village in Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 8 m. SE. of
Glasgow; scene of a battle between Monmouth and the Covenanters in 1679.


BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, Earl of, one of the envoys sent in 1560 to
convey Mary, Queen of Scots, from France home; was made Privy Councillor
the year after; had to flee to France for an act of conspiracy; was
recalled by Mary on her marriage with Darnley; was a great favourite with
the queen; was believed to have murdered Darnley, though when tried, was
acquitted; carried off Mary to Dunbar Castle; pardoned; was made Duke of
Orkney, and married to her at Holyrood; parted with her at Carberry Hill;
fled to Norway, and was kept captive there at Malmoee; after ten years of
misery he died, insane, as is believed (1525-1577).


BOTOCUDOS, a wandering wild tribe in the forests of Brazil, near the
coast; a very low type of men, and at a very low stage of civilisation;
are demon-worshippers, and are said to have no numerals beyond _one_.


BO-TREE, a species of Ficus, sacred to the Buddhists as the tree
under which Buddha sat when the light of life first dawned on him. See
BUDDHA.


BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE, an Italian political historian, born in
Piedmont; his most important work is his "History of Italy from 1789 to
1814"; was the author of some poems (1766-1837).


BOTTA, PAUL EMILE, Assyriologist, born at Turin, son of the
preceding; when consul at Mosul, in 1843, discovered the ruins of
Nineveh; made further explorations, published in the "Memoire de
l'Ecriture Cuneiform Assyrienne" and "Monuments de Ninive" (1802-1870).


BOeTTGER, an alchemist who, in his experiments on porcelain, invented
the celebrated Meissen porcelain (1682-1719).


BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, or ALESSANDRO, a celebrated painter of the
Florentine school; began as a goldsmith's apprentice; a pupil of Fra
Lippo Lippi; the best-known examples of his art are on religious
subjects, though he was no less fascinated with classical--mythological
conceptions; is distinguished for his attention to details and for
delicacy, particularly in the drawing of flowers; and it is a rose on the
petticoat of one of his figures, the figure of Spring, which Ruskin has
reproduced on the title-page of his recent books, remarking that "no one
has ever yet drawn, or is likely to draw, roses as he has done;... he
understood," he adds, "the thoughts of heathens and Christians equally,
and could in a measure paint both Aphrodite and the Madonna" (1447-1515).


BOeTTIGER, KARL AUGUSTE, German archaeologist, was a voluminous writer
on antiquities, especially classical (1760-1835).


BOTTOM, a weaver in the interlude in "Midsummer-Night's Dream,"
whom, with his ass's head, Titania falls in love with under the influence
of a love-potion.


BOTZARIS, one of the heroes of the war of Greek independence
(1789-1823).


BOUCHARDON, a celebrated French sculptor (1698-1762).


BOUCHER, a French painter, born at Paris (1703-1770).


BOUCHER DE PERTHES, French naturalist and anthropologist, born in
Ardennes (1783-1868).


BOUCICAULT, DION, a dramatic writer, author of popular Irish pieces,
as "The Colleen Bawn" and "The Shaughraun" (1822-1890).


BOUCICAUT, MARSHAL DE, one of the bravest and noblest of French
soldiers, born at Tours; distinguished in several famous battles; was
taken captive by the English at Agincourt; died in England (1364-1421).


BOUFFLERS, CHEVALIER DE, field-marshal of France, courtier and
author (1737-1815).


BOUFFLERS, MARQUIS DE, marshal of France, distinguished for his
defence of Namur (1695) and of Lille (1708), and his masterly retreat
from Malplaquet (1645-1711).


BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE, a French navigator, born in Paris;
voyaged round the world, which occupied him two years and a half; his
"Travels" had a remarkably stimulating effect on the imaginations of the
"philosophies," as described by him in "Un Voyage autour du Monde"
(1729-1811).


BOUGH, SAM, landscape painter, born at Carlisle, and settled in
Edinburgh for 20 years (1822-1878).


BOUGUER, PIERRE, French physicist, born in Brittany; wrote on optics
and the figure of the earth (1698-1758).


BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE, a distinguished French painter, born at
Rochelle in 1825; his subjects both classical and religious, as well as
portraits.


BOUHOUR, LE PERE, French litterateur, born at Paris (1628-1702).


BOUILLE, MARQUIS DE, a French general, born in Auvergne, distinguished in
the Seven Years' War, in the West Indies and during the Revolution; "last
refuge of royalty in all straits"; favoured the flight of Louis XVI.; a
"quick, choleric, sharp-discerning, stubbornly-endeavouring man, with
suppressed-explosive resolution, with valour, nay, headlong audacity;
muzzled and fettered by diplomatic pack-threads,... an intrepid,
adamantine man"; did his utmost for royalty, failed, and quitted France;
died in London, and left "Memoirs of the French Revolution" (1759-1800).
See for the part he played in it, CARLYLE'S "FRENCH REVOLUTION."


BOUILLON, district in Belgium, originally a German duchy; belonged
to Godfrey, the crusader, who pledged it to raise funds for the crusade.


BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS, a French dramatist, born near Tours,
nicknamed, from his sentimentality "poete lacrymal" (1763-1842).


BOULAINVILLIERS, a French historian, author of a "History of
Mahomet" (1658-1722).


BOULAK (20), the port of Cairo, on the Nile.


BOULAN`GER, JEAN MARIE, a French general, born at Rennes; of note
for the political intrigues with which he was mixed up during the last
years of his life, and the dangerous popular enthusiasm which he excited;
accused of peculation; fled the country, and committed suicide at
Brussels (1837-1891).


BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, a French statesman, distinguished as an
orator; took part in the redaction of the Civil Code; was a faithful
adherent of Napoleon (1761-1840). Henri, a son, vice-president of the
Republic from 1849 to 1851 (1797-1858).


BOULDER, a large mass or block of rock found in localities often far
removed from the place of its formation, and transported thither on the
ice of the Glacial Age.


BOULEVARD, the rampart of a fortified city converted into a
promenade flanked by rows of trees and a feature of Paris in particular,
though the boulevard is not always on the line of a rampart.


BOULOGNE, BOIS DE, a promenade between Paris and St. Cloud, much
frequented by people of fashion, and a favourite place of recreation; it
rivals that of the Champs Elysees.


BOULOGNE-SUR-MER (46), a fortified seaport in France, on the English
Channel, in the dep. of Pas-de-Calais, 27 m. SW. of Calais, one of the
principal ports for debarkation from England; where Napoleon collected in
1803 a flotilla to invade England; is connected by steamer with
Folkestone, and a favourite watering-place; the chief station of the
North Sea fisheries; is the centre of an important coasting trade, and
likely to become a naval station.


BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE (32), a town on the right bank of the Seine, 5 m.
SW. of Paris, from which it is separated by the Bois-de-Boulogne.


BOULTON, MATTHEW, an eminent engineer, born at Birmingham; entered
into partnership with James Watt, and established with him a manufactory
of steam-engines at Soho, on a barren heath near his native place;
contributed to the improvement of the coinage (1728-1809).


"BOUNTY," MUTINY OF THE, a mutiny which took place on the ship
_Bounty_, on the 28th April 1789, bound from Otaheite to the West Indies,
on the part of 25 of the crew, who returned to Otaheite after setting the
captain (Bligh) adrift with others in an open boat. Bligh reached England
after a time, reported the crime, to the seizure at length of certain of
the offenders and the execution of others. Those who escaped founded a
colony on Pitcairn Island.


BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SOTER, a French general, born at Pau, served
in the Crimean War and in Italy, suffered disastrously in the
Franco-German War, and attempted suicide; served for a time under
Gambetta, afterwards retired; _b_. 1816.


BOURBON, a family of French origin, hailing from Bourbonnais,
members of which occupied for generations the thrones of France, Naples,
and Spain, and who severally ruled their territories under a more or less
overweening sense of their rights as born to reign. Two branches, both of
which trace back to Henry IV., held sway in France, one beginning with
Louis XIV., eldest son of Louis XIII., and the other, called the Orleans,
with Philip of Orleans, second son of Louis XIII., the former ending with
Charles X. and his family, and the latter ending with Louis Philippe and
his line. The branches of the family ruling in Spain and Naples began
with Philip VI., grandson of Louis XIV., the former branch still (1899)
in power, the latter ending with Francis II. in 1860.


BOURBON, CHARLES DE, styled the Constable de Bourbon, acquired
immense wealth by the death of an elder brother and by his marriage, and
lived in royal state; was for his daring in the field named Constable of
France by Francis I.; offended at some, perhaps imaginary, injustice
Francis did him, he clandestinely entered the service of the Emperor
Charles V., defeated the French at Pavia, and took Francis captive;
parted from Charles, laid siege to Rome, and fell in the assault,
mortally wounded, it is said, by Benvenuto Cellini (1489-1527).


BOURBONNAIS, ancient province in the centre of France, being the
duchy of Bourbon; united to the crown in 1531; cap. Moulins.


BOURDALOUE, LOUIS, a French Jesuit, born at Bourges, called the
"king of preachers, and preacher of kings"; one of the most eloquent
pulpit orators of France; did not suffer by comparison with Bossuet, his
contemporary, though junior; one of the most earnest and powerful of his
sermons, the one entitled "The Passion," is deemed the greatest. His
sermons are ethical in their matter from a Christian standpoint,
carefully reasoned, and free from ornament, but fearless and
uncompromising (1632-1704).


BOURDON, SEBASTIAN, a French painter, born at Montpellier; his
_chef-d'oeuvre_ "The Crucifixion of St. Peter," executed for the church
of Notre Dame (1616-1671).


BOURDON DE L'OISE, a French revolutionist, member of the Convention;
banished to Guiana, where he died in 1791.


BOURGELAT, a famous French veterinary surgeon, born at Lyons, and
founder of veterinary colleges at Lyons in 1762; was an authority on
horse management, and often consulted on the matter (1712-1779).


BOURGEOIS, SIR FRANCIS, painter to George III.; left his collection
to Dulwich College, and L10,000 to build a gallery for them (1756-1811).


BOURGEOISIE, the name given in France to the middle class,
professional people, and merchants, as distinguished from the nobles and
the peasants, but applied by the Socialists to the capitalists as
distinct from the workers.


BOURGES (43), a French town in the dep. of Cher; birthplace of Louis
XI. and Bourdaloue.


BOURGET, PAUL, an eminent French novelist and essayist, born at
Amiens; a subtle analyst of character, with a clear and elegant style, on
which he bestows great pains; his novels are what he calls
"psychological," and distinct from the romantist and naturalistic; _b_.
1852.


BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE, a Flemish visionary and fanatic; resolved
religion into emotion; brought herself into trouble by the wild fancies
she promulgated, to the derangement of others as well as herself
(1615-1680).


BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE, a French marshal; at the
Revolution joined the Bourbons on the frontiers; served the royal cause
in La Vendee; held high commands under Napoleon; commanded under Ney on
Napoleon's return from Elba; deserted on the eve of Waterloo to Louis
XVIII.; gave evidence against Ney to his execution; commanded the
expedition against Algiers; refused allegiance to Louis Philippe on his
accession, and was dismissed the service (1773-1846).


BOURNE, HUGH, founder of the Primitive Methodists, and a zealous
propagator of their principles; he was a carpenter by trade, and he
appears to have wrought at his trade while prosecuting his mission, which
he did extensively both in Britain and America (1772-1852).


BOURNEMOUTH (38), a town in Hants, on Poole Bay, 37 m. SW. of
Southampton, with a fine sandy beach; a great health resort; is of
recent, and has been of rapid, growth.


BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET, secretary of Napoleon, and a
school friend, born at Sens; held the post for five years, but dismissed
for being implicated in disgraceful money transactions; joined the
Bourbons at the Restoration; the Revolution of 1830 and the loss of his
fortune affected his mind, and he died a lunatic at Caen; wrote "Memoirs"
disparaging to Napoleon (1769-1834).


BOUSSA, a town in Central Africa, capital of a State of the same
name, where Mungo Park lost his life as he was going up the Niger.


BOUSTROPHE`DON, an ancient mode of writing from right to left, and
then from left to right, as in ploughing a field.


BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH, a German philosopher and professor of
Philosophy at Goettingen; a disciple of Kant, then of Jacobi, and
expounder of their doctrines; wrote "History of Poetry and Eloquence
among the Modern Races" (1766-1828).


BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD, an English traveller, born at Bristol; sent
on a mission to Guinea, and penetrated as far as Coomassie; wrote an
interesting account of it in his "Mission to Ashanti" (1791-1824).


BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL, American mathematician, born at Salem,
Massachusetts; a practical scientist; published "Practical Navigation,"
translated the "Mecanique Celeste" of Laplace, accompanied with an
elaborate commentary (1773-1838).


BOWDLER, THOMAS, an English physician; edited expurgated editions of
Shakespeare and Gibbon in the interest of moral purity; added in
consequence a new term to the English language, Bowdlerism (1754-1825).


BOWDOIN, JAMES, an American statesman, born in Boston, of French
extraction; a zealous advocate of American independence; author of
"Discourse on the Constitution of the United States" (1727-1790).


BOWEN, RICHARD, a gallant British naval commander, distinguished
himself in several engagements, and by his captures of the enemy's ships;
killed by grape-shot at the storming of Santa Cruz, at the moment when
Nelson was wounded (1761-1797).


BOWER, WALTER, abbot of Inchcolm, Scottish chronicler; continued
Fordun's History down to the death of James I. in 1437 from 1153
(1385-1449).


BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE, a poet, born in Northamptonshire; his
sonnets, by their "linking," as Professor Saintsbury has it, "of nature's
aspect to human feeling," were much admired by Coleridge, and their
appearance is believed to have inaugurated a new era in English poetry,
as developed in the Lake School (1762-1850).


BOWLING, TOM, a typical British sailor in "Roderick Random."


BOWLING, SIR JOHN, linguist and political writer, born at Exeter;
friend and disciple of Bentham as well as editor of his works; first
editor of _Westminster Review_; at the instance of the English Government
visited the Continental States to report on their commercial relations;
became governor of Hong-Kong; ordered the bombardment of Canton, which
caused dissatisfaction at home (1792-1872).


BOWYER, WILLIAM, printer and scholar, born in London; wrote on the
origin of printing, and published an edition of the Greek New Testament
with notes (1699-1777).


"BOX AND COX," a farce by J. M. Morton, remarkable for a successful
run such as is said to have brought the author L7000.


BOY BISHOP, a boy chosen on 6th December, St. Nicholas' Day,
generally out of the choir, to act as bishop and do all his episcopal
duties, except celebrate mass. For the term of his office, which varied,
he was treated as bishop, and if he died during his tenure of it was
buried with episcopal honours. The term of office was limited in 1279 to
24 hours.


BOYARS, the old nobility of Russia, whose undue influence in the
State was broken by Peter the Great; also the landed aristocracy of
Roumania.


BOYCE, WILLIAM, composer, chiefly of church music, born in London;
published a collection of the "Cathedral Music of the Old English
Masters"; composed "Hearts of Oak," a naval song sung by ships' crews at
one time before going into action (1710-1779).


BOYCOTT, CAPTAIN, an Irish landlord's agent in Connemara, with whom
the population of the district in 1880 refused to have any dealings on
account of disagreements with the tenantry.


BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON, a Scottish clergyman and writer;
bred for the bar, but entered the Church; known to fame as A. K. H. B.;
author of "Recreations of a Country Parson," which was widely read, and
of Reminiscences of his life; died at Bournemouth by mischance of
swallowing a lotion instead of a sleeping-draught (1825-1899).


BOYD, ZACHARY, a Scottish divine; regent of a Protestant college at
Samur, in France; returned to Scotland in consequence of the persecution
of the Huguenots; became minister of Barony Parish, Glasgow, and rector
of the University; preached before Cromwell after the battle of Dunbar;
author of the "Last Battell of the Soule in Death" and "Zion's Flowers,"
being mainly metrical versions of Scripture, called "Boyd's Bible"
(1585-1653).


BOYDELL, JOHN, an English engraver and print-seller, famous for his
"Shakespeare Gallery," with 96 plates in illustration of Shakespeare, and
the encouragement he gave to native artists; he issued also Hume's
"History of England," with 196 plates in illustration (1719-1804).


BOYER, BARON, French anatomist and surgeon; attendant on Napoleon,
afterwards professor in the University of Paris; wrote works on anatomy
and surgical diseases, which continued for long text-books on those
subjects; was a man of very conservative opinions (1757-1833).


BOYER, JEAN PIERRE, president of Hayti, born at Port-au-Prince of a
negress and a Creole father; secured the independence of the country;
held the presidency for 25 years from 1818, but suspected of consulting
his own advantage more than that of the country, was driven from power by
a revolution in 1843; retired to Paris, where he spent the rest of his
life and died (1776-1850).


BOYLE, CHARLES, fourth Earl of Orrery, distinguished for the
connection of his name with the Bentley controversy, and for its
connection with an astronomical contrivance by one Graham to illustrate
the planetary system (1676-1731).


BOYLE, RICHARD, first and great Earl of Cork, distinguished among
Irish patriots and landlords for what he did to improve his estates and
develop manufactures and the mechanical arts in Ireland, also for the
honours conferred upon him for his patriotism; when Cromwell saw how his
estates were managed he remarked, that had there been one like him in
every province in Ireland rebellion would have been impossible
(1566-1643).


BOYLE, THE HON. ROBERT, a distinguished natural philosopher, born at
Lismore, of the Orrery family; devoted his life and contributed greatly
to science, especially chemistry, as well as pneumatics; was one of the
originators of the "Royal Society"; being a student of theology, founded
by his will an endowment for the "Boyle Lectures" in defence of
Christianity against its opponents and rivals; refused the presidentship
of the Royal Society, and declined a peerage (1626-1691).


BOYLE LECTURES, the lectureship founded by the Hon. Robert Boyle in
1691, and held for a tenure of three years, the endowment being L50 per
annum; the lecturer must deliver eight lectures in defence of
Christianity, and some of the most eminent men have held the post.


BOYLE'S LAW, that the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure.


BOYNE, a river in Ireland, which flows through Meath into the Irish
Sea; gives name to the battle in which William III. defeated the forces
of James II. on 30th July 1690.


BOZ, a _nom de plume_ under which Dickens wrote at first, being his
nickname when a boy for a little brother.


BOZZY, Johnson's familiar name for Boswell.


BRABANT, in mediaeval times was an important prov. of the Low
Countries, inhabitants Dutch, cap. Breda; is now divided between Holland
and Belgium. It comprises three provs., the N. or Dutch Brabant; Antwerp,
a Belgian prov., inhabitants Flemings, cap. Antwerp; and S. Brabant, also
Belgian, inhabitants Walloons, cap. Brussels; the whole mostly a plain.


BRACTON, HENRY DE, an English "justice itinerant," a writer on
English law of the 13th century; author of "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus
Angliae," a "Treatise on the Laws and Customs of England," and the first
attempt of the kind; _d_. 1268.


BRADAMANTE, sister to Rinaldo, and one of the heroines in "Orlando
Furioso"; had a lance which unhorsed every one it touched.


BRADDOCK, EDWARD, British general, born in Perthshire; entered the
Coldstream Guards, and became major-general in 1754; commanded a body of
troops against the French in America, fell in an attempt to invest Fort
Duquesue, and lost nearly all his men (1695-1755).


BRADDON, MISS (Mrs. John Maxwell), a popular novelist, born in
London; authoress of "Lady Audley's Secret," "Aurora Floyd," and some 50
other novels; contributed largely to magazines; _b_. 1837.


BRADFORD (216), a Yorkshire manufacturing town, on a tributary of
the Aire, 9 m. W. of Leeds; it is the chief seat of worsted spinning and
weaving in England, and has an important wool market; coal and iron mines
are at hand, and iron-works and machinery-making are its other industries.
Also the name of a manufacturing town on the Avon, in Wilts.


BRADLAUGH, CHARLES, a social reformer on secularist lines, born in
London; had a chequered career; had for associate in the advocacy of his
views Mrs. Annie Besant; elected M.P. for Northampton thrice over, but
not allowed to sit till he took the oath, which he did in 1886; died
respected by all parties in the House of Commons; wrote the "Impeachment
of the House of Brunswick" (1833-1891).


BRADLEY, JAMES, astronomer, born in Gloucestershire; professor of
Astronomy at Oxford, and astronomer-royal at Greenwich; discovered the
aberration of light and the nutation of the earth's axis; made 60,000
astronomical observations (1693-1762).


BRADSHAW, GEORGE, an engraver of maps in Manchester; published maps
illustrative of certain canal systems, and did the same service for
railways, which developed into the well-known "Railway Guide"
(1830-1863).


BRADSHAW, JOHN, president of the High Court of Justice for trial of
Charles I., born at Stockport; bred for the bar; a friend of Milton; a
thorough republican, and opposed to the Protectorate; became president of
the Council on Cromwell's death; was buried in Westminster; his body was
exhumed and hung in chains at the Restoration (1586-1659).


BRADWARDIN, THOMAS, archbishop of Canterbury, surnamed "Doctor
Profundus" from his treatise "De Causa Dei" against Pelagianism; chaplain
to Edward III.; was present at Crecy and at the taking of Calais; died of
the black death shortly after his consecration (1290-1348).


BRADWARDINE, the name of a baron and his daughter, the heroine of
"Waverley."


BRAEMAR`, a Scottish Highland district SW. of Aberdeenshire; much
frequented by tourists, and resorted to for summer country quarters.


BRAG, JACK, a pretender who ingratiates himself with people above
him.


BRAGA (23), a city, 34 m. NE. of Oporto, Portugal; the residence of
the Primate; the capital of Minho.


BRAGANZA, capital of Traz-os-Montes, in Portugal; gives name to the
ruling dynasty of Portugal, called the House of Braganza, the eighth duke
of Braganza having ascended the throne in 1640, on the liberation of
Portugal from the yoke of Spain.


BRAGI, the Norse god of poetry and eloquence, son of Odin and
Frigga; represented as an old man with a long flowing beard and
unwrinkled brow, with a mild expression of face; received in Valhalla the
heroes who fell in battle.


BRAHAM, JOHN, a celebrated tenor singer, the most so in Europe of
his day, and known all over Europe; was particularly effective in
rendering the national songs; born in London, of Jewish parents; composed
operas, which, however, were only dramas interspersed with songs. Scott
described him as "a beast of an actor, but an angel of a singer"
(1774-1856).


BRAHE, TYCHO, a Swedish astronomer, of noble birth; spent his life
in the study of the stars; discovered a new star in Cassiopeia; had an
observatory provided for him on an island in the Sound by the king, where
he made observations for 20 years; he was, on the king's death, compelled
to retire under persecution at the hand of the nobles; accepted an
invitation of the Kaiser Rudolf II. to Prague, where he continued his
work and had Kepler for assistant and pupil (1546-1601).


BRAHMA, in the Hindu religion and philosophy at one time the formless
spirit of the Universe, from which all beings issue and into which they
all merge, and as such is not an object of worship, but a subject of
meditation; and at another the creator of all things, of which VISHNU (q.
v.) is the preserver AND SIVA (q. v.) the destroyer, killing that he may
make alive. See TRIMURTI.


BRAHMAN, or BRAHMIN, one of the sacred caste of the Hindus that
boasts of direct descent from, or immediate relationship with, Brahma,
the custodians and mediators of religion, and therefore of high-priestly
rank.


BRAHMANAS, treatises on the ceremonial system of Brahminism, with
prescriptions bearing upon ritual, and abounding in legends and
speculations.


BRAHMAPUTRA (i. e. son of Brahma), a river which rises in Tibet,
circles round the E. of the Himalayas, and, after a course of some 1800
m., joins the Ganges, called the Sampo in Tibet, the Dihong in Assam, and
the Brahmaputra in British India; it has numerous tributaries, brings
down twice as much mud as the Ganges, and in the lower part of its course
overflows the land, particularly Assam, like an inland sea.


BRAHMINISM, the creed and ritual of the Brahmans, or that social,
political, and religious organisation which developed among the Aryans in
the valley of the Ganges under the influence of the Brahmans. According
to the religious conception of this class, Brahma, or the universal
spirit, takes form or incarnates himself successively as Brahma, Vishnu,
and Siva, which triple incarnation constitutes a trimurti or trinity. In
this way Brahma, the first incarnation of the universal spirit, had four
sons, from whom issued the four castes of India--Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaisyas, and Sudras--all the rest being outcasts or pariahs. See
CASTE.


BRAHMO-SOMAJ (i. e. church of God), a secession from traditional
Hinduism, originated in 1830 by Rammohun Roy, and developed by Chunder
Sen; founded on theistic, or rather monotheistic, i. e. unitarian,
principles, and the rational ideas and philosophy of Europe, as well as a
profession of a sense of the brotherhood of man no less than the unity of
God.


BRAHMS, JOHANNES, a distinguished composer, born at Hamburg; of
great promise from a boy; settled in Vienna; has no living rival; the
appearance of compositions of his an event in the musical world;
approaches Beethoven as no other does; distinguished as a performer as
well as a composer; _b_. 1833.


BRAIDWOOD, JAMES, born in Edinburgh; director of the London fire
brigade; distinguished for his heroism on the occasion of great fires
both in Edinburgh and London (1790-1861).


BRAILLE, a blind Frenchman, invented printing in relief for the
blind (1809-1852).


BRAINERD, American missionary to the Red Indians, born in
Connecticut; his Life was written by Jonathan Edwards, in whose house he
died (1718-1747).


BRAMAH, JOSEPH, an engineer, born in Barnsley, Yorkshire; author of
many mechanical inventions, 18 of which were patented, among others the
hydraulic press, named after him (1748-1814).


BRAMANTE, DONATO, architect; laid the foundation of St. Peter's at
Rome, which he did not live to complete (1444-1514).


BRAMBLE, MATTHEW, a gouty humorist in "Humphrey Clinker"; of a
fretful temper, yet generous and kind, who has a sister, MISS
TABITHA, an ungainly maiden at forty-five, and of anything but a
sweet temper.


BRAMHALL, JOHN, archbishop of Armagh, born in Yorkshire, a
high-handed Churchman and imitator of Laud; was foolhardy enough once to
engage, nowise to his credit, in public debate with such a dialectician
as Thomas Hobbes on the questions of necessity and free-will (1594-1663).


BRAMWELL, SIR FREDERICK, civil engineer, president of the British
Association in 1888, and previously of Association of Engineers; _b_.
1818.


BRAN, name given to Fingal's dog.


BRAND, JOHN, antiquary, born in Durham, wrote a "Popular
Antiquities" (1744-1784).


BRANDAN, ST., ISLAND OF, an island reported of by St. Brandan as
lying W. of the Canary Islands, and that figured on charts as late as
1755, in quest of which voyages of discovery were undertaken as recently
as the beginning of the 18th century, up to which time it was believed to
exist.


BRANDE, chemist, born in London; author of "Manual of Chemistry" and
other works (1788-1866).


BRANDENBURG (2,542), in the great northern plain of Germany, is a
central Prussian province, and the nucleus of the Prussian kingdom; most
of it a sandy plain, with fertile districts and woodlands here and there.


BRANDENBURG, THE HOUSE OF, an illustrious German family dating from
the 10th century, from which descended the kings of Prussia.


BRANDES, GEORGE, a literary critic, born at Copenhagen, of Jewish
parents; his views of the present tendency of literature in Europe
provoked at first much opposition in Denmark, though they were received
with more favour afterwards; the opposition to his views were such that
he was forced to leave Copenhagen, but, after a stay in Berlin, he
returned to it in 1862, with the support of a strong party in his favour.


BRANDT, a Swedish chemist; chanced on the discovery in 1669 of
phosphorus while in quest of a solvent to transmute metals, such as
silver, into gold; _d_. 1692.


BRANDT, SEBASTIAN, a satirical writer, born at Strassburg; author of
the "Narrenschiff" or "Ship of Fools," of which there have been many
translations and not a few imitations (1458-1521).


BRANDY NAN, a nickname for Queen Anne, from her fondness for brandy.


BRANDYWINE CREEK, a small river in Delaware; scene of a victory of
the British over the Americans in 1777.


BRANGTONS, THE, a vulgar, evil-spoken family in Miss Burney's
"Evelina."


BRANT, JOSEPH, Indian chief who sided with the British in the
American war; a brave and good man; _d_. 1807.


BRANTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLES, a French chronicler, contemporary
of Montaigne, born in Perigord; led the life of a knight-errant, and
wrote Memoirs remarkable for the free-and-easy, faithful, and vivid
delineations of the characters of the most celebrated of his
contemporaries (1527-1614).


BRASIDAS, a Spartan general, distinguished in the Peloponnesian war;
his most celebrated action, the defeat at the expense of his life, in 422
B.C., of the flower of the Athenian army at Amphipolis, with a small
body of helots and mercenaries.


BRASS, SAMPSON, a knavish attorney in "Old Curiosity Shop"; affected
feeling for his clients, whom he fleeced.


BRASSES, sepulchral tablets of a mixed metal, called latten, inlaid
in a slab of stone, and insculpt with figures and inscriptions of a
monumental character; the oldest in England is at Stoke d'Abernon, in
Surrey.


BRASSEY, THOMAS, a great railway contractor, born in Cheshire;
contracted for the construction of railways in all parts of the world
(1805-1870).


BRAUN, AUGUSTE EMIL, German archaeologist, born at Gotha; works
numerous, and of value (1809-1856).


BRAVEST OF THE BRAVE, Marshal Ney, so called from his fearlessness
in battle; Napoleon had on one occasion said, "That man is a lion."


BRAXY, an inflammatory disease in sheep, due to a change in food
from succulent to dry; and the name given to the mutton of sheep affected
with it.


BRAY, a Berkshire village, famous for Simon Aleyn, its vicar from
1540 to 1588, who, to retain his living, never scrupled to change his
principles; he lived in the reigns of Charles II., James II., William
III., Queen Anne, and George I.


BRAZEN AGE, in the Greek mythology the age of violence, that
succeeded the weak Silver Age. See AGES.


BRAZIL (14,000), the largest South American State, almost equal to
Europe, occupies the eastern angle of the continent, and comprises the
Amazon basin, the tablelands of Matto Grosso, the upper basin of the
Paraguay, and the maritime highlands, with the valleys of the Parana and
San Francisco. Great stretches of the interior are uninhabitable swamp
and forest lands; forests tenanted by an endless variety of
brilliant-plumed birds and insects; the coasts are often humid and
unhealthy, but the upper levels have a fine climate. Almost all the
country is within the tropics. The population at the seaports is mostly
white; inland it is negro, mulatto, and Indian. Vegetable products are
indescribably rich and varied; timber of all kinds, rubber, cotton, and
fruit are exported; coffee and sugar are the chief crops. The vast
mineral wealth includes diamonds, gold, mercury, and copper. Most of the
trade is with Britain and America. The language is Portuguese; the
religion, Roman Catholic; education is very backward, and government
unsettled. Discovered in 1500, and annexed by Portugal; the Portuguese
king, expelled by the French in 1808, fled to his colony, which was made
a kingdom 1815, and an empire in 1822. The emperor, Pedro II., was driven
out in 1889, and a republic established on the federal system, which has
been harassed ever since by desultory civil war. The capital is Rio
Janeiro; Bahia and Pernambuco, the other seaports.


BRAZIL-WOOD, a wood found in Brazil, of great value for dyeing red,
the colouring principle being named Brasilin.


BRAZZA (22), an island in the Adriatic, belonging to Austria; is
richly wooded; noted for its wines; yields marble.


BRAZZA, PIERRE SAVORGNAN DE, explorer, born in Rome; acquired land
N. of the Congo for France, and obtained a governorship; _b_. 1852.


BREADFRUIT-TREE, a South Sea island tree producing a fruit which,
when roasted, is used as bread.


BREAL, MICHEL, a French philologist, born at Landau; translator into
French of Bopp's "Comparative Grammar"; _b_. 1832.


BRECHE-DE-ROLAND, a gorge in the dep. of the Haute-Pyrenees, which,
according to tradition, Charlemagne's Paladin of the name of Roland cleft
with one stroke of his sword when he was beset by the Gascons.


BRECHIN, a town in Forfarshire, W. of Montrose, on the S. Esk, with
a cathedral and an old round tower near it, 85 ft. high, the only one of
the kind in Scotland besides being at Abernethy.


BREDA (23), fortified town, the capital of N. Brabant; a place of
historical interest; Charles II. resided here for a time during his
exile, and issued hence his declaration prior to his restoration.


BREECHES BIBLE, the Geneva Bible, so called from its rendering in
Gen. iii. 7, in which "aprons" is rendered "breeches."


BREECHES REVIEW, the _Westminster_, so called at one time, from one
Place, an authority in it, who had been a leather-breeches maker at
Charing Cross.


BREGNET, a French chronometer-maker, born at Neuchatel; a famous
inventor of astronomical instruments (1747-1823).


BREHM, ALFRED EDMUND, German naturalist; his chief work
"Illustrirtes Thierleben" (1829-1884).


BREHON LAWS, a body of judge-created laws that for long formed the
common law of Ireland, existed from prehistoric times till Cromwell's
conquest. The origin of the code is unknown, and whether it was at first
traditional; many manuscript redactions of portions exist still.


BREMEN (126), the chief seaport of Germany, after Hamburg; is on the
Weser, 50 m. from its mouth, and is a free city, with a territory less
than Rutlandshire. Its export and import trade is very varied; half the
total of emigrants sail from its docks; it is the head-quarters of the
North German Lloyd Steamship Company. Textiles, tobacco, and paper
industries add to its prosperity; was one of the principal cities of the
Hanseatic League.


BREMER, FREDRIKA, a highly popular Swedish novelist, born in
Finland; "The Neighbours," "The President's Daughter," and "Strife and
Peace," are perhaps her best stories; has been called the Jane Austen of
Sweden.


BREMER, SIR JAMES, rear-admiral; distinguished in the Burmese and
Chinese wars (1786-1850).


BREMERHAVEN, the port of Bremen, on the estuary of the Weser,
founded for the accommodation of large vessels in 1830, with a large
hospice for emigrants.


BRENDAN, ST., an Irish saint, born at Tralee, celebrated for his
voyages in quest of "a land beyond human ken" and his discovery of "a
paradise amid the waves of the sea"; founded a monastery at Clonfert;
died in 577, in his ninety-fourth year.


BRENNER PASS, pass on the central Tyrolese Alps, 6853 ft. high,
between Innsbruck and Botzen, crossed by a railway, which facilitates
trade between Venice, Germany, and Austria.


BRENNUS, a Gallic chief, who, 300 B.C., after taking and pillaging
Rome, invested the Capitol for so long that the Romans offered him a
thousand pounds' weight of gold to retire; as the gold was being weighed
out he threw his sword and helmet into the opposite scale, adding _Vae
victis_, "Woe to the conquered," an insolence which so roused Camillus,
that he turned his back and offered battle to him and to his army, and
totally routed the whole host.


BRENTA, an Italian river; rises in the Tyrol, waters Bassano, and
debouches near Venice.


BRENTANO, CLEMENS, poet of the romanticist school, born at
Frankfort-on-the-Main, brother of Goethe's Bettina von Arnim; was a
roving genius (1778-1849).


BRENTFORD, market-town in Middlesex, on the Brent, 10 m. W. of
London, that figures in history and literature.


BRENZ, JOHANN, the reformer of Wuertemberg, and one of the authors of
the Wuertemberg Confession, as well as a catechism extensively used
(1499-1570).


BRESCIA (43), a city of Lombardy, on the Mella and Garza, 50 m. E.
of Milan; has two cathedrals, an art gallery and library, a Roman temple
excavated in 1822, and now a classical museum; its manufactures are
woollens, silks, leather, and wine.


BRESLAU (335), the capital of Silesia, second city in Prussia; an
important commercial and manufacturing centre, and has a first-class
fortress; is on the Oder, 150 m. by rail SE. of Frankfort; it stands in
the centre of the Baltic, North Sea, and Danube trade, and has a large
woollen industry and grain market; there are a cathedral, university, and
library.


BRESSAY, one of the Shetland Isles, near Lerwick, with one of the
best natural harbours in the world.


BREST (76), a strongly-fortified naval station in the extreme NW. of
France; one of the chief naval stations in France, with a magnificent
harbour, and one of the safest, first made a marine arsenal by Richelieu;
has large shipbuilding yards and arsenal; its industries are chiefly
related to naval equipment, with leather, waxcloth, and paper
manufactures.


BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE, a French _genre_ and landscape painter, born
at Courrieres, in Pas-de-Calais, 1827.


BRETON DE LOS HERREROS, Spanish poet and dramatist; wrote comedies
and satires in an easy, flowing style (1800-1873).


BRETEUIL, BARON DE, an ex-secretary of Louis XVI. (1733-1807).


BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE, a Dutch branch of the "Friends of God,"
founded at Deventer by Gerard Groote.


BRETSCHNEIDER, HENRY GOTTFRIED VON, a German satirical writer, born
at Gera; led a bohemian life; served in the army; held political posts;
composed, besides satirical writings, "Almanach der Heiligen auf das
Jahr, 1788," "Wallers Leben und Sitten," and the comic epic, "Graf Esau"
(1739-1810).


BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB, a German rationalistic theologian;
much regarded for his sound judgment in critical matters; his theological
writings are of permanent value; his chief works, "Handbuch der
Dogmatik," and an edition of Melanchthon's works.


BRETWALDA, a title apparently of some kind of acknowledged supremacy
among the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the leader in war.


BREUGHEL, a family of Butch painters, a father and two sons, the
father, Peter, called "OLD" B. (1510-1570); a son, John, "VELVET"
B., either from his dress or from the vivid freshness of his colours
(1560-1625); and the other, Peter, "HELLISH" B., from his fondness
for horrible subjects (1559-1637).


BREVET`, a commission entitling an officer in the army to a nominal
rank above his real rank.


BREVIARY, a book containing the daily services in the Roman Catholic
Church and corresponding to the English Prayer-Book; differs from the
"Missal," which gives the services connected with the celebration of the
Eucharist, and the "Pontifical," which gives those for special occasions.


BREWER, JOHN SHERREN, historian, professor of English Literature in
King's College, London; author of "Calendar of Letters and Papers of
Henry VIII.'s Reign," his work the sole authority on Henry's early reign
(1810-1879).


BREWER OF GHENT, Jacob Arteveld.


BREWSTER, SIR DAVID, an eminent Scottish natural philosopher, born
at Jedburgh; edited the "Edinburgh Encyclopaedia," in the pages of which
Carlyle served his apprenticeship; specially distinguished for his
discoveries in light, his studies in optics, and for his optical
inventions, such as the kaleidoscope and the stereoscope; connected with
most scientific associations of his time; wrote largely on scientific and
other subjects, e. g., a Life of Newton, as well as Lives of Euler,
Kepler, and others of the class; Principal of the United Colleges of St.
Andrews, and afterwards of Edinburgh, being succeeded at St. Andrews by
James David Forbes, who years before defeated him as candidate for the
Natural Philosophy chair in Edinburgh; bred originally for the Church,
and for a time a probationer (1781-1868).


BREWSTER, WILLIAM, leader of the Pilgrim Fathers in the _Mayflower_,
who conveyed them to Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620; had been a
clergyman of the Church of England.


BRIAN BOROIHME, an Irish chief, who early in the 10th century
established his rule over a great part of Ireland, and made great efforts
for the civilisation of the country; died defeating the Danes at
Clontarf, being, it is said, the twenty-fifth battle in which he defeated
them.


BRIANCON, the highest town in France, 4300 ft. above sea-level, 42
m. SE. from Grenoble, with a trade in cutlery.


BRIAREUS, a Uranid with 50 heads and 100 arms, son of Ouranos and
Gaia, i. e. Heaven and Earth, whom Poseidon cast into the sea and
buried under Etna, but whom Zeus delivered to aid him against the Titans;
according to another account, one of THE GIANTS (q. v.).


BRICE, ST., bishop of Tours in the beginning of the 5th century, and
disciple of St. Martin. Festival, Nov. 19.


BRICE'S, ST., a day in 1002 on which a desperate attempt was made to
massacre all the Danes in England and stamp them wholly out, an attempt
which was avenged by the Danish king, Sweyn.


BRICK, JEFFERSON, an American politician in "Martin Chuzzlewit."


BRIDE OF THE SEA, Venice, so called from a ceremony in which her
espousals were celebrated by the Doge casting a ring into the Adriatic.


BRIDEWELL, a house of correction in Blackfriars, London, so called
from St. Bridget's well, near it.


BRIDGE OF ALLAN, a village on Allan water, 3 m. N. of Stirling, with
a mild climate and mineral waters.


BRIDGE OF SIGHS, a covered way in Venice leading from the Ducal
Palace to the State prison, and over which culprits under capital
sentence were transported to their doom, whence the name.


BRIDGENORTH, MAJOR RALPH, a Roundhead in "Peveril of the Peak."


BRIDGEPORT (48), a thriving manufacturing town and seaport of
Connecticut, U.S., 58 m. NE. from New York.


BRIDGET, MRS., a character in "Tristram Shandy."


BRIDGET, ST., an Irish saint, born at Dundalk; entered a monastery
at 14; founded monasteries; takes rank in Ireland with St. Patrick and
St. Columba. Festival, Feb. 1 (453-523). Also the name of a Swedish saint
in the 14th century; founded a new Order, and 72 monasteries of the
Order.


BRIDGETON, a manufacturing town in New Jersey, 38 m. S. of
Philadelphia.


BRIDGETOWN (21), capital of Barbadoes, seat of the government, the
bishop, a college, &c.; it has suffered frequently from hurricane and
fever.


BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS EGERTON, 3RD DUKE OF, celebrated for his
self-sacrificing devotion to the improvement and extension of canal
navigation in England, embarking in it all his wealth, in which he was
aided by the skill of Brindley; he did not take part in politics, though
he was a supporter of Pitt; died unmarried (1736-1803).


BRIDGEWATER, FRANCIS HENRY EGERTON, 8TH EARL OF, educated for the
Church, bequeathed L8000 for the best work on natural theology, which his
trustees expended in the production of eight works by different eminent
men, called "Bridgewater Treatises," all to be found in Bohn's Scientific
Library (1758-1829).


BRIDGMAN, LAURA, a deaf, dumb, and blind child, born in New
Hampshire, U.S.; noted for the surprising development of intellectual
faculty notwithstanding these drawbacks; Dickens gives an account of her
in his "American Notes" (1829-1889).


BRIDGWATER, a seaport town in Somersetshire, 29 m. SW. of Bristol.


BRIDLEGOOSE, JUDGE, a judge in Rabelais' "Pantagruel," who decided
cases by the throw of dice.


BRIDLINGTON, a watering-place in Yorkshire, 6 m. SW. of Flamborough
Head, with a chalybeate spring.


BRIDPORT, VISCOUNT, a British admiral, distinguished in several
engagements (1797-1814).


BRIEG (20), a thriving, third, commercially speaking, town in
Prussian Silesia, 25 m. SE. of Breslau.


BRIENNE, JEAN DE, descendant of an old French family; elected king
of Jerusalem, then emperor of Constantinople; _d_. 1237.


BRIENZ, LAKE OF, lake in the Swiss canton of Bern, 8 m. long, 2 m.
broad, over 800 ft. above sea-level, and of great depth in certain parts,
abounding in fish. Town of, a favourite resort for tourists.


BRIEUC, ST., (19), a seaport and an episcopal city in the dep. of
Cotes-du-Nord, France.


BRIGADE, a body of troops under a general officer, called brigadier,
consisting of a number of regiments, squadrons, or battalions.


BRIGANTES, a powerful British tribe that occupied the country
between the Humber and the Roman Wall.


BRIGGS, HENRY, a distinguished English mathematician; first Savilian
professor at Oxford; made an important improvement on the system of
logarithms, which was accepted by Napier, the inventor, and is the system
now in use (1561-1631).


BRIGHAM YOUNG, the chief of the Mormons (1801-1877).


BRIGHT, JAMES FRANCK, historian, Master of University College,
Oxford; author of "English History for the Use of Public Schools," a book
of superior literary merit; _b_. 1832.


BRIGHT, JOHN, English statesman, son of a Lancashire cotton spinner,
born near Rochdale; of Quaker birth and profession; engaged in
manufacture; took an early interest in political reform; he joined the
Anti-Corn-Law League on its formation in 1839, and soon was associated
with Cobden in its great agitation; entering Parliament in 1843, he was a
strong opponent of protection, the game laws, and later of the Crimean
war; he advocated financial reform and the reform of Indian
administration; and on the outbreak of the American Civil War supported
the North, though his business interests suffered severely; he was
closely associated with the 1867 Reform Act, Irish Church
Disestablishment 1869, and the 1870 Irish Land Act; his Ministerial
career began in 1868, but was interrupted by illness; in 1873, and again
in 1881, he was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; he seceded from
Gladstone's Government on the Egyptian policy in 1882, and strenuously
opposed Home Rule in 1886; in 1880 he was Lord Rector of Glasgow
University; he was a man of lofty and unblemished character, an animated
and eloquent orator; at his death Mr. Gladstone pronounced one of the
noblest eulogiums one public man has ever paid to another (1811-1889).


BRIGHTON (128), a much-frequented watering-place in Sussex, 50 m. S.
of London, of which it is virtually a suburb; a place of fashionable
resort ever since George IV. took a fancy to it; a fine parade extends
along the whole length of the sea front; has many handsome edifices, a
splendid aquarium, a museum, schools of science and art, public library
and public gallery; the principal building is the Pavilion or Marine
Palace, originally built for George IV. Also the name of a suburb of
Melbourne.


BLIGHT'S DISEASE, a disease in the kidneys, due to several diseased
conditions of the organ, so called from Dr. Richard Bright, who first
investigated its nature.


BRIL BROTHERS, MATTHEW AND PAUL, landscape painters, born at
Antwerp; employed in the 16th century by successive Popes to decorate the
Vatican at Rome; of whom Paul, the younger, was the greater artist; his
best pictures are in Rome.


BRILLAT-SAVARIN, a French gastronomist, author of "Physiologie du
Gout," a book full of wit and learning, published posthumously; was
professionally a lawyer and some time a judge (1755-1825).


BRIN`DISI (15), a seaport of Southern Italy, on the Adriatic coast;
has risen in importance since the opening of the Overland Route as a
point of departure for the East; it is 60 hours by rail from London, and
three days by steam from Alexandria; it was the port of embarkation for
Greece in ancient times, and for Palestine in mediaeval.


BRINDLEY, JAMES, a mechanician and engineer, born in Derbyshire;
bred a millwright; devoted his skill and genius to the construction of
canals, under the patronage of the Duke of Bridgewater, as the greatest
service he could render to his country; regarded rivers as mere "feeders
to canals" (1716-1772).


BRINK, JAN TEN, a Dutch writer, distinguished as a critic in the
department of belles-lettres; _b_. 1834.


BRINVILLIERS, MARQUISE DE, notorious for her gallantries and for
poisoning her father, brother, and two sisters for the sake of their
property; was tortured and beheaded; the poison she used appears to have
been the Tofana poison, an art which one of her paramours taught her
(1630-1676). See AQUA TOFANA.


BRISBANE (49), capital of Queensland, on the Brisbane River, 25 m.
from the sea, 500 m. N. of Sydney, is the chief trading centre and
seaport of the Colony; it has steam communication with Australian ports
and London, and railway communication with Sydney, Melbourne, and
Adelaide; prosperity began when the colony was opened to free settlement
in 1842; it was dissociated from New South Wales and the city
incorporated in 1859.


BRISBANE, ADMIRAL SIR CHARLES, a naval officer of distinction under
Lords Hood and Nelson; captured in 1796 Dutch warships, three ships of
the line among them, in Saldanha Bay, and in 1807 the island of Curacoa;
was made governor of St. Vincent (1769-1829).


BRISBANE, SIR JAMES, naval officer, brother of the preceding, served
under Lord Howe and under Nelson at Copenhagen (1774-1829).


BRISBANE, SIR THOMAS MACDOUGALL, British general, a man of science
and an astronomer, born near Largs, Ayrshire; saw service as a soldier;
was appointed governor of New South Wales to the profit of the colony;
gave name to the capital of Queensland; catalogued over 7000 stars;
succeeded Scott as president of the Royal Society (1773-1860).


BRISE`IS, a young virgin priestess, who fell to the lot of Achilles
among the spoil of a victory, but whom Agamemnon carried off from him,
whereupon he retired to his tent and sullenly refused to take any further
part in the war, to its prolongation, in consequence, as Homer relates,
for ten long years; the theme of the "Iliad" being the "wrath of
Achilles" on this account, and what it led to.


BRISSAC, the name of a noble family which supplied several marshals
to France.


BRISSON, HENRI, French publicist and journalist; after holding
presidentships in the Chamber became premier in 1885, but resigned after
a few months; formed a Radical administration in 1898, which was
short-lived; _b_. 1835.


BRISSOT DE WARVILLE, JEAN PIERRE, a French revolutionary, born at
Chartres, son of a pastry-cook; bred to the bar, took to letters; became
an outspoken disciple of Rousseau; spent some time in the Bastille;
liberated, he went to America; returned on the outbreak of the
Revolution, sat in the National Assembly, joined the Girondists; became
one of the leaders, or rather of a party of his own, named after him
Brissotins, midway between the Jacobins and them; fell under suspicion
like the rest of the party, was arrested, tried and guillotined
(1754-1793).


BRISTOL (286), on the Avon, 6 m. from its mouth, and 118 m. W. of
London, is the largest town in Gloucestershire, the seventh in England,
and a great seaport, with Irish, W. Indian, and S. American trade; it
manufactures tobacco, boots and shoes; it has a cathedral, two colleges,
a library and many educational institutions; by a charter of Edward III.
it forms a county in itself.


BRISTOL CHANNEL, an inlet in SW. of England, between S. Wales and
Devon and Cornwall, 8 m. in length, from 5 to 43 in breadth, and with a
depth of from 5 to 40 fathoms; is subject to very high tides, and as such
dangerous to shipping; numerous rivers flow into it.


BRITANNIA, a name for Britain as old as the days of Caesar, and
inhabited by Celts, as Gaul also was.


BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, a railway bridge spanning the Menai
Strait, designed by Robert Stephenson, and completed in 1850; consists of
hollow tubes of wrought-iron plates riveted together, and took five years
in erecting.


BRITANNICUS, the son of Claudius and Messalina, poisoned by Nero.


BRITISH ARISTIDES, name applied to Andrew Marvell from his
corresponding incorruptible integrity in life and poverty at death.


BRITISH ASSOCIATION, an association, of Sir David Brewster's
suggestion, of men of all departments of science for the encouragement of
scientific research and the diffusion of scientific knowledge, which
holds its meetings annually under the presidency of some distinguished
scientist, now in this, now in that selected central city of the country;
it is divided into eight sections--mathematical, chemical, geological,
biological, geographical, economic, mechanical, and anthropological.


BRITISH COLUMBIA (98), a western fertile prov. of British America,
extending between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, and from the
United States on the S. to Alaska on the N., being 800 m. long and four
times the size of Great Britain; rich in timber and minerals; rain is
abundant, and cereals do well.


BRITISH LION, the name given to John Bull when roused by opposition.


BRITISH MUSEUM, a national institution in London for the collection
of MSS., books, prints and drawings, antiquities, and objects of natural
history, ethnology, &c.; founded as far back as 1700, though not opened,
in Montagu House as it happened, for the public benefit till 1759.


BRITOMART, is a lady knight in the "Faerie Queene," representing
chastity with a resistless magic spear.


BRITTANY (3,162), an old French prov., land of the Bretons,
comprising the peninsula opposite Devon and Cornwall, stretching westward
between the Bays of Cancale and Biscay, was in former times a duchy; a
third of its inhabitants still retain their Breton language.


BRITTON, JOHN, topographer and antiquary, born in Wiltshire in
humble position; author of "Beauties of Wiltshire," instalment of a work
embracing all the counties of England and Wales; his principal works, and
works of value, are "Antiquities of Great Britain" and "Cathedral
Antiquities of England"; his chief work is 14 volumes; the "Antiquities
in Normandy" did much to create an interest in antiquarian subjects
(1771-1857).


BRIXTON, a southern suburb of London, on the Surrey side, a district
of the city that has of late years extended immensely.


BROAD ARROW, a stamp like an arrow-head to indicate government
property.


BROAD BOTTOM MINISTRY, a coalition of great weight under Mr. Pelham,
from Nov. 1744 to Mar. 1755, so called from the powerful parties
represented in it.


BROAD CHURCH, that section of the Church which inclines to liberal
opinions in theology, and is opposed to the narrowing of either spirit or
form, perhaps to an undue degree and to the elimination of elements
distinctive of the Christian system.


BROADS, THE NORFOLK, are a series of inland lakes in the E. of
Norfolkshire, which look like expansions of the rivers; they are
favourite holiday resorts on account of the expanse of strange scenery,
abundant vegetation, keen air, fishing and boating attractions.


BROB`DINGNAG, an imaginary country in "Gulliver's Travels,"
inhabited by giants, each as tall "as an ordinary spire-steeple";
properly a native of the country, in comparison with whom Gulliver was a
pigmy "not half so big as a round little worm plucked from the lazy
finger of a maid."


BROCA, PAUL, an eminent French surgeon, anthropologist, and one of
the chief French evolutionists; held a succession of important
appointments, and was the author of a number of medical works
(1824-1880).


BROCHANT DE VILLIERS, a mineralogist and geologist, born in Paris;
director of the St. Gobin manufactory (1773-1810).


BROCHS, dry-stone circular towers, called also Picts' towers and
Duns, with thick Cyclopean walls, a single doorway, and open to the sky,
found on the edge of straths or lochs in the N. and W. of Scotland.


BROCKEN, or BLOCKSBERG, the highest peak (3740 ft.) of the Harz
Mts., cultivated to the summit; famous for a "SPECTRE" so called,
long an object of superstition, but which is only the beholder's shadow
projected through, and magnified by, the mists.


BROCKHAUS, FRIEDRICH ARNOLD, a German publisher, born at Dortmund; a
man of scholarly parts; began business in Amsterdam, but settled in
Leipzig; publisher of the famous "Conversations Lexikon," and a great
many other important works (1772-1823).


BROCOLIANDO, a forest in Brittany famous in Arthurian legend.


BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN, surgeon, born in Wiltshire; professor of
surgery; for 30 years surgeon in St. George's Hospital; was medical
adviser to three sovereigns; president of the Royal Society (1783-1862).


BRODIE, WILLIAM, a Scottish sculptor, born in Banff; did numerous
busts and statues (1815-1881).


BROGLIE, ALBERT, son of the following, a Conservative politician and
litterateur, author of "The Church and the Roman Empire in the 4th
century"; _b_. 1821


BROGLIE, CHARLES VICTOR, DUC DE, a French statesman, born at Paris;
a Liberal politician; was of the party of Guizot and Royer-Collard; held
office under Louis Philippe; negotiated a treaty with England for the
abolition of slavery; was an Orleanist, and an enemy of the Second
Empire; retired after the _coup d'etat_ (1785-1870).


BROGLIE, VICTOR FRANCOIS, DUC DE, marshal of France, distinguished
in the Seven Years' War, being "a firm disciplinarian"; was summoned by
royalty to the rescue as "war god" at the outbreak of the Revolution;
could not persuade his troops to fire on the rioters; had to "mount and
ride"; took command of the Emigrants in 1792, and died at Muenster
(1718-1804).


BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, rear-admiral, born at Ipswich,
celebrated for the action between his ship _Shannon_, 38 guns, and the
American ship _Chesapeake_, 49 guns, in June 1813, in which he boarded
the latter and ran up the British flag; one of the most brilliant naval
actions on record, and likely to be long remembered in the naval annals
of the country (1776-1841).


BROMBERG (41), a busy town on the Brahe, in Prussian Posen; being a
frontier town, it suffered much in times of war.


BROME, ALEXANDER, a cavalier, writer of songs and lampoons instinct
with wit, whim, and spirit; and of his songs some are amatory, some
festive, and some political (1626-1666).


BROME, RICHARD, an English comic playwright, contemporary with Ben
Jonson, and a rival; originally his servant; his plays are numerous, and
were characterised by his enemies as the sweepings of Jonson's study;
_d_. 1652.


BROMINE, an elementary fluid of a dark colour and a disagreeable
smell, extracted from bittern, a liquid which remains after the
separation of salt.


BROMLEY (21), a market-town in Kent, 10 m. SE. of London, where the
bishops of Rochester had their palace, and where there is a home called
Warner's College for clergymen's widows.


BROMPTON, SW. district of London, in Kensington, now called S.
Kensington; once a rustic locality, now a fashionable district, with
several public buildings and the Oratory.


BROeNDSTED, PETER OLAF, a Danish archaeologist; author of "Travels and
Researches in Greece," where by excavations he made important
discoveries; his great work "Travels and Archaeological Researches in
Greece" (1780-1842).


BRONGNIART, ADOLPHE, French botanist, son of the succeeding, the
first to discover and explain the function of the pollen in plants
(1801-1876).


BRONGNIART, ALEXANDRE, a French chemist and zoologist, collaborateur
with Cuvier, born at Paris; director of the porcelain works at Sevres;
revived painting on glass; introduced a new classification of reptiles;
author of treatises on mineralogy and the ceramic arts (1770-1847).


BRONTE (16), a town in Sicily, on the western slope of Etna, which
gave title of duke to Nelson.


BRONTE, the name of three ladies, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne,
daughters of a Yorkshire clergyman of Irish extraction: CHARLOTTE,
born at Thornton, Yorkshire; removed with her father, at the age of four,
to Haworth, a moorland parish, in the same county, where she lived most
of her days; spent two years at Brussels as a pupil-teacher; on her
return, in conjunction with her sisters, prepared and published a volume
of poems under the pseudonyms respectively of "Currer, Ellis, and Acton
Bell," which proved a failure. Nothing daunted, she set to novel writing,
and her success was instant; first, "Jane Eyre," then "Shirley," and then
"Villette," appeared, and her fame was established. In 1854 she married
her father's curate, Mr. Nicholls, but her constitution gave way, and she
died (1816-1855). EMILY (Ellis), two years younger, poet rather than
novelist; wrote "Wuthering Heights," a remarkable production, showing
still greater genius, which she did not live to develop. ANNE
(Acton), four years younger, also wrote two novels, but very ephemeral
productions.


BRONZE AGE, the age in the history of a race intermediate between
the Stone Age and the Iron, and in some cases overlapping these two, when
weapons and tools were made of bronze.


BRONZI`NO, a Florentine painter, painted both in oil and fresco; a
great admirer of Michael Angelo; his famous picture, "Descent of Christ
into Hell" (1502-1572).


BROOK FARM, an abortive literary community organised on Fourier's
principles, 8 m. from Boston, U.S., by George Ripley in 1840; Nathaniel
Hawthorne was one of the community, and wrote an account of it.


BROOKE, HENRY, Irish dramatist and novelist, born in co. Cavan;
author of the "Fool of Quality," a book commended by John Wesley and much
lauded by Charles Kingsley, and the only one of his works that survives;
wrote, among other things, a poem called "Universal Beauty," and a play
called "Gustavus Vasa" (1703-1783).


BROOKE, SIR JAMES, rajah of Sarawak, born at Benares, educated in
England; entered the Indian army; was wounded in the Burmese war,
returned in consequence to England; conceived the idea of suppressing
piracy and establishing civilisation in the Indian Archipelago; sailed in
a well-manned and well-equipped yacht from the Thames with that object;
arrived at Sarawak, in Borneo; assisted the governor in suppressing an
insurrection, and was made rajah, the former rajah being deposed in his
favour; brought the province under good laws, swept the seas of pirates,
for which he was rewarded by the English government; was appointed
governor of Labuan; finally returned to England and died, being succeeded
in Sarawak by a nephew (1803-1868).


BROOKE, STOPFORD, preacher and writer, born in Donegal; after other
clerical appointments became incumbent of Bedford Chapel, Bloomsbury, and
Queen's chaplain; from conscientious motives seceded from the Church, but
continued to preach in Bloomsbury; wrote the "Life of Robertson of
Brighton," a "Primer of English Literature," "History of English Poetry,"
"Theology in the English Poets," and "Life of Milton," all works in
evidence of critical ability of a high order; _b_. 1832.


BROOKLYN (806), a suburb of New York, on Long Island, though ranking
as a city, and the fourth in the Union; separated from New York by the
East River, a mile broad, and connected with it by a magnificent
suspension bridge, the largest in the world, as well as by some 12 lines
of ferry boats plied by steam; it is now incorporated in Greater New
York; has 10 m. of water front, extensive docks and warehouses, and does
an enormous shipping trade; manufactures include glass, clothing,
chemicals, metallic wares, and tobacco; there is a naval yard, dock, and
storehouse; the city is really a part of New York; has many fine
buildings, parks, and pleasure grounds.


BROOKS, CHARLES WILLIAM SHIRLEY, novelist and journalist, born in
London; was on the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_; sent to Russia to
inquire into and report on the condition of the peasantry and labouring
classes there, as well as in Syria and Egypt; his report published in his
"Russians of the South"; formed a connection with _Punch_ in 1851,
writing the "Essence of Parliament," and succeeded Mark Lemon as editor
in 1870; he was the author of several works (1816-1874).


BROSSES, CHARLES DE, a French archaeologist, born at Dijon; wrote
among other subjects on the manners and customs of primitive and
prehistoric man (1709-1777).


BROSSETTE, a French litterateur, born at Lyons; friend of Boileau,
and his editor and commentator (1671-1743).


BROTHERS, RICHARD, a fanatic, born in Newfoundland, who believed and
persuaded others to believe that the English people were the ten lost
tribes of Israel (1757-1824).


BROUGHAM, HENRY, LORD BROUGHAM AND VAUX, born in Edinburgh, and
educated at the High School and University of that city; was admitted to
the Scotch bar in 1800; excluded from promotion in Scotland by his
liberal principles, he joined the English bar in 1808, speedily acquired
a reputation as a lawyer for the defence in Crown libel actions, and, by
his eloquence in the cause of Queen Caroline, 1820, won universal popular
favour; entering Parliament in 1810, he associated with the Whig
opposition, threw himself into the agitation for the abolition of
slavery, the cause of education, and law reform; became Lord Chancellor
in 1830, but four years afterwards his political career closed; he was a
supporter of many popular institutions; a man of versatile ability and
untiring energy; along with Horner, Jeffrey, and Sidney Smith, one of the
founders of the _Edinburgh Review_, also of London University, and the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge; a writer on scientific,
historical, political, and philosophical themes, but his violence and
eccentricity hurt his influence; spent his last days at Cannes, where he
died (1778-1868).


BROUGHTON, LORD. See HOBHOUSE.


BROUGHTON, RHODA, novelist, her best work "Not Wisely but Too Well";
wrote also "Cometh Up as a Flower," "Red as a Rose is She," &c.; _b_.
1840.


BROUGHTON, WILLIAM ROBERT, an English seaman, companion of
Vancouver; discovered a portion of Oceania (1763-1822).


BROUGHTY FERRY (9), a watering-place, with villas, near Dundee, and
a favourite place of residence of Dundee merchants.


BROUSSA (37), a city in the extreme NW. of Asiatic Turkey, at the
foot of Mt. Olympus, 12 m. from the Sea of Marmora; the capital of the
Turkish empire till the taking of Constantinople in 1453; abounds in
mosques, and is celebrated for its baths.


BROUSSAIS, JOSEPH VICTOR, a French materialist, founder of the
"physiological school" of medicine; resolved life into excitation, and
disease into too much or too little (1772-1838).


BROUSSEL, a member of the Parlement of Paris, whose arrest, in 1648,
was the cause of, or pretext for, the organisation of the Fronde.


BROUSSON, a French Huguenot who returned to France after the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and was broken on the wheel, 1698.


BROUWER, a Dutch painter, mostly of low, vulgar life, which, as
familiar with it, he depicted with great spirit (1605-1638).


BROWN, AMY, the first wife of the Duc de Berri, born in England,
died in France; the Pope, in 1816, annulled her marriage, but declared
her two daughters legitimate (1783-1876).


BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, an American novelist, born in Philadelphia,
of Quaker connection; his best-known fictions are "Wieland," "Edgar
Huntly," &c. (1771-1810).


BROWN, FORD MADOX, an English painter, born at Calais; his subjects
nearly all of a historical character, one of which is "Chaucer reciting
his Poetry at the Court of Edward III."; anticipated Pre-Raphaelitism
(1821-1893).


BROWN, SIR GEORGE, British general, born near Elgin, distinguished
both in the Peninsular and in the Crimean war, was severely wounded at
Inkerman, when in command of the Light Division (1790-1863).


BROWN, HENRY KIRKE, an American sculptor, did a number of statues, a
colossal one of Washington among them (1814-1886).


BROWN, JOHN, American slavery abolitionist; settled in Kansas, and
resolutely opposed the project of making it a slave state; in the
interest of emancipation, with six others, seized on the State armoury at
Harper's Ferry in hope of a rising, entrenched himself armed in it, was
surrounded, seized, tried, and hanged (1800-1859).


BROWN, JOHN, of Haddington, a self-educated Scotch divine, born at
Carpow, near Abernethy, Perthshire, son of a poor weaver, left an orphan
at 11, became a minister of a Dissenting church in Haddington; a man of
considerable learning, and deep piety; author of "Dictionary of the
Bible," and "Self-interpreting Bible" (1722-1787).


BROWN, JOHN, M.D., great-grandson of the preceding, born at Biggar,
educated in Edinburgh High School and at Edinburgh University, was a
pupil of James Syme, the eminent surgeon, and commenced quiet practice in
Edinburgh; author of "Horae Subsecivae," "Rab and his Friends," "Pet
Marjorie," "John Leech," and other works; was a fine and finely-cultured
man, much beloved by all who knew him, and by none more than by John
Ruskin, who says of him, he was "the best and truest friend of all my
life.... Nothing can tell the loss to me in his death, nor the grief to
how many greater souls than mine that had been possessed in patience
through his love" (1810-1882).


BROWN, JOHN, M.D., founder of the Brunonian system of medicine,
born at Bunkle, Berwickshire; reduced diseases into two classes, those
resulting from redundancy of excitation, and those due to deficiency of
excitation; author of "Elements of Medicine" and "Observations on the Old
and New Systems of Physic" (1735-1788). See BROUSSAIS.


BROWN, JONES, AND ROBINSON, three middle-class Englishmen on their
travels abroad, as figured in the pages of _Punch_, and drawn by Richard
Doyle.


BROWN, MOUNT (16,000 ft.), the highest of the Rocky Mts., in N.
America.


BROWN, OLIVER MADOX, son of Ford Madox, a youth of great promise
both as an artist and poet; died of blood-poisoning (1855-1874).


BROWN, RAWDON, historical scholar, spent his life at Venice in the
study of Italian history, especially in its relation to English history,
which he prosecuted with unwearied industry; his great work, work of 20
years' hard labour, "Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts relating to
English Affairs existing in the Archives of Venice and Northern Italy,"
left unfinished at his death; died at Venice, where he spent a great part
of his life, where Ruskin found him and conceived a warm friendship for
him (1803-1883).


BROWN, ROBERT, a distinguished botanist, born at Montrose, son of an
Episcopal clergyman; accompanied an expedition to survey the coast of
Australia in 1801, returned after four years' exploration, with 4000
plants mostly new to science, which he classified and described in his
"Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae"; became librarian to, and finally
president of, the Linnean Society; styled by Humboldt _botanicorum facile
princeps_; he was a man of most minute and accurate observation, and of a
wide range of knowledge, much of which died along with him, out of the
fear of committing himself to mistakes (1773-1858).


BROWN, SAMUEL, M.D., chemist, born in Haddington, grandson of John
Brown of Haddington, whose life was devoted, with the zeal of a mediaeval
alchemist, to a reconstruction of the science of atomics, which he did
not live to see realised: a man of genius, a brilliant conversationist
and an associate of the most intellectual men of his time, among the
number De Quincey, Carlyle, and Emerson; wrote "Lay Sermons on the Theory
of Christianity," "Lectures on the Atomic Theory," and two volumes of
"Essays, Scientific and Literary" (1817-1856).


BROWN, THOMAS, Scottish psychologist, born in Kirkcudbrightshire,
bred to medicine; professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh, colleague and successor to Dugald Stewart; his lectures, all
improvised on the spur of the moment, were published posthumously;
"Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind" established a sixth sense,
which he called the "muscular." He was a man of precocious talent, and a
devoted student, to the injury of his health and the shortening of his
life; he was obliged from ill-health to resign his professorship after 10
years (1778-1820).


BROWN WILLY, the highest peak (1368 ft.) in Cornwall.


BROWNE, CHARLES FARRAR, a humorist and satirist, known by the
pseudonym of "Artemus Ward," born in Maine, U.S.; his first literary
effort was as "showman" to an imaginary travelling menagerie; travelled
over America lecturing, carrying with him a whimsical panorama as
affording texts for his numerous jokes, which he brought with him to
London, and exhibited with the same accompaniment with unbounded success;
he spent some time among the Mormons, and defined their religion as
singular, but their wives plural (1834-1867).


BROWNE, HABLOT KNIGHT, artist, born in London; illustrated Dickens's
works, "Pickwick" to begin with, under the pseudonym of "Phiz," as well
as the works of Lever, Ainsworth, Fielding, and Smollett, and the
Abbotsford edition of Scott; he was skilful as an etcher and an
architectural draughtsman (1815-1882).


BROWNE, ROBERT, founder of the Brownists, born in Rutland; the first
seceder from the Church of England, and the first to found a Church of
his own on Congregational principles, which he did at Norwich, though his
project of secession proved a failure, and he returned to the English
Church; died in jail at Northampton, where he was imprisoned for
assaulting a constable; he may be accounted the father of the
Congregational body in England (1540-1630).


BROWNE, SIR THOMAS, physician and religious thinker, born in London;
resided at Norwich for nearly half a century, and died there; was
knighted by Charles II.; "was," Professor Saintsbury says, "the greatest
prose writer perhaps, when all things are taken together, in the whole
range of English"; his principal works are "Religio Medici," "Inquiries
into Vulgar Errors," and "Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, a Discourse of the
Sepulchral Urns found in Norfolk"; "all of the very first importance in
English literature,..." adds the professor, "the 'Religio Medici' the
greatest favourite, and a sort of key to the others;" "a man," says
Coleridge, "rich in various knowledge, exuberant in conceptions and
conceits, contemplative, imaginative, often truly great, and magnificent
in his style and diction.... He is a quiet and sublime enthusiast, with a
strong tinge of the fantastic. He meditated much on death and the
hereafter, and on the former in its relation to, or leading on to, the
latter" (1605-1682).


BROWNE WILLIAM, English pastoral poet, born at Tavistock; author of
"Britannia's Pastorals" and "The Shepherd's Pipe," a collection of
eclogues and "The Inner Temple and Masque," on the story of Ulysses and
Circe, with some opening exquisitely beautiful verses, "Steer hither,
steer," among them; was an imitator of Spenser, and a parallel has been
instituted between him and Keats (1590-1645).


BROWNIE, a good-natured household elf, believed in Scotland to
render obliging services to good housewives, and his presence an evidence
that the internal economies were approved of, as he favoured good
husbandry, and was partial to houses where it was observed.


BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT, _nee_ BARRETT, poetess, born at
Carlton Hall, Durham; a woman of great natural abilities, which developed
early; suffered from injury to her spine; went to Torquay for her health;
witnessed the death by drowning of a brother, that gave her a shock the
effect of which never left her; published in 1838 "The Seraphim," and in
1844 "The Cry of the Children"; fell in with and married Robert Browning
in 1846, who immediately took her abroad, settling in Florence; wrote in
1850 "Sonnets from the Portuguese," in 1851 "Casa Guidi Windows," and in
1856 "Aurora Leigh," "a novel in verse," and in 1860 "Poems before
Congress"; ranks high, if not highest, among the poetesses of England;
she took an interest all through life in public affairs; her work is
marked by musical diction, sensibility, knowledge, and imagination, which
no poetess has rivalled (1806-1861).


BROWNING, ROBERT, poet, one of the two greatest in the Victorian
era, born in Camberwell; early given to write verses; prepared himself
for his literary career by reading through Johnson's Dictionary; his
first poem "PAULINE" (q. v.) published in 1833, which was
followed by "Paracelsus" in 1835, "Sordello" in 1840; after a time, in
which he was not idle, appeared, with some of his "Dramatic Romances and
Lyrics," in 1855 his "Men and Women," and in 1868 "THE RING AND THE
BOOK" (q. v.), his longest poem, and more analytic than poetic;
this was succeeded by a succession of others, finishing up with
"Asolando," which appeared the day he died at Venice; was a poet of great
subtlety, deep insight, creative power, and strong faith, of a genius and
learning which there are few able to compass the length and breadth of;
lies buried in Westminster Abbey; of Browning it has been said by
Professor Saintsbury, "Timor mortis non conturbabat, 'the fear of death
did not trouble him.' In the browner shades of age as well as in the
spring of youth he sang, not like most poets, Love and Death, but Love
and Life.... 'James Lee,' 'Rabbi Ben Ezra,' and 'Prospice' are among the
greatest poems of the century." His creed was an optimism of the
brightest, and his restful faith "it is all right with the world"
(1812-1889).


BROWN-SEQUARD, physiologist, born in Mauritius, of American
parentage; studied in Paris; practised in New York, and became a
professor in the College de France; made a special study of the nervous
system and nervous diseases, and published works on the subject; _b_.
1818.


BRUANT, a French architect, born in Paris; architect of the
Invalides and the Salpetriere; _d_. 1697.


BRUAT, a French admiral, commanded the French fleet at the Crimea
(1796-1885).


BRUCE, a family illustrious in Scottish history, descended from a
Norman knight, Robert de Bruis, who came over with the Conqueror, and who
acquired lands first in Northumberland and then in Annandale.


BRUCE, JAMES, traveller, called the "Abyssinian," born at Kinnaird
House, Stirlingshire, set out from Cairo in 1768 in quest of the source
of the Nile: believed he had discovered it; stayed two years in
Abyssinia, and returned home by way of France, elated with his success;
felt hurt that no honor was conferred on him, and for relief from the
chagrin wrote an account of his travels in five quarto vols., the general
accuracy of which, as far as it goes, has been attested by subsequent
explorers (1730-1794).


BRUCE, MICHAEL, a Scotch poet, born near Loch Leven, in poor
circumstances, in the parish of Portmoak; studied for the Church; died of
consumption; his poems singularly plaintive and pathetic; his title to
the authorship of the "Ode to the Cuckoo" has been matter of contention
(1746-1767).


BRUCE, ROBERT, rival with John Baliol for the crown of Scotland on
the death of Margaret, the Maiden of Norway, against whose claim Edward
I. decided in favour of Baliol (1210-1295).


BRUCE, ROBERT, son of the preceding, earl of Carrick, through
Marjory his wife; served under Edward at the battle of Dunbar for one
instance; sued for the Scottish crown in vain (1269-1304).


BRUCE, ROBERT, king of Scotland, son of the preceding, did homage
for a time to Edward, but joined the national party and became one of a
regency of four, with Comyn for rival; stabbed Comyn in a quarrel at
Dumfries, 1306, and was that same year crowned king at Scone; was
defeated by an army sent against him, and obliged to flee to Rathlin,
Ireland; returned and landed in Carrick; cleared the English out of all
the fortresses except Stirling, and on 24th June 1314 defeated the
English under Edward II. at Bannockburn, after which, in 1328, the
independence of Scotland was acknowledged as well as Bruce's right to the
crown; suffering from leprosy, spent his last two years at Cardross
Castle, on the Clyde, where he died in the thirty-third year of his reign
(1274-1329).


BRUCIN, an alkaloid, allied in action to strychnine, though much
weaker, being only a twenty-fifth of the strength.


BRUeCKENAU, small town in Bavaria, 17 m. NW. of Kissingen, with
mineral springs good for nervous and skin diseases.


BRUCKER, historian of philosophy, born at Augsburg, and a pastor
there; author of "Historia Critica Philosophiae" (1696-1770).


BRUEYS, DAVID AUGUSTIN DE, French dramatist, born at Aix, an abbe
converted by Bossuet, and actively engaged in propagating the faith;
managed to be joint editor with Palaprat in the production of plays
(1650-1725).


BRUGES (49), cap. of W. Flanders, in Belgium, intersected by canals
crossed by some 50 bridges, whence its name "Bridges"; one of these
canals, of considerable depth, connecting it with Ostend; though many of
them are now, as well as some of the streets, little disturbed by
traffic, in a decayed and a decaying place, having once had a population
of 200,000; has a number of fine churches, one specially noteworthy, the
church of Notre Dame; it has several manufactures, textile and chemical,
as well as distilleries, sugar-refineries, and shipbuilding yards.


BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL, a German Egyptologist, born at Berlin; was
associated with Mariette in his excavations at Memphis; became director
of the School of Egyptology at Cairo; his works on the subject are
numerous, and of great value; _b_. 1827.


BRUeHL, HEINRICH, COUNT VON, minister of Augustus III., king of
Poland, an unprincipled man, who encouraged his master, and indulged
himself, in silly foppery and wasteful extravagance, so that when the
Seven Years' War broke out he and his master had to flee from Dresden and
seek refuge in Warsaw (1700-1763).


BRUIN, the bear personified in the German epic of "Reynard the Fox."


BRUMAIRE, the 18th (i. e. the 9th November 1799, the foggy month),
the day when Napoleon, on his return from Egypt, overthrew the Directory
and established himself in power.


BRUMMELL, BEAU, born in London, in his day the prince of dandies;
patronised by the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV.; quarrelled with
the prince; fled from his creditors to Calais, where, reduced to
destitution, he lived some years in the same reckless fashion; settled at
length in Caen, where he died insane (1778-1805).


BRUNCK, an able French Hellenist, classical scholar, and critic,
born at Strassburg; edited several classical works, played a perilous
part in the French Revolution; was imprisoned, and, on his release, had
to sell his library in order to live (1729-1803).


BRUNE, G. MARIE, French marshal, saw service in the Vendean war and
in Italy, distinguished himself under Napoleon in Italy and Holland;
submitted to Bourbons in 1814; joined Napoleon on his return from Elba;
was appointed to a post of command in the S. of France, but had to
surrender after Waterloo, and was attacked by a mob of Royalists at
Avignon as he was setting out for Paris, and brutally murdered and his
body thrown into the Rhone (1763-1815).


BRUNEL, SIR ISAMBARD, engineer, born in Rouen, entered the French
navy, emigrated to the United States; was chief engineer of New York;
settled in England, became block-maker to the Royal Navy; constructed the
Thames tunnel, begun in 1825 and finished in 1843 (1759-1849).


BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM, son of the preceding, assisted his father
in his engineering operations, in particular the Thames tunnel; was
engineer of the Great Western Railway; designed the _Great Western_
steamship, the first to cross the Atlantic; was the first to apply the
screw propeller to steam navigation; designed and constructed the _Great
Eastern_; constructed bridges and naval docks (1806-1859).


BRUNELLESCHI, Italian architect, born in Florence, bred a goldsmith,
studied at Rome; returned to his native city, built the Duomo of the
Cathedral, the Pitti Palace, and the churches of San Lorenzo and Spirito
Santo (1377-1444).


BRUNETIERE, French critic, connected with the _Revue des Deux
Mondes_ and now editor; a very sound and sensible critic; his chief work,
begun in the form of lectures in 1890, entitled "L'Evolution des Genres
de l'Histoire de la Litterature Francaise"; according to Prof.
Saintsbury, promises to be one of the chief monuments that the really
"higher" criticism has yet furnished; _b_. 1849.


BRUNETTO-LATINI, an Italian writer, who played an important part
among the Guelfs, and was obliged to flee to Paris, where he had Dante
for a pupil (1220-1294).


BRUNHILDA, a masculine queen in the "Nibelungen Lied" who offered to
marry the man that could beat her in feats of strength, was deceived by
Siegfried into marrying Gunther, and meditated the death of Siegfried,
who had married her rival Chriemhilda, which she accomplished by the hand
of Hagen. Also a queen of Austrasia, who, about the 7th century, had a
lifelong quarrel with Fredegunde, queen of Neustria, the other division
of the Frankish world, which at her death she seized possession of for a
time, but was overthrown by Clothaire II., Fredegunde's son, and dragged
to death at the heels of an infuriated wild horse.


BRUNI, LEONARDO, Italian humanist, born at Arezzo, hence called
Aretino; was papal secretary; settled in Florence, and wrote a history of
it; did much by his translations of Greek authors to promote the study of
Greek (1369-1444).


BRUeNN (95), Austrian city, capital of Moravia, beautifully situated,
93 m. N. of Vienna, with large manufactures; woollens the staple of the
country; about one-half of the population Czechs.


BRUNNOW, COUNT VON, a Russian diplomatist, born at Dresden;
represented Russia in several conferences, and was twice ambassador at
the English Court (1797-1875).


BRUNO, GIORDANO, a bold and fervid original thinker, born at Nola,
in Italy; a Dominican monk, quitted his monastery, in fact, was for
heterodoxy obliged to flee from it; attached himself to Calvin for a
time, went for more freedom to Paris, attacked the scholastic philosophy,
had to leave France as well; spent two years in England in friendship
with Sir Philip Sidney, propagated his views in Germany and Italy, was
arrested by the Inquisition, and after seven years spent in prison was
burned as a heretic; he was a pantheist, and regarded God as the living
omnipresent soul of the universe, and Nature as the living garment of
God, as the Earth-Spirit does in Goethe's "Faust"--a definition of Nature
in relation to God which finds favour in the pages of "Sartor Resartus";
_d_. 1600.


BRUNO, ST., born at Cologne, retired to a lonely spot near Grenoble
with six others, where each lived in cells apart, and they met only on
Sundays; founder of the Carthusian Order of Monks, the first house of
which was established in the desert of Chartreuse (1030-1101). Festival,
Oct. 6.


BRUNO THE GREAT, third son of Henry the Fowler; archbishop of
Cologne, chancellor of the Empire, a great lover of learning, and
promoter of it among the clergy, who he thought should, before all,
represent and encourage it (928-965).


BRUNONIAN SYSTEM, a system which regards and treats diseases as due
to defective or excessive excitation, as sthenic or asthenic. See
BROWN, JOHN.


BRUNSWICK (404), a N. German duchy, made up of eight detached parts,
mostly in the upper basin of the Weser; is mountainous, and contains part
of the Harz Mts.; climate and crops are those of N. Germany generally.
BRUNSWICK (101), the capital, a busy commercial town, once a member
of the Hanseatic League, and fell into comparative decay after the decay
of the League, on the Oker, 140 m. SW. of Berlin; an irregularly built
city, it has a cathedral, and manufactures textiles, leather, and
sewing-machines.


BRUNSWICK, CHARLES WILLIAM, DUKE OF, Prussian general, commanded the
Prussian and Austrian forces levied to put down the French Revolution;
emitted a violent, blustering manifesto, but a Revolutionary army under
Dumouriez and Kellermann met him at Valmy, and compelled him to retreat
in 1792; was beaten by Davout at Auerstaedt, and mortally wounded
(1735-1806).


BRUNSWICK, FREDERICK WILLIAM, DUKE OF, brother of Queen Caroline;
raised troops against France, which, being embarked for England, took
part in the Peninsular war; fell fighting at Ligny, two days before the
battle of Waterloo (1771-1815).


BRUSSELS (477), on the Senne, 27 m. S. of Antwerp, is the capital of
Belgium, in the heart of the country. The old town is narrow and crooked,
but picturesque; the town-hall a magnificent building. The new town is
well built, and one of the finest in Europe. There are many parks,
boulevards, and squares; a cathedral, art-gallery, museum and library,
university and art schools. It is Paris in miniature. The manufactures
include linen, ribbons, and paper; a ship-canal and numerous railways
foster commerce.


BRUTUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS, the founder of Republican Rome, in the 6th
century B.C.; affected idiocy (whence his name, meaning stupid); it
saved his life when Tarquin the Proud put his brother to death; but when
Tarquin's son committed an outrage on Lucretia, he threw off his
disguise, headed a revolt, and expelled the tyrant; was elected one of
the two first Consuls of Rome; sentenced his two sons to death for
conspiring to restore the monarchy; fell repelling an attempt to restore
the Tarquins in a hand-to-hand combat with Aruns, one of the sons of the
banished king.


BRUTUS, MARCUS JUNIUS, a descendant of the preceding, and son of
Cato Uticensis's sister; much beloved by Caesar and Caesar's friend, but
persuaded by Cassius and others to believe that Caesar aimed at the
overthrow of the republic; joined the conspirators, and was recognised by
Caesar among the conspirators as party to his death; forced to flee from
Rome after the event, was defeated at Philippi by Antony and Augustus,
but escaped capture by falling on a sword held out to him by one of his
friends, exclaiming as he did so, "O Virtue, thou art but a name!" (85-42
B.C.).


BRUYERE, a French writer, author of "Characteres de Theophraste," a
satire on various characters and manners of his time (1644-1696).


BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS, American statesman, born in Salem,
Illinois; bred to the bar and practised at it; entered Congress in 1890
as an extreme Free Silver man; lost his seat from his uncompromising
views on that question; was twice nominated for the Presidency in
opposition to Mr McKinley, but defeated; _b_. 1860.


BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN, American poet; his poems were popular in
America, the chief, "The Age," published in 1821; was 50 years editor of
the _New York Evening Post_; wrote short poems all through his life, some
of the later his best (1794-1878).


BRYCE, JAMES, historian and politician, born at Belfast; Fellow of
Oriel College, Oxford; bred to the bar; for a time professor of Civil Law
at Oxford; entered Parliament in 1880; was member of Mr. Gladstone's last
cabinet; his chief literary work, "The Holy Roman Empire," a work of high
literary merit; _b_. 1838.


BRYDGES, SIR SAMUEL EGERTON, English antiquary, born at Wootton
House, in Kent; called to the bar, but devoted to literature; was M.P.
for Maidstone for six years; lived afterwards and died at Geneva; wrote
novels and poems, and edited old English writings of interest
(1762-1837).


BUBASTIS, an Egyptian goddess, the Egyptian Diana, the wife of Ptah;
and a city in Lower Egypt, on the eastern branch of the Nile.


BUCCANEERS, an association, chiefly English and French, of piratical
adventurers in the 16th and 17th centuries, with their head-quarters in
the Caribbean Sea, organised to plunder the ships of the Spaniards in
resentment of the exclusive right they claimed to the wealth of the S.
American continent, which they were carrying home across the sea.


BUCCLEUCH, a glen 18 m. SW. of Selkirk, with a stronghold of the
Scott family, giving the head the title of earl or duke.


BUCEN`TAUR, the state galley, worked by oars and manned by 168
rowers, in which the Doge of Venice used to sail on the occasion of the
annual ceremony of wedding anew the Adriatic Sea by sinking a ring in
it.


BUCEPH`ALUS (i. e. ox-head), the horse which Alexander the Great,
while yet a youth, broke in when no one else could, and on which he rode
through all his campaigns; it died in India from a wound. The town,
Bucephala, on the Hydaspes, was built near its grave.


BUCER MARTIN, a German Reformer, born at Strassburg; originally a
Dominican, adopted the Reformed faith, ministered as pastor and professor
in his native place, differed in certain matters from both Luther and
Zwingli, while he tried to reconcile them; invited by Cranmer to England,
he accepted the invitation, and became professor of Divinity at
Cambridge, where he died, but his bones were exhumed and burned a few
years later (1491-1551).


BUCH, LEOPOLD VON, a German geologist, a pupil of Werner and
fellow-student of Alexander von Humboldt, who esteemed him highly;
adopted the volcanic theory of the earth; wrote no end of scientific
memoirs (1774-1853).


BUCHAN, a district in the NE. of Aberdeenshire, between the rivers
Deveron and Ythan; abounds in magnificent rock scenery. The Comyns were
earls of it till they forfeited the title in 1309.


BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS, born at Cambuslang, near Glasgow, chaplain in
Barrackpur under the East India Company, vice-provost of the College at
Fort William, Calcutta; one of the first to awaken an interest in India
as a missionary field; wrote "Christian Researches in Asia" (1756-1815).


BUCHANAN, GEORGE, a most distinguished scholar and humanist, born at
Killearn, Stirlingshire; educated at St. Andrews and Paris; professor for
three years in the College at St. Barbe; returned to Scotland, became
tutor to James V.'s illegitimate sons; imprisoned by Cardinal Beaton for
satires against the monks, escaped to France; driven from one place to
another, imprisoned in a monastery in Portugal at the instance of the
Inquisition, where he commenced his celebrated Latin version of the
Psalms; came back to Scotland, was appointed in 1562 tutor to Queen Mary,
in 1566 principal of St. Leonard's College, in St. Andrews, in 1567
moderator of the General Assembly in 1570 tutor to James VI., and had
several offices of State conferred on him; wrote a "History of Scotland,"
and his book "De Jure Regni," against the tyranny of peoples by kings;
died in Edinburgh without enough to bury him; was buried at the public
expense in Greyfriars' churchyard; when dying, it is said he asked his
housekeeper to examine his money-box and see if there was enough to bury
him, and when he found there was not, he ordered her to distribute what
there was among his poor neighbours and left it to the city to bury him
or not as they saw good (1506-1582).


BUCHANAN, JAMES, statesman of the United States, was ambassador in
London in 1853, made President in 1856, the fifteenth in order, at the
time when the troubles between the North and South came to a head,
favoured the South, retired after his Presidentship into private life
(1791-1868).


BUCHANAN, ROBERT, a writer in prose and verse, born in Warwickshire,
educated at Glasgow University; his first work, "Undertones," a volume of
verse published by him in 1863, and he has since written a goodly number
of poems, some of them of very high merit, the last "The Wandering Jew,"
which attacks the Christian religion; besides novels, has written
magazine articles, and one in particular, which involved him in some
trouble; _b_.1841.


BUCHANITES, a fanatical sect who appeared in the W. of Scotland in
1783, named after a Mrs. Buchan, who claimed to be the woman mentioned in
Rev. xii.


BUCHAREST (220), capital of Roumania, picturesquely situated on the
Dambovitza, a tributary of the Danube, in a fertile plain, 180 m. from
the Black Sea; is a meanly built but well-fortified town, with the
reputation of the most dissolute capital in Europe; there is a Catholic
cathedral and a university; it is the emporium of trade between the
Balkan and Austria; textiles, grain, hides, metal, and coal are the chief
articles in its markets.


BUCHEZ, JOSEPH, a French historian, politician, and Socialist;
joined the St. Simonian Society, became a Christian Socialist, and a
collaborateur in an important historical work, the "Parliamentary History
of the French Revolution"; figured in political life after the Revolution
of 1848, but retired to private life after the establishment of the
Empire (1796-1865).


BUeCHNER, LUDWIG, physician and materialist, born at Darmstadt;
lectured at Tuebingen University; wrote a book entitled "Kraft und Stoff,"
i. e. Force and Matter, and had to retire into private practice as a
physician on account of its materialistic philosophy, which he insisted
on teaching (1824-1899).


BUCHON, a learned Frenchman; wrote chronologies of French history
(1791-1846).


BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF, favourite of James I. and
Charles I., born in Leicestershire; rose under favour of the former to
the highest offices and dignities of the State; provoked by his conduct
wars with Spain and France; fell into disfavour with the people; was
assassinated at Portsmouth by Lieutenant Felton, on the eve of his
embarking for Rochelle (1592-1628).


BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF, son of the preceding; served
under Charles I. in the Civil War, was at the battle of Worcester; became
minister of Charles II.; a profligate courtier and an unprincipled man
(1627-1688).


BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK, traveller and journalist, born in Falmouth;
conducted a journal in Calcutta, and gave offence to the East India
Company by his outspokenness; had to return to England, where his cause
was warmly taken up; by his writings and speeches paved the way for the
abolition of the Company's charter (1784-1855).


BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (185), English S. midland county, lying E. of
Oxford, W. of Bedford and Hertford, is full of beautiful and varied
scenery; hill, dale, wood, and water. The Thames forms the southern
boundary, the Ouse flows through the N., and the Thame through the
centre. The Chiltern Hills cross the county. Agriculture is the
prevailing industry; dairy produce, cattle and poultry feeding, and sheep
rearing the sources of wealth. The county town is BUCKINGHAM (3), on
the Ouse, 60 m. NW. of London.


BUCKLAND, FRANCIS (FRANK), naturalist, son of the succeeding, bred
to medicine; devoted to the study of animal life; was inspector of salmon
fisheries; wrote "Curiosities of Natural History," "Familiar History of
British Fishes," &c.; contributed largely to the journals, such as the
_Field_, and edited _Land and Water_, which he started in 1866
(1826-1880).


BUCKLAND, WILLIAM, a distinguished geologist, born at Tiverton; had
a predilection from boyhood for natural science; awoke in Oxford
University an interest in it by his lectures on mineralogy and geology;
his pen was unceasingly occupied with geological subjects; exerted
himself to reconcile the teachings of science with the accounts in
Genesis; was made Dean of Westminster by Sir Robert Peel; his intellect
gave way in 1850, and he remained in mental weakness till his death
(1784-1856).


BUCKLE, GEORGE EARLE, editor of the _Times_, born near Bath; studied
at Oxford, where he distinguished himself; is a Fellow of All Souls'
College; became editor in 1884, having previously belonged to the
editorial staff; _b_. 1854.


BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS, an advanced thinker, born in Lee, in Kent; in
delicate health from his infancy, too ambitious for his powers, thought
himself equal to write the "History of Civilisation in England," in
connection with that of Europe, tried it, but failed; visited the East
for his health, and died at Damascus; his theory as regards the
development of civilisation is, that national character depends on
material environment, and that progress depends upon the emancipation of
rationality, an extremely imperfect reading and rendering of the elements
at work, and indeed a total omission of nearly all the more vital ones;
he was distinguished as a chess-player (1822-1862).


BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN, an able comic actor and popular dramatist,
born in London; for a long period the lessee of the Haymarket Theatre,
London (1802-1870).


BUDA-PESTH (506), a twin city, the capital of Hungary, on the
Danube; Buda (Ger. Ofen) on the right bank and Pesth on the left, the two
cities being connected by a suspension bridge, the former on a rocky
elevation and the latter on level ground; a great commercial centre.


BUDASTIS, an ancient town in Lower Egypt, where festivals in honour
of Bacchus used to be held every year.


BUDDHA, GAUTAMA, or SAKYA-MUNI, the founder of Buddhism about
the 5th century B.C., born a Hindu, of an intensely contemplative
nature, the son of a king, who did everything in his power to tempt him
from a religious life, from which, however, in his contemplation of the
vanity of existence, nothing could detain him; retired into solitude at
the age of 30, as Sakyamuni, i. e. solitary of the Sakyas, his tribe;
consulted religious books, could get no good out of them, till,
by-and-by, he abstracted himself more and more from everything external,
when at the end of ten years, as he sat brooding under the Bo-tree alone
with the universe, soul with soul, the light of truth rose full-orbed
upon him, and he called himself henceforth and gave himself out as
Buddha, i. e. the Enlightened; now he said to himself, "I know it all,"
as Mahomet in his way did after him, and became a preacher to others of
what had proved salvation to himself, which he continued to do for 40
years, leaving behind him disciples, who went forth without sword, like
Christ's, to preach what they, like Christ's, believed was a gospel to
every creature.


BUDDHISM, the religion of Buddha, a religion which, eschewing all
speculation about God and the universe, set itself solely to the work of
salvation, the end of which was the merging of the individual in the
unity of being, and the "way" to which was the mortification of all
private passion and desire which mortification, when finished, was the
Buddhist Nirvana. This is the primary doctrine of the Buddhist faith,
which erelong became a formality, as all faiths of the kind, or of this
high order, ever tend to do. Buddha is not answerable for this, but his
followers, who in three successive councils resolved it into a system of
formulae, which Buddha, knowing belike how the letter killeth and only the
spirit giveth life, never attempted to do. Buddha wrote none himself, but
in some 300 years after his death his teachings assumed a canonical form,
under the name of Tripitaka, or triple basket, as it is called. Buddhism
from the first was a proselytising religion; it at one time overran the
whole of India, and though it is now in small favour there, it is, in
such form as it has assumed, often a highly beggarly one, understood to
be the religion of 340 millions of the human race.


BUDE-LIGHT, a very brilliant light produced by introducing oxygen
into the centre of an Argand burner, so called from the place of the
inventor's abode.


BUDWEIS (28), a Bohemian trading town on the Moldau, 133 m. NW. of
Vienna.


BUENOS AYRES (543), capital of the Argentine Republic, stands on the
right bank of the broad but shallow river Plate, 150 m. from the
Atlantic; it is a progressing city, improving in appearance, with a
cathedral, several Protestant churches, a university and military school,
libraries and hospitals; printing, cigar-making, cloth and boot
manufacture are the leading industries; it is the principal Argentine
port, and the centre of export and import trade; the climate does not
correspond with the name it bears; a great deal of the foreign trade is
conducted through Monte Video, but it monopolises all the inland trade.


BUFFALO (256), a city of New York State, at the E. end of Lake Erie,
300 m. due NW. of New York; is a well-built, handsome, and healthy city;
the railways and the Erie Canal are channels of extensive commerce in
grain, cattle, and coal; while immense iron-works, tanneries, breweries,
and flour-mills represent the industries; electric power for lighting,
traction, &c., is supplied from Niagara.


BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE, a great French naturalist,
born at Montbard, in Burgundy; his father one of the _noblesse de robe_;
studied law at Dijon; spent some time in England, studying the English
language; devoted from early years to science, though more to the display
of it, and to natural science for life on being appointed intendant of
the Jardin du Roi; assisted, and more than assisted, by Daubenton and
others, produced 15 vols. of his world-famous "Histoire Naturelle"
between the years 1749 and 1767. The saying "Style is the man" is
ascribed to him, and he has been measured by some according to his own
standard. Neither his style nor his science is rated of any high value
now: "Buffon was as pompous and inflated as his style" (1707-1780).


BUGEAUD, THOMAS, marshal of France, born at Limoges; served under
Napoleon; retired from service till 1830; served under Louis Philippe;
contributed to the conquest of Algiers; was made governor, and created
duke for his victory over the forces of the emperor of Morocco at the
battle of Isly in 1844; his motto was _Ense et aratro_, "By sword and
plough" (1784-1849).


BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN, a German Reformer, a convert of Luther's and
coadjutor; helpful to the cause as an organiser of churches and schools
(1485-1558).


BUGGE, Norwegian philologist, professor at Christiania; _b_. 1833.


BUHL, ornamental work for furniture, which takes its name from the
inventor (see INFRA), consisted in piercing or inlaying metal with
tortoise-shell or enamel, or with metals of another colour; much in
fashion in Louis XIV.'s reign.


BUHL, CHARLES ANDRE, an Italian cabinet-maker, inventor of the work
which bears his name (1642-1732).


BUKOWINA (640), a small prov. and duchy in the E. of
Austria-Hungary; rich in minerals, breeds cattle and horses.


BULGARIA, with Eastern Roumelia (3,154), constitutes a Balkan
principality larger than Ireland, with hills and fertile plains in the
N., mountains and forests in the S.; Turkey is the southern boundary,
Servia the western, the Danube the northern, while the Black Sea washes
the eastern shores. The climate is mild, the people industrious; the
chief export is cereals; manufactures of woollens, attar of roses, wine
and tobacco, are staple industries; the chief import is live stock.
SOFIA (50), the capital, is the seat of a university. VARNA
(28), on the Black Sea, is the principal port. Bulgaria was cut out of
Turkey and made independent in 1878, and Eastern Roumelia incorporated
with it in 1885.


BULL, an edict of the Pope, so called from a leaden seal attached to
it.


BULL, GEORGE, bishop of St. Davids, born at Wells; a stanch
Churchman; wrote "Harmonia Apostolica" in reconciliation of the teachings
of Paul and James on the matter of justification, and "Defensio Fidei
Nicenae," in vindication of the Trinity as enunciated in the ATHANASIAN
CREED (q. v.), and denied or modified by Arians, Socinians, and
Sabellians (1634-1709).


BULL, JOHN, a humorous impersonation of the collective English
people, conceived of as well-fed, good-natured, honest-hearted,
justice-loving, and plain-spoken; the designation is derived from
Arbuthnot's satire, "The History of John Bull," in which the Church of
England figures as his mother.


BULL, OLE BORNEMANN, a celebrated violinist, born in Bergen, Norway,
pupil of Paganini; was a wise man at making money, but a fool in spending
it (1810-1880).


BULL RUN, a stream in Virginia, U.S., 25 m. from Washington, where
the Union army was twice defeated by the Confederate, July 1861 and
August 1862.


BULLANT, a French architect and sculptor; built the tombs of
Montmorency, Henry II., and Catherine de Medicis, as well as wrought at
the Tuileries and the Louvre (1510-1578).


BULLER, CHARLES, a politician, born in Calcutta, pupil of Thomas
Carlyle; entered Parliament at 24, a Liberal in politics; held
distinguished State appointments; died in his prime, universally beloved
and respected (1806-1848).


BULLER, GENERAL SIR REDVERS HENRY, served in China, Ashanti, South
Africa, Egypt, and the Soudan, with marked distinction in the 60th King's
Royal Rifles; has held staff appointments, and was for a short time
Under-Secretary for Ireland; _b_. 1839.


BULLINGER, HEINRICH, a Swiss Reformer, born in Aargau; friend and
successor of Zwingli; assisted in drawing up the Helvetic Confession; was
a correspondent of Lady Jane Grey (1504-1575).


BULLS AND BEARS, in the Stock Exchange, the bull being one who buys
in the hope that the value may rise, and the bear one who sells in the
hope that it may fall. See BEAR.


BUeLOW, BERNARD VON, Foreign Secretary of the German empire; early
entered the Foreign Office, and has done important diplomatic work in
connection with it, having been secretary to several embassies and charge
d'affaires to Greece during the Russo-Turkish war; _b_. 1850.


BUeLOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, BARON VON, a Prussian general; served his
country in the war with Revolutionary France; defeated the French under
the Empire in several engagements, and contributed to the victory at
Waterloo, heading the column that first came to Wellington's aid at the
decisive moment (1755-1816).


BUeLOW, GUIDO VON, a famous pianist, pupil of Liszt (1830-1894).


BULOZ, a French litterateur, born near Geneva; originator of the
_Revue des Deux Mondes_ (1803-1877).


BULWER, HENRY LYTTON, an experienced and successful diplomatist,
served the Liberal interest; was party to the conclusion of several
important treaties; wrote several works, "An Autumn in Greece," a "Life
of Byron," &c. (1801-1872).


BUMBLE, MR., a beadle in "Oliver Twist."


BUNAU, a German historian, author of a "History of the Seven Years'
War" (1697-1762).


BUNCOMBE, a district in N. Carolina, for the ears of the
constituency of which a dull speech was some years ago delivered in the
U.S. Congress, whence the phrase to "talk Buncombe," i. e. to please
one's constituency.


BUNDELKHAND (2,000), a territory in NW. Provinces, India, between
the Chambal and the Jumna; has been extensively irrigated at great labour
and expense.


BUNKER HILL, an eminence 112 ft., now included in Boston, the scene
on 19th June 1775 of the first great battle in the American War of
Independence.


BUNSBY, JACK, commander of a ship in "Dombey & Son," regarded as an
oracle by Captain Cuttle.


BUNSEN, BARON VON, a diplomatist and man of letters, born at
Korbach; in Waldeck; studied at Marburg and Goettingen; became acquainted
with Niebuhr at Berlin; studied Oriental languages under Silvestre de
Sacy at Paris; became secretary, under Niebuhr, to the Prussian embassy
at Rome; recommended himself to the king, and succeeded Niebuhr; became
ambassador in Switzerland and then in England; was partial to English
institutions, and much esteemed in England; wrote the "Church of the
Future," "Hippolytus and his Age," &c. (1791-1860).


BUNSEN, ROBERT WILLIAM, a distinguished German chemist, born at
Goettingen, settled as professor of Chemistry at Heidelberg; invented the
charcoal pile, the magnesian light, and the burner called after him;
discovered the antidote to arsenic, with hydrate of iron and the
SPECTRUM ANALYSIS (q. v.); _b_. 1811.


BUNSEN BURNER, a small gas-jet above which is screwed a brass tube
with holes at the bottom of it to let in air, which burns with the gas,
and causes at the top a non-luminous flame; largely used in chemical
operations.


BUNYAN, JOHN, author of the "Pilgrim's Progress," born in Elstow,
near Bedford, the son of a tinker, and bred himself to that humble craft;
he was early visited with religious convictions, and brought, after a
time of resistance to them, to an earnest faith in the gospel of Christ,
his witness for which to his poor neighbours led to his imprisonment, an
imprisonment which extended first and last over twelve and a half years,
and it was towards the close of it, and in the precincts of Bedford jail,
in the spring of 1676, that he dreamed his world-famous dream; here
two-thirds of it were written, the whole finished the year after, and
published at the end of it; extended, it came out eventually in two
parts, but it is the first part that is the Pilgrim's Progress, and
ensures it the place it holds in the religious literature of the world;
encouraged by the success of it--for it leapt into popularity at a
bound--Bunyan wrote some sixty other books, but except this, his
masterpiece, not more than two of these, "Grace Abounding" and the "Holy
War," continue to be read (1628-1688).


BUONTALENTI, an Italian artist, born at Florence, one of the
greatest, being, like Michael Angelo, at once architect, painter, and
sculptor (1536-1608).


BURBAGE, RICHARD, English tragedian, born in London, associate of
Shakespeare, took the chief role in "Hamlet," "King Lear," "Richard
III.," &c. (1562-1618).


BURCHELL, MR., a character in the "Vicar of Wakefield," noted for
his habit of applying "fudge" to everything his neighbours affected to
believe.


BURCKHARDT, Swiss historian and archaeologist, born at Bale, author
of "Civilisation in Italy during the Renaissance"; _b_. 1818.


BURCKHARDT, JOHN LUDVIG, traveller, born at Lausanne, sent out from
England by the African Association to explore Africa; travelled by way of
Syria; acquired a proficiency in Arabic, and assumed Arabic customs;
pushed on to Mecca as a Mussulman pilgrim--the first Christian to risk
such a venture; returned to Egypt, and died at Cairo just as he was
preparing for his African exploration; his travels were published after
his death, and are distinguished for the veracious reports of things they
contain (1784-1817).


BURDER, GEORGE, Congregational minister, became secretary to the
London Missionary Society, author of "Village Sermons," which were once
widely popular (1752-1832).


BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS, a popular member of Parliament, married
Sophia, the youngest daughter of Thomas Coutts, a wealthy London banker,
and acquired through her a large fortune; becoming M.P., he resolutely
opposed the government measures of the day, and got himself into serious
trouble; advocated radical measures of reform, many of which have since
been adopted; was prosecuted for a libel; fined L1000 for condemning the
Peterloo massacre, and imprisoned three months; joined the Conservative
party in 1835, and died a member of it (1770-1844).


BURDETT-COUTTS, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE ANGELA GEORGINA, BARONESS,
daughter of Sir Francis, inherited the wealth of Thomas Coutts, her
grandfather, which she has devoted to all manner of philanthropic as well
as patriotic objects; was made a peeress in 1871; received the freedom of
the city of London in 1874, and in 1881 married Mr. William Lehman
Ashmead-Bartlett, an American, who obtained the royal license to assume
the name of Burdett-Coutts; _b_. 1804.


BUREAU, a name given to a department of public administration, hence
bureaucracy, a name for government by bureaux.


BUeRGER, GOTTFRIED AUGUST, a German lyric poet, author of the ballads
"Lenore," which was translated by Sir Walter Scott, and "The Wild
Huntsman," as well as songs; led a wild life in youth, and a very unhappy
one in later years; died in poverty (1747-1794).


BURGKMAIR, HANS, painter and engraver, born at Augsburg; celebrated
for his woodcuts, amounting to nearly 700 (1473-1531).


BURGOS (34), ancient cap. of Old Castile, on the Arlanzon, 225 m. N.
of Madrid by rail; boasts a magnificent cathedral of the Early Pointed
period, and an old castle; was the birthplace of the Cid, and once a
university seat; it has linen and woollen industries.


BURGOYNE, JOHN, English general, and distinguished as the last sent
out to subdue the revolt in the American colonies, and, after a victory
or two, being obliged to capitulate to General Gates at Saratoga, fell
into disfavour; defended his conduct with ability and successfully
afterwards; devoted his leisure to poetry and the drama, the "Heiress" in
the latter his best (1723-1792).


BURGOYNE, SIR JOHN, field-marshal, joined the Royal Engineers,
served under Abercromby in Egypt, and under Sir John Moore and Wellington
in Spain; was present at the battles of Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman in
the Crimea; was governor of the Tower (1782-1871).


BURGUNDY was, prior to the 16th century, a Teutonic duchy of varying
extent in the SE. and E. of France; annexed to France as a province in
the 6th century; the country is still noted for its wines.


BURHANPUR (32), a town in the Central Provinces of India, in the
Nimar district, 280 m. NE. of Bombay; was at one time a centre of the
Mogul power in the Deccan, and a place of great extent; is now in
comparative decay, but still famous, as formerly, for its muslins, silks,
and brocades.


BURIDAN, JEAN, a scholastic doctor of the 14th century, born in
Artois, and famous as the reputed author, though there is no evidence of
it in his works, of the puzzle of the hungry and thirsty ass, called
after him Buridan's Ass, between a bottle of hay and a pail of water, a
favourite illustration of his in discussing the freedom of the will.


BURKE, EDMUND, orator and philosophic writer, born at Dublin, and
educated at Dublin University; entered Parliament in 1765; distinguished
himself by his eloquence on the Liberal side, in particular by his
speeches on the American war, Catholic emancipation, and economical
reform; his greatest oratorical efforts were his orations in support of
the impeachment of Warren Hastings; he was a resolute enemy of the French
Revolution, and eloquently denounced it in his "Reflections," a weighty
appeal; wrote in early life two small but notable treatises, "A
Vindication of Natural Society," and another on our ideas of the "Sublime
and Beautiful," which brought him into contact with the philosophic
intellects of the time, and sometime after planned the "Annual Register,"
to which he was to the last chief contributor. "He was," says Professor
Saintsbury, "a rhetorician (i. e. an expert in applying the art of
prose literature to the purpose of suasion), and probably the greatest
that modern times has ever produced" (1730-1797).


BURKE, SIR JOHN BERNARD, genealogist, born in London, of Irish
descent, author of the "Peerage and Baronetage of the United Kingdom";
produced, besides editing successive editions of it, a number of works on
aristocratic genealogies (1815-1892).


BURKE, ROBERT O'HARA, Australian explorer, born in Galway; conducted
an expedition across Australia, but on the way back both he and his
companion Wells perished, after terrible sufferings from privation and
drought (1820-1861).


BURKE, WILLIAM, a notorious murderer, native of Ireland; executed in
1828 for wholesale murders of people in Edinburgh by suffocation, after
intoxicating them with drink, whose bodies he sold for dissection to an
Edinburgh anatomist of the name of Knox, whom the citizens mobbed; he had
an accomplice as bad as himself, who, becoming informer, got off.


BURKITT, WILLIAM, Biblical expositor, born in Suffolk; author of
"Expository Notes on the New Testament," once held in high esteem
(1650-1703).


BURLEIGH, WILLIAM CECIL, LORD, a great statesman, born in
Lincolnshire; bred to the legal profession, and patronised and promoted
by the Protector Somerset; managed to escape the Marian persecution;
Queen Elizabeth recognised his statesman-like qualities, and appointed
him chief-secretary of state, an office which, to the glory of the queen
and the good of the country, he held for forty years, till his death. His
administration was conducted in the interest of the commonweal without
respect of persons, and nearly all his subordinates were men of honour as
well as himself (1520-1598).


BURLINGAME, ANSON, American diplomatist; sent ambassador to China,
and returned as Chinese envoy to the American and European courts;
concluded treaties between them and China (1820-1870).


BURMA (9,606), a vast province of British India, lying E. of the Bay
of Bengal, and bounded landward by Bengal, Tibet, China, and Siam; the
country is mountainous, drained by the Irawadi, Salween, and Sittang
Rivers, whose deltas are flat fertile plains; the heights on the Chinese
frontier reach 15,000 ft; the climate varies with the elevation, but is
mostly hot and trying; rice is the chief crop; the forests yield teak,
gum, and bamboo; the mines, iron, copper, lead, silver, and rubies. Lower
Burma is the coast-land from Bengal to Siam, cap. Rangoon, and was seized
by Britain in 1826 and 1854. Upper Burma, cap. Mandalay, an empire nearly
as large as Spain, was annexed in 1886.


BURN, RICHARD, English vicar, born in Westmoreland; compiled several
law digests, the best known his "Justice of the Peace" and
"Ecclesiastical Law" (1709-1785).


BURNABY, COLONEL, a traveller of daring adventure, born at Bedford,
a tall, powerful man; Colonel of the Horse Guards Blue; travelled in
South and Central America, and with Gordon in the Soudan; was chiefly
distinguished for his ride to Khiva in 1875 across the steppes of
Tartary, of which he published a spirited account, and for his travels
next year in Asia Minor and Persia, and his account of them in "On
Horseback through Asia Minor"; killed, pierced by an Arab spear, at Abu
Klea as he was rallying a broken column to the charge; he was a daring
aeronaut, having in 1882 crossed the Channel to Normandy in a balloon
(1842-1885).


BURNAND, FRANCIS COWLEY, editor of _Punch_; studied for the Church,
and became a Roman Catholic; an expert at the burlesque, and author of a
series of papers, entitled "Happy Thoughts," which give evidence of a
most keen, observant wit: _b_. 1836.


BURNE-JONES, SIR EDWARD, artist, born at Birmingham, of Welsh
descent; came early under the influence of the Pre-Raphaelite movement,
and all along produced works imbued with the spirit of it, which is at
once mystical in conception and realistic in execution; he was one of the
foremost, if not the foremost, of the artists of his day; imbued with
ideas that were specially capable of art-treatment; William Morris and he
were bosom friends from early college days at Oxford, and used to spend
their Sunday mornings together (1831-1898).


BURNES, SIR ALEXANDER, born at Montrose, his father a cousin of
Robert Burns; was an officer in the Indian army; distinguished for the
services he rendered to the Indian Government through his knowledge of
the native languages; appointed Resident at Cabul; was murdered, along
with his brother and others, by an Afghan mob during an Insurrection
(1805-1841).


BURNET, GILBERT, bishop of Salisbury, born at Edinburgh, of an old
Aberdeen family; professor of Divinity in Glasgow; afterwards preacher at
the Rolls Chapel, London; took an active part in supporting the claims of
the Prince of Orange to the English throne; was rewarded with a
bishopric, that of Salisbury; wrote the "History of the Reformation," an
"Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles," the "History of His Own Times";
he was a Whig in politics, a broad Churchman in creed, and a man of
strict moral principle as well as Christian charity; the most famous of
his works is his "History of His Own Times," a work which Pope, Swift,
and others made the butt of their satire (1643-1715).


BURNET, JOHN, engraver and author, born at Fisherrow; engraved
Wilkie's works, and wrote on art (1784-1868).


BURNET, THOMAS, master of the Charterhouse, born in Yorkshire,
author of the "Sacred Theory of the Earth," eloquent in descriptive
parts, but written wholly in ignorance of the facts (1635-1715).


BURNETT, FRANCES HODGSON, novelist, born in Manchester, resident for
a time in America; wrote "That Lass o' Lowrie's," and other stories of
Lancashire manufacturing life, characterised by shrewd observation,
pathos, and descriptive power; _b_. 1849.


BURNEY, CHARLES, musical composer and organist, born at Shrewsbury;
a friend of Johnson's; author of "The History of Music," and the father
of Madame d'Arblay; settled in London as a teacher of music (1726-1814).


BURNEY, CHARLES, son of preceding, a great classical scholar; left a
fine library, purchased by the British Museum for L13,500 (1757-1817).


BURNEY, JAMES, brother of preceding, rear-admiral, accompanied Cook
in his last two voyages; wrote "History of Voyages of Discovery"
(1750-1821).


BURNLEY (87), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 27 m. N. of
Manchester; with cotton mills, foundries, breweries, &c.


BURNOUF, EUGENE, an illustrious Orientalist, born in Paris;
professor of Sanskrit in the College of France; an authority on Zend or
Zoroastrian literature; edited the text of and translated the "Bhagavata
Purana," a book embodying Hindu mythology; made a special study of
Buddhism; wrote an introduction to the history of the system (1801-1852).


BURNS, JOHN, politician and Socialist, born at Vauxhall, of humble
parentage; bred to be an engineer; imbibed socialistic ideas from a
fellow-workman, a Frenchman, a refugee of the Commune from Paris; became
a platform orator in the interest of Socialism, and popular among the
working class; got into trouble in consequence; was four times elected
member of the London County Council for Battersea; and has been twice
over chosen to represent that constituency in Parliament; _b_. 1858.


BURNS, ROBERT, celebrated Scottish poet, born at Alloway, near Ayr,
in 1759, son of an honest, intelligent peasant, who tried farming in a
small way, but did not prosper; tried farming himself on his father's
decease in 1784, but took to rhyming by preference; driven desperate in
his circumstances, meditated emigrating to Jamaica, and published a few
poems he had composed to raise money for that end; realised a few pounds
thereby, and was about to set sail, when friends and admirers rallied
round him and persuaded him to stay; he was invited to Edinburgh; his
poems were reprinted, and money came in; soon after he married, and took
a farm, but failing, accepted the post of exciseman in Dumfries; fell
into bad health, and died in 1796, aged 37. "His sun shone as through a
tropical tornado, and the pale shadow of death eclipsed it at noon.... To
the ill-starred Burns was given the power of making man's life more
venerable, but that of wisely guiding his own life was not given.... And
that spirit, which might have soared could it but have walked, soon sank
to the dust, its glorious faculties trodden under foot in the blossom;
and died, we may almost say, without ever having lived." See Carlyle's
"Miscellanies" for by far the justest and wisest estimate of both the man
and the poet that has yet by any one been said or sung. He is at his best
in his "Songs," he says, which he thinks "by far the best that Britain
has yet produced.... In them," he adds, "he has found a tune and words
for every mood of man's heart; in hut and hall, as the heart unfolds
itself in many-coloured joy and woe of existence, the _name_, the _voice_
of that joy and that woe, is the name and voice which Burns has given
them."


BURRA-BURRA, a copper-mine in S. Australia, about 103 m. NE. of
Adelaide.


BURRARD INLET, an inlet of river Fraser, in British Columbia,
forming one of the best harbours on the Pacific coast.


BURRITT, ELIHU, a blacksmith, born in Connecticut; devoted to the
study of languages, of which he knew many, both ancient and modern; best
known as the unwearied Advocate of Peace all over America and a great
part of Europe, on behalf of which he ruined his voice (1810-1879).


BURROUGHS, JOHN, popular author, born in New York; a farmer, a
cultured man, with a great liking for country life and natural objects,
on which he has written largely and _con amore_; _b_. 1837.


BURRUS, a Roman general, who with Seneca had the conduct of Nero's
education, and opposed his tyrannical acts, till Nero, weary of his
expostulations, got rid of him by poison.


BURSCHENSCHAFT, an association of students in the interest of German
liberation and unity; formed in 1813, and broken up by the Government in
1819.


BURSLEM (31), a pottery-manufacturing town in Staffordshire, and the
"mother of the potteries"; manufactures porcelain and glass.


BURTON, JOHN HILL, historian and miscellaneous writer, born at
Aberdeen; an able man, bred for the bar; wrote articles for the leading
reviews and journals, "Life of Hume," "History of Scotland," "The
Book-Hunter," "The Scot Abroad," &c.; characterised by Lord Rosebery as a
"dispassionate historian"; was Historiographer-Royal for Scotland
(1809-1881).


BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS, traveller, born in Hertfordshire;
served first as a soldier in Scind under Sir C. Napier; visited Mecca and
Medina as an Afghan pilgrim; wrote an account of his visit in his
"Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage, &c."; penetrated Central Africa
along with Captain Speke, and discovered Lake Tanganyika; visited Utah,
and wrote "The City of the Saints"; travelled in Brazil, Palestine, and
Western Africa, accompanied through many a hardship by his devoted wife;
translated the "Arabian Nights"; his works on his travels numerous, and
show him to have been of daring adventure (1821-1890).


BURTON, ROBERT, an English clergyman, born in Leicestershire;
Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford; lived chiefly in Oxford, spending his
time in it for some 50 years in study; author of "The Anatomy of
Melancholy," which he wrote to alleviate his own depression of mind, a
book which is a perfect mosaic of quotations on every conceivable topic,
familiar and unfamiliar, from every manner of source (1576-1640). See
ANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY.


BURTON-ON-TRENT (46), a town in Staffordshire; brews and exports
large quantities of ale, the water of the place being peculiarly suitable
for brewing purposes.


BURY (56), a manufacturing town in Lancashire, 10 m. NW. of
Manchester; originally but a small place engaged in woollen manufacture,
but cotton is now the staple manufacture in addition to paper-works,
dye-works, &c.


BURY ST. EDMUNDS, or ST. EDMUNDSBURY (16), a market-town in
Suffolk, 26 m. NW. of Ipswich, named from Edmund, king of East Anglia,
martyred by the Danes in 870, in whose honour it was built; famous for
its abbey, of the interior life of which in the 12th century there is a
matchlessly graphic account in CARLYLE'S "PAST AND PRESENT."


BUSA`CO, a mountain ridge in the prov. of Beira, Portugal, where
Wellington with 40,000 troops beat Massena with 65,000.


BUSBY, RICHARD, distinguished English schoolmaster, born at Lutton,
Lincolnshire; was head-master of Winchester School; had a number of
eminent men for his pupils, among others Dryden, Locke, and South
(1606-1695).


BUeSCHING, ANTON FRIEDRICH, a celebrated German geographer; his
"Erdbeschreibung," the first geographical work of any scientific merit;
gives only the geography of Europe (1724-1793).


BUSHIRE (27), the chief port of Persia on the Persian Gulf, and a
great trading centre.


BUSHMEN, or BOSJESMANS, aborigines of South-west Africa; a
rude, nomadic race, at one time numerous, but now fast becoming extinct.


BUSHRANGERS, in Australia a gang made up of convicts who escaped to
the "bush," and there associated with other desperadoes; at one time
caused a great deal of trouble in the colony by their maraudings.


BUSIRIS, a king of Egypt who used to offer human beings in
sacrifice; seized Hercules and bound him to the altar, but Hercules
snapped the bonds he was bound with, and sacrificed him.


BUSK, HANS, one of the originators of the Volunteer movement, born
in Wales; author of "The Rifle, and How to Use it" (1815-1882).


BUSKIN, a kind of half-boot worn after the custom of hunters as part
of the costume of actors in tragedy on the ancient Roman stage, and a
synonym for tragedy.


BUTE, an island in the Firth of Clyde, about 16 m. long and from 3
to 5 broad, N. of Arran, nearly all the Marquis of Bute's property, with
his seat at Mount Stuart, and separated from the mainland on the N. by a
winding romantic arm of the sea called the "Kyles of Bute."


BUTE, JOHN STUART, THIRD EARL OF, statesman, born of an old Scotch
family; Secretary of State, and from May 1762 to April 1763 Prime
Minister under George III., over whom he had a great influence; was very
unpopular as a statesman, his leading idea being the supremacy of the
king; spent the last 24 years of his life in retirement, devoting himself
to literature and science (1712-1792).


BUTE, MARQUIS OF, son of the second marquis, born in Bute; admitted
to the Roman Catholic Church in 1868; devoted to archaeological studies,
and interested in university education; _b_. 1849.


BUTLER, ALBAN, hagiographer, born in Northampton; head of the
college at St. Omer; wrote "Lives of the Saints" (1710-1773).


BUTLER, CHARLES, an English barrister, born in London; wrote
"Historical Account of the Laws against the Catholics" (1750-1832).


BUTLER, JOSEPH, an eminent English divine, born at Wantage, in
Berks; born a Dissenter; conformed to the Church of England; became
preacher at the Rolls, where he delivered his celebrated "Sermons," the
first three of which contributed so much to the stability of moral
science; was raised, in virtue of his merits alone, to the see of
Bristol; made dean of St. Paul's, and finally bishop of Durham; his great
work, "The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution
and Course of Nature," the aim of which is twofold--first, to show that
the objections to revealed religion are equally valid against the
constitution of nature; and second, to establish a conformity between the
divine order in revelation and the order of nature; his style is far from
interesting, and is often obscure (1692-1752).


BUTLER, SAMUEL, a master of burlesque, born at Strensham, in
Worcestershire, the son of a small farmer; the author of "Hudibras," a
poem of about 10,000 octosyllabic lines, in which he subjects to ridicule
the ideas and manners of the English Puritans of the Civil War and the
Commonwealth; it appeared in three parts, the first in 1663, the second
soon after, and the third in 1678; it is sparkling with wit, yet is hard
reading, and few who take it up read it through; was an especial
favourite with Charles II., who was never weary of quoting from it. "It
represents," says Stopford Brooke, "the fierce reaction that (at the
Restoration) had set in against Puritanism. It is justly famed," he adds,
"for wit, learning, good sense, and ingenious drollery, and, in
accordance with the new criticism, is absolutely without obscurity. It is
often as terse as Pope's best work; but it is too long; its wit wearies
us at last, and it undoes the force of its attacks on the Puritans by its
exaggeration" (1612-1680).


BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER, a philosophical writer, born near Clonmel,
Ireland; professor of Moral Philosophy at Dublin; author of "Lectures on
the History of Ancient Philosophy" (1814-1848).


BUTT, CLARA, operatic singer, born in Sussex; made her _debut_ in
London at the Albert Hall in the "Golden Legend," and in "Orfeo" at the
Lyceum, ever since which appearances she has been much in demand as a
singer; _b_. 1872.


BUTT, ISAAC, Irish patriot, distinguished for his scholarship at
Dublin University; became editor of the _Dublin University Magazine_;
entered Parliament, and at length took the lead of the "Home Rule" party,
but could not control it, and retired (1813-1879).


BUTTMANN, PHILIPP, a German philologist, born at
Frankfort-on-the-Main; professor of Philology in Berlin; best known by
his "Greek Grammar" (1764-1829).


BUXTON, a high-lying town in Derbyshire, noted for its calcareous
and chalybeate springs, and a resort for invalids; is also famous for its
rock crystals, stalactite cavern, and fine scenery.


BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, a philanthropist, born in Essex, a tall
man of energetic character; entered life as a brewer, and made his
fortune; was conspicuous for his interest in benevolent movements, such
as the amelioration of criminal law and the abolition of slavery;
represented Weymouth in Parliament from 1818 to 1837; was made a baronet
in 1840; he was Wilberforce's successor (1786-1845).


BUXTON, SIR THOMAS FOWELL, once governor of S. Australia, grandson
of the preceding; educated at Harrow and Cambridge; a Liberal in
politics, and member for King's Lynn from 1865 to 1868; a philanthropist
and Evangelical Churchman; _b_. 1837.


BUXTORF, a celebrated Hebraist, born in Westphalia, member of a
family of Orientalists; professor of Hebrew for 39 years at Basle; was
known by the title, "Master of the Rabbis" (1564-1629).


BYBLIS, in the Greek mythology a daughter of Miletus, in love with
her brother Caunus, whom she pursued into far lands, till, worn out with
sorrow, she was changed into a fountain.


BYNG, GEORGE, VISCOUNT TORRINGTON, admiral, favoured the Prince of
Orange, and won the navy over to his interest; commanded the squadron
that took Gibraltar in 1704: conquered the Spaniards off Cape Passaro;
was made First Lord of the Admiralty in 1727, an office he held till his
death (1663-1733).


BYNG, JOHN, admiral, fourth son of the preceding; having failed to
compel the French to raise the blockade of Minorca, was recalled, in
deference to popular clamour, and being tried and condemned as guilty of
treason, was shot at Portsmouth, a fate it is now believed he did not
deserve, and which he bore like a man and a Christian (1704-1757).


BYROM, JOHN, poet and stenographer, born near Manchester; invented a
system of shorthand, now superseded, and which he had the sole right of
teaching for 21 years; contributed as "John Shadow" to the _Spectator_;
author of the pastoral, "My Time, O ye Muses, was Happily Spent"; his
poetry satirical and genial (1692-1763).


BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, SIXTH LORD, an English poet, born in London,
son of Captain Byron of the Guards, and Catherine Gordon of Gight,
Aberdeenshire; spent his boyhood at Aberdeen under his mother, now a
widow, and was educated at Harrow and Cambridge, spending, when at the
latter, his vacations in London, where his mother had taken a house;
wrote "Hours of Idleness," a poor first attempt, which called forth a
severe criticism in the _Edinburgh Review_, and which he satirised in
"English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," and soon afterwards left England
and spent two years in foreign travel; wrote first part of "Childe
Harold," "awoke one morning and found himself famous"; produced the
"Giaour," "Bride of Abydos," "Hebrew Melodies," and other work. In his
school days he had fallen in love with Mary Chaworth, but she had not
returned his affection, and in 1815 he married Miss Millbank, an heiress,
who in a year left him never to return, when a storm raised against him
on account of his private life drove him from England, and he never came
back; on the Continent, moved from place to place, finished "Childe
Harold," completed several short poems, and wrote "Don Juan"; threw
himself into revolutionary movements in Italy and Greece, risked his all
in the emancipation of the latter, and embarking in it, died at
Missolonghi in a fit, at the age of 36. His poems, from the character of
the passion that breathed in them, made a great impression on his age,
but the like interest in them is happily now passing away, if not already
past; the earth is looking green again once more, under the breath, it is
believed, of a new spring-time, or anyhow, the promise of such. See
"Organic Filaments" in "Sartor Resartus" (1788-1824).


BYRON, HENRY JAMES, dramatist, born in Manchester, wrote "Our Boys"
(1834-1884).


BYRON, JOHN, naval officer, grandfather of the poet, nicknamed from
his misfortunes "Foul-weather Jack"; accompanied Anson in his voyage
round the world, but was wrecked in his ship the _Wager_; suffered almost
unexampled hardships, of which he wrote a classical account on his safe
return home; he rose to the rank of admiral, and commanded the squadron
in the West Indies during the American war; died in England (1723-1786).


BYRSA, a celebrated citadel of Carthage.


BYZANTINE ART, a decorative style of art patronised by the Romans
after the seat of empire was removed to the East; it has been described
by Mr. Fairholt as "an engraftment of Oriental elaboration of detail upon
classic forms, ending in their debasement."


BYZANTINE EMPIRE, called also the Eastern, the Lower, or the Greek
Empire; dates from 395 A.D., when, by the death of Theodosius, the Roman
empire was divided between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the
Eastern section falling to the share of the former, who established the
seat of his government at Byzantium; the empire included Syria, Asia
Minor, Pontus, Egypt in Africa, and Ancient Greece, and it lasted with
varied fortune for ten centuries after the accession of Arcadius, till
Constantinople was taken by the Turks in 1453.


BYZANTIUM, the ancient name of Constantinople; founded by Greek
colonists in 667 B.C.




C


CAABA, an ancient Arab temple, a small square structure in the grand
mosque of Mecca, with a mysterious black stone, probably an aerolite,
built in it, on which all pilgrims who visit the shrine imprint a kiss;
"the Keblah of all Moslem, the eyes of innumerable praying men being
turned towards it from all the quarters of the compass five times a day."


CABAL`, a secret intriguing faction in a State, a name applied to a
junto of five ministers of Charles II. in power from 1668 to 1673, the
initials of whose names go to make up the word; their names were
Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale; derived from
CABALA (q. v.).


CAB`ALA, a secret science alleged to have been divinely imparted to
Moses and preserved by tradition, by means of which the Rabbis affected
to interpret the pretended mystic sense of the words, letters, and very
accents of the Hebrew Scriptures, a science which really owes its
existence to a dissatisfaction in the rabbinical mind with the
traditional literal interpretation, and a sense that there is more in
Scripture than meets the ear. The name comes from a Hebrew word
suggesting "to receive," and denotes "that which is received" or
tradition.


CABALLERO, FERNAN, the _nom de plume_ of Cecilia Boehl, a popular
Spanish authoress, born in Switzerland, of German descent; a collector of
folk tales; wrote charmingly; told stories of Spanish, particularly
Andalusian, peasant life (1797-1877).


CABANEL, ALEXANDRE, a French painter, born at Montpellier
(1828-1889).


CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGE, a celebrated French medical man, born
in Cosnac, in the dep. of Charente Inferieure, a pronounced materialist
in philosophy, and friend of Mirabeau; attended him in his last illness,
and published an account of it; his materialism was of the grossest;
treated the soul as a nonentity; and held that the brain secretes thought
just as the liver secretes bile (1757-1808).


CABEL, a celebrated painter of the Dutch school, born at Ryswick
(1631-1698).


CABET, ETIENNE, a French communist, born in Dijon; a leader of the
Carbonari; provoked prosecution, and fled to England; wrote a history of
the First Revolution, in which he defended the Jacobins; author of the
"Voyage en Icarie," in description of a communistic Utopia, which became
the text-book of a communistic sect called "Icarians," a body of whom he
headed to carry out his schemes in America, first in Texas and then at
Nauvoo, but failed; died at St. Louis broken-hearted (1788-1856).


CABI`RI, certain mysterious demonic beings to whom mystic honours
were paid in Lemnos and elsewhere in Greece, in connection with
nature-worship, and especially with that of DEMETER and
DIONYSUS (q. v.).


CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON, a journalist, born at New Orleans, has
written interestingly on, and created an interest in, Creole life in
America; _b_. 1844.


CABOT, GIOVANNI, a Venetian pilot, born at Genoa, settled in
Bristol, entered the service of Henry VII., and discovered part of the
mainland of N. America, at Labrador, about 1497: _d_. 1498.


CABOT, SEBASTIAN, son of the preceding, born either in Venice or
Bristol; accompanied his father to N. America; sought service as a
navigator, first in Spain then in England, but failed; returned to Spain;
attempted under Charles V. to plant colonies in Brazil with no success,
for which he was imprisoned and banished; was the first to notice the
variation of the magnetic needle, and to open up to England trade with
Russia (1474-1557).


CABRAL, PEDRO ALVAREZ, a Portuguese navigator, sailing for the
Indies, drifted on the coast of Brazil, on which he planted the
Portuguese flag, 1500, and of which he is accounted by some the
discoverer, continued his course, and established a factory at Calicut in
1501 (1460-1526).


CABRE`RA, one of the Balearic Isles, used as a penal settlement by
Spain, produces wild olives.


CABRERA, a Spanish general, born at Tortosa, Catalonia, a zealous
supporter of the claims of Don Carlos, took up arms in his behalf; died
in England; he was an unscrupulous adversary (1810-1877).


CABUL`, or KABUL (50), cap. of a province of the name in
Afghanistan, in a mild climate, on an elevated plateau of great
fertility, 6000 ft. in height, on the high route between Central Asia and
the Punjab, a great highway of trade, and a depot for European goods.


CACCIA, Italian fresco-painter, did altar-pieces; his best work,
"Deposition from the Cross," at Novara; _d_. 1625.


CACERAS (350), a Spanish province in the N. of Estremadura; the name
also of its capital (14), famous for its bacon and sausages, as the
province is for cattle-rearing.


CACHAR (313), a great tea-growing district in Assam.


CACHE, name given in Canada to a hole in the ground for hiding
provisions when they prove cumbersome to carry.


CACHET, LETTRE DE, a warrant issued in France before the Revolution,
under the royal seal, for the arrest and imprisonment of a person, often
obtained to gratify private ends; abolished in 1790.


CA`CUS, a mythological brigand of gigantic stature who occupied a
cave in Mount Aventine, represented by Virgil as breathing smoke and
flames of fire; stole the oxen of Hercules as he was asleep, dragging
them to his cave tail foremost to deceive the owner; strangled by
Hercules in his rage at the deception quite as much as the theft.


CADASTRE, a register of the landed proprietors of a district, and
the extent of their estates, with maps illustrative called Cadastral
Maps.


CADE, JACK, an Irish adventurer, headed an insurrection in Kent, in
1450, in the reign of Henry VI.; encamped with his following on
Blackheath; demanded of the king redress of grievances; was answered by
an armed force, which he defeated; entered the city, could not prevent
his followers from plundering; the citizens retaliating, he had to flee,
but was overtaken and slain.


CADEMOSTO, a Venetian in the service of Portugal, discovered the
Cape de Verde Islands in 1457; wrote the first book giving an account of
modern voyages, published posthumously (1432-1480).


CADIZ (62), one of the chief commercial ports in Spain, in
Andalusia; founded by the Phoenicians about 1100 B.C.; called Gades by
the Romans; at the NW. extremity of the Isle of Leon, and separated from
the rest of the island by a channel crossed by bridges; it is 7 m. from
Xeres and 50 m. from Gibraltar, and carries on a large export trade.


CAD`MUS, a semi-mythological personage, founder of Thebes, in
Boeotia, to whom is ascribed the introduction of the Greek alphabet from
Phoenicia and the invention of writing; in the quest of his sister
Europa, was told by the oracle at Delphi to follow a cow and build a city
where she lay down; arrived at the spot where the cow lay down, he sent,
with a view to its sacrifice, his companions to a well guarded by a
dragon, which devoured them; slew the dragon; sowed its teeth, which
sprang up into a body of armed men, who speared each other to death, all
but five, who, the story goes, became the forefathers of Thebes.


CADOUDAL, GEORGES, a brave man, chief of the CHOUANS (q. v.),
born in Brittany, the son of a farmer; tried hard and took up arms
to restore the Bourbons in the teeth of the Republic, but was defeated;
refused to serve under Bonaparte, who would fain have enlisted him,
having seen in him "a mind cast in the true mould"; came over from
London, whither he had retired, on a secret mission from Charles X.; was
suspected of evil designs against the person of Bonaparte; arrested, and,
after a short trial, condemned and executed, having confessed his
intention to overthrow the Republic and establish Louis XVIII. on the
throne (1769-1804).


CADUCEUS, the winged rod of Hermes, entwined with two serpents;
originally a simple olive branch; was in the hands of the god possessed
of magical virtues; it was the symbol of peace.


CAEDMON, an English poet of the 7th century, the fragment of a hymn
by whom, preserved by Bede, is the oldest specimen extant of English
poetry; wrote a poem on the beginning of things at the call of a voice
from heaven, saying as he slept, "Caedmon, come sing me some song"; and
thereupon he began to sing, as Stopford Brooke reports, the story of
Genesis and Exodus, many other tales in the sacred Scriptures, and the
story of Christ and the Apostles, and of heaven and hell to come.


CAEN (45), a fine old Norman town, capital of Calvados, about 80 m.
SE. of Cherbourg; lace the chief manufacture; the burial-place of William
the Conqueror, and the native place of Charlotte Corday; it is a
well-built town, and has fine old public buildings, a large library, and
a noble collection of pictures.


CAER`LEON, a small old town in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, 21/2 m. NE.
of Newport; celebrated by Tennyson in connection with Arthurian legend;
it is a very ancient place, and contains relics of Roman times.


CAESALPINUS, Italian natural philosopher, born at Arezzo; was
professor of botany at Pisa; was forerunner of Harvey and Linnaeus;
discovered sex in plants, and gave hints on their classification
(1519-1603).


CAESAR, name of an old Roman family claiming descent from the Trojan
AEneas, which the emperors of Rome from Augustus to Nero of right
inherited, though the title was applied to succeeding emperors and to the
heirs-apparent of the Western and the Eastern Empires; it survives in the
titles of the Kaiser of Germany and the Czar of Russia.


CAESAR, CAIUS JULIUS, pronounced the greatest man of antiquity, by
birth and marriage connected with the democratic party; early provoked
the jealousy of Sulla, then dictator, and was by an edict of proscription
against him obliged to quit the city; on the death of Sulla returned to
Rome; was elected to one civic office after another, and finally to the
consulship. United with Pompey and Crassus in the First Triumvirate (60
B.C.); was appointed to the government of Gaul, which he subdued after
nine years to the dominion of Rome; his successes awoke the jealousy of
Pompey, who had gone over to the aristocratic side, and he was recalled;
this roused Caesar, and crossing the Rubicon with his victorious troops,
he soon saw all Italy lying at his feet (49 B.C.); pursued Pompey, who
had fled to Greece, and defeated him at Pharsalia (48 B.C.); was
thereupon elected dictator and consul for five years, distinguishing
himself in Egypt and elsewhere; returned to Rome (47 B.C.); conceived
and executed vast schemes for the benefit of the city, and became the
idol of its citizens; when he was assassinated on the Ides (the 15th) of
March, 44 B.C., in the fifty-sixth year of his age; _b_.100 B.C.


CAESAREA, a Syrian seaport, 30 m. N. of Joppa, built in honour of
Augustus Caesar by Herod the Great, now in ruins, though a place of note
in the days of the Crusades. Also C. PHILIPPI, at the source of the
Jordan, whence Christ, on assuring Himself that His disciples were
persuaded of His divine sonship, turned to go up to Jerusalem, and so by
His sacrifice perfect their faith in Him.


CAGLIARI (44), the cap of Sardinia, and the chief port, on the S.
coast, was a colony of Jews from the time of Tiberius till 1492, whence
they were expelled by the Spaniards; lies on the slopes of a hill, the
summit of which is 300 ft. high, and is on the site of an ancient
Carthaginian town.


CAGLIARI, PAOLO, proper name of PAUL VERONESE (q. v.).


CAGLIOSTRO, COUNT ALESSANDRO DI, assumed name of an arch-impostor,
his real name being Giuseppe Balsamo, born in Palermo, of poor parents;
early acquired a smattering of chemistry and medicine, by means of which
he perpetrated the most audacious frauds, which, when detected in one
place were repeated with even more brazen effrontery in another; married
a pretty woman named Lorenza Feliciani, who became an accomplice;
professed supernatural powers, and wrung large sums from his dupes
wherever they went, after which they absconded to Paris and lived in
extravagance; here he was thrown into the Bastille for complicity in the
DIAMOND NECKLACE AFFAIR (q. v.); on his wife turning informer,
he was consigned to the tender mercies of the Inquisition, and committed
to the fortress of San Leone, where he died at 52, his wife having
retired into a convent (1743-1795). See CARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES"
for an account of his character and career.


CAGNOLA, LUIGI, MARQUIS OF, Italian architect, born at Milan; his
greatest work, the "Arco della Pace," of white marble, in his native
city, the execution of which occupied him over 30 years (1762-1833).


CAGOTS, a race in the SW. of France of uncertain origin; treated as
outcasts in the Middle Ages, owing, it has been supposed, to some taint
of leprosy, from which, it is argued, they were by their manner of life
in course of time freed.


CAHORS (13), a town in the dep. of Lot, in the S. of France, 71 m.
N. of Toulouse, with interesting Roman and other relics of antiquity.


CAIAPHAS, the High-Priest of the Jews who condemned Christ to death
as a violator of the law of Moses.


CAIAPOS, a wild savage race in the woods of Brazil, hard to persuade
to reconcile themselves to a settled life.


CAICOS, a group of small islands connected with the Bahamas, but
annexed to Jamaica since 1874.


CAILLE, LOUIS DE LA, astronomer, studied at the Cape of Good Hope,
registered stars of the Southern Hemisphere, numbering 9000, before
unknown; calculated the table of eclipses for 1800 years (1713-1762).


CAILLET, a chief of the Jacquerie, a peasant insurrection in France
in 1358, taken prisoner and tortured to death.


CAILLIAUD, French mineralogist, born in Nantes, travelled in Egypt,
Nubia, and Ethiopia, collecting minerals and making observations
(1787-1869).


CAILLIE, RENE, French traveller in Africa, born in Poitou, the first
European to penetrate as far as Timbuctoo, in Central Africa, which he
did in 1828; the temptation was a prize of 10,000 marks offered by the
Geographical Society of Paris, which he received with a pension of 1000
besides (1799-1839).


CAIN, according to Genesis, the first-born of Adam and Eve, and
therefore of the race, and the murderer of his brother Abel.


CAIN, THOMAS HENRY HALL, eminent novelist, born in Cheshire, of Manx
blood; began life as architect and took to journalism; author of a number
of novels bearing on Manx life, such as the "Deemster" and the "Manxman";
his most recent novel, the "Christian," his greatest but most ambiguous
work, and much challenged in England, though less so in America; it has
been translated into most of the languages of Europe, where the verdict
is divided; _b_. 1853.


CA IRA, "It will go on," a popular song in France during the
Revolution, said to have been a phrase of Benjamin Franklin's, which he
was in the habit of using in answering inquirers about the progress of
the American revolution by his friends in France.


CAIRD, EDWARD, brother of the following, interpreter of Kant and
Hegel; succeeded Jowett as master of Balliol; has written on the
"Evolution of Religion," and edited the lectures and sermons of his
brother; _b_. 1825.


CAIRD, JOHN, an eloquent Scotch preacher, born at Greenock,
Principal of Glasgow University, famous for a sermon entitled "The
Religion of Common Life" preached before the Queen at Crathie in 1855;
made a special study of the philosophy of religion, and wrote eloquently
on it, more especially the Christian version of it (1820-1898).


CAIRN, a heap of stones often, though not always, loosely thrown
together, generally by way of a sepulchral monument, and it would seem
sometimes in execration of some foul deed.


CAIRNES, JOHN ELLIOT, a political economist of the school of John
Stuart Mill with modifications, born in co. Louth, Ireland; professor
successively in Dublin, Galway, and London; author of works on political
economy (1823-1875).


CAIRNGORM, a yellowish-brown variety of rock-crystal, so called from
being found, among other places, on one of the Scottish Grampians, in
Aberdeenshire, so named.


CAIRNS, HUGH MACCALMONT, EARL, lawyer and politician, born in co.
Down, Ireland; called to the English bar; entered Parliament,
representing Belfast; became Lord Chancellor under Disraeli's government
in 1868, and again in 1874; took an active interest in philanthropic
movements (1819-1885).


CAIRO (400), cap. of Egypt, and largest city in Africa, on the right
bank of the Nile, just above the Delta, 120 m. SE. of Alexandria, covers
an extensive area on a broad sandy plain, and presents a strange
agglomeration of ancient and modern elements. The modern city is the
fourth founded in succession on the same site, and remains of the former
cities are included in it, old walls, gateways, narrow streets, and
latticed houses, palaces, and 400 mosques. These, though much spoiled by
time and tourists, still represent the brightest period of Saracenic art.
The most modern part of the city consists of broad boulevards, with
European-built villas, hotels, &c., and has all the advantages of modern
civic appliances. There is a rich museum, and university with 2000
students. Extensive railway communication and the Nile waterway induce a
large transport trade, but there is little industry. The population is
mixed; the townsfolk are half Arab, half Egyptian, while Copts, Turks,
Jews, Italians, and Greeks are numerous; it is a centre of Mohammedan
learning, and since 1882 the centre of British influence in Egypt.


CAITHNESS (37), a level, except in the W. and S., bare, and somewhat
barren, county in the NE. of Scotland, 43 m. by 28 m., with a bold and
rocky coast; has flagstone quarries; fishing the chief industry, of which
Wick is the chief seat; the inhabitants are to a great extent of
Scandinavian origin, and English, not Gaelic, is the language spoken.


CAJETAN, CARDINAL, general of the Dominicans, born in Gaeta;
represented the Pope at the Diet of Augsburg, and tried in vain to
persuade Luther to recant; wrote a Commentary on the Bible, and on the
"Summa Theologiae" of Aquinas.


CALABAR`, a district under British protection on the coast of Upper
Guinea, the country flat and the climate unhealthy.


CALABAR BEAN, seed of an African bean, employed in medicine, known
as the Ordeal Bean, as, being poisonous, having been used to test the
innocence of people charged with witchcraft.


CALABRIA (1,500), a fertile prov. embraced in the SW. peninsula of
Italy, and traversed by the Apennines, with tunny and anchovy fisheries;
yields grains and fruits, and a variety of minerals; is inhabited by a
race of somewhat fiery temper; is much subject to earthquakes.


CALAIS (56), a fortified seaport in France, on the Strait of Dover,
where it is 21 m. across; was in possession of the English from 1347 to
1558, and the last town held by them on French soil; is the chief
landing-place for travellers from England to the Continent, and has
considerable export trade, as well as cotton and tulle manufactures.


CALAMY, EDMUND, a Presbyterian divine, born in London; favourable to
Royalty, but zealously opposed to Episcopacy, against which he
vigorously protested with his pen; opposed the execution of Charles I.
and the protectorate of Cromwell; made chaplain to Charles II. after the
Restoration; refused a bishopric, which he could not, on conscientious
grounds, accept (1600-1666).


CALAMY, EDMUND, a grandson of the preceding, an eminent
Nonconformist minister in London, on whom, for the high esteem in which
he was held, honorary degrees were conferred by the Edinburgh, Glasgow,
and Aberdeen universities (1671-1732).


CALAS, JEAN, a tradesman of Toulouse, whose son committed suicide,
and who was charged with murdering him to prevent his going over to the
Catholic Church; was tried, convicted, and sentenced to torture and death
on the wheel (1762); after which his property was confiscated, and his
children compelled to embrace the Catholic faith, while the widow escaped
into Switzerland. Voltaire, to his immortal honour, took up her case,
proved to the satisfaction of the legal authorities in France the
innocence of the victims, got the process revised, and Louis XV. to grant
a sum of money out of the royal bounty for the benefit of the family.


CALAVE`RAS, an inland county of California, E. of San Francisco,
rich in minerals, with copper and gold mines.


CALCHAS, the soothsayer who accompanied Agamemnon to the siege of
Troy; enjoined the sacrifice of Iphigenia to propitiate the gods,
foretold the length or the war, and advised the construction of the
wooden horses, a device by means of which Troy was surprised and taken.


CALCULUS, DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL, in mathematics, is the method
by which we discuss the properties of continuously varying quantities.
The nature of the method and the necessity for it may be indicated by a
simple example; e. g. the motion of a train in a track, or the motion
of a planet in its orbit. If we know the successive positions of the
moving body at successive short intervals of time, the rules of the
differential calculus enable us to calculate the speed, the change of
speed, the change of direction of motion (i. e. the curvature of the
path), and the effective force acting on the body. Conversely, given the
force at every point, and the initial position and velocity, the rules of
the integral calculus assist us in calculating the position and velocity
of the body at any future time. Expressed somewhat crudely, the
differential calculus has to do with the _differentials_ (increments or
decrements) of varying quantities; while the integral calculus is a
process of summation or _integration_ of these differentials.


CALCUTTA (900), on the left bank of the Hooghly, the largest and
westernmost branch of the Ganges delta, about 80 m. from the sea; is the
capital of Bengal and the Indian Empire, and the residence of the
Governor-General; the Government buildings, Bishop's College (now an
engineering school) High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St.
Paul's cathedral, and many other English Buildings have earned for it the
name "city of palaces"; but the native quarters, though being improved,
are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo; an esplanade, numerous
quays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the
amenities; there are extensive dockyards, warehouses, iron-works, timber
yards, and jute mills; extensive railway and steamboat communications
make it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia; ships of 5000 tons enter
the docks; founded in 1686, Calcutta was captured by Surajah Dowlah, and
the "Black Hole" massacre perpetrated in 1756; became the capital of
India in 1772, and has suffered frequently from cyclones; the population
are two-thirds Hindus, less than a third Mohammedan, and 41/2 per cent.
Christian.


CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH, artist, born in Chester; exercised his art
chiefly in book illustrations, which were full of life, and instinct with
a kindly, graceful humour; though professionally untrained, his abilities
as an artist were promptly and generously recognised by the Academy; he
suffered from ill-health, and died in Florida, whither he had gone to
recruit (1846-1886).


CALDER, SIR ROBERT, British naval officer; served bravely in several
naval engagements; was tried by court-martial, and reprimanded for not
following up a victory which he had gained, a sentence which was
afterwards found to be unjust; attained afterwards the rank of admiral
(1745-1818).


CALDERON DE LA BARCA, the great Spanish dramatist, born at Madrid;
entered the army, and served in Italy and Flanders, producing the while
dramas which were received with great enthusiasm; took holy orders, and
became a canon of Toledo, but to the last continued to write poems and
plays; he was a dramatist of the first order, and has been ranked by the
more competent critics among the foremost of the class in both ancient
and modern times (1600-1681).


CALDERWOOD, DAVID, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Dalkeith; became
minister of Crailing; first imprisoned, and then banished for resisting
the attempts of James VI. to establish Episcopacy in Scotland; wrote a
book, "Altare Damascenum," in Holland, whither he had retired, being a
searching criticism of the claims of the Episcopacy; returned on the
death of the king, and wrote a "History of the Kirk" (1575-1650).


CALEDONIA, the Roman name for Scotland N. of the Wall of Antoninus,
since applied poetically to the whole of Scotland.


CALEDONIAN CANAL, a canal across the NW. of Scotland, executed by
Telford, for the passage of ships between the Atlantic and the North Sea,
60 m. long, 40 m. of which consist of natural lakes; begun 1803, finished
1823; cost L1,300,000; has 28 locks; was constructed for the benefit of
coasting vessels to save the risks they encountered in the Pentland
Firth.


CALENDS, the first day of the Roman month, so called as the day on
which the feast days and unlucky days of the month were announced.


CAL`GARY, the capital of Alberta, in NW. territory of Canada.


CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, an American statesman, born in S. Carolina,
of Irish descent; all through his public life in high civic position;
leader of "the States rights" movement, in vindication of the doctrine
that the Union was a mere compact, and any State had a right to withdraw
from its conditions; and champion of the slave-holding States, regarding
slavery as an institution fraught with blessing to all concerned. His
chief work is a treatise on the "Nature of Government" (1789-1850).


CALIBAN, a slave in Shakespeare's "Tempest," of the grossest
animality of nature.


CALICUT (66), chief town on the Malabar coast, in the Madras
Presidency of India, the first port at which Vasco da Gama landed in
1498, whence the cotton cloth first imported from the place got the name
"calico."


CALIFORNIA (1,208), the most south-westerly State in the American
Union; occupies the Pacific seaboard between Oregon and Mexico, and is
bounded landward by Nevada and Arizona. It is the second largest State,
larger by a quarter than the United Kingdom. In the N. the rainfall is
excessive, and winters severe; in the S. there is little rain, and a
delightful climate. Wheat is the most important product; the grape and
all manner of fruits grow luxuriantly. Mineral wealth is great: it is the
foremost State for gold and quicksilver; lead, silver, copper, iron,
sulphur, coal, and many other minerals abound. The industries include
brandy and sugar manufactures, silk-growing, shipbuilding, and fishing.
All products are exported, eastward by the great Central, Union, and
Southern Pacific railroads; and seaward, the chief port being San
Francisco, the largest city, as Sacramento is the capital of the State.
The Yosemite Valley, in the Sierra Nevada, through which falls the Merced
River, is the most wonderful gorge in the world. Captured from Mexico in
1847, the discovery of gold next year raised great excitement, and
brought thousands of adventurers from all over the world. Constituted a
State in 1850, the original lawlessness gradually gave way to regular
administration, and progress has since been steady and rapid.


CALIFORNIA, LOWER (30), an extensive, mountainous, dry, and scarcely
habitable peninsula, stretching southward from the State, in Mexican
territory; agriculture is carried on in some of the valleys, and pearl
and whale fisheries support some coast towns.


CALIGULA, Roman emperor from A.D. 37 to 41, youngest son of
Germanicus and Agrippina, born at Antium; having ingratiated himself with
Tiberius, was named his successor; ruled with wisdom and magnanimity at
first, while he lived in the unbridled indulgence of every lust, but
after an illness due to his dissipation, gave way to the most atrocious
acts of cruelty and impiety; would entertain people at a banquet and then
throw them into the sea; wished Rome had only one head, that he might
shear it off at a blow; had his horse installed as consul in mockery of
the office; declared himself a god, and had divine honours paid to him,
till a conspiracy was formed against him on his return from an expedition
into Gaul, when he was assassinated (12-41).


CALIPH, the title adopted by the successors of Mahomet, as supreme
in both civil and religious matters. The principal caliphates are: (1)
the Caliphate of the East, established by Abubekr at Mecca, transferred
to Bagdad by the Abassides (632-1258); (2) the Caliphate of Cordova,
established at Cordova by Abderrahman (756-1031); (3) the Caliphate of
Egypt, established by the Fatimites (909-1171). It was at Bagdad that
Moslem civilisation achieved its final development.


CALISTO, daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia; changed by Juno into a
she-bear, and placed by Jupiter among the stars.


CALIXTUS, the name of three popes: C. I., Pope from 218 to 222;
C. II., pope from 1119 to 1124; C. III., Pope from 1455 to
1458.


CALIXTUS, GEORGE, a Lutheran theologian of an eminently tolerant
type, born at Sleswick; travelled for four years in Germany, Belgium,
England, and France; accused of heresy, or rather apostasy, for the
liberal spirit in which he had learned in consequence to treat both
Catholics and Calvinists, and for considering the Apostles' Creed a broad
enough basis for Christian union and communion, which might embrace both;
his friends, however, stood by him, and he retained the position he held
in the Lutheran Church (1586-1656).


CALLA`O (32), a port in Peru, 7 m. from Lima, with a fine harbour
the safest on the coast, if not in the world; its prosperity depends on
trade, which is less than it was before the annexation of the nitrate
fields to Chile.


CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, an eminent musical composer, born at
Kensington; was a pupil of Haendel's, and is celebrated for his glee
compositions (1766-1821). SIR AUGUSTUS WALL, landscape painter,
brother; was knighted for his eminent skill as an artist (1779-1841).
LADY MARIA, wife of Sir Augustus, author of "Little Arthur's History
of England" (1779-1842).


CALLERNISH, a district in the W. of the island of Lewis, 10 m. from
Stornoway; noted for its circles of standing stones, from 10 to 17 ft. in
height, the whole in cruciform arrangement.


CALLIC`RATES, along with Ictinos, architect of the Parthenon in
Athens.


CALLIM`ACHUS, Greek architect, inventor of the Corinthian order, 4th
century B.C.


CALLIMACHUS, Greek poet, born in Cyrena; taught grammar and
belles-lettres at Alexandria; was keeper of the library there; of his
writings, which are said to have been on a variety of subjects and very
numerous, only a few epigrams and hymns remain; was admired by Catullus,
Ovid, and Propertius, and flourished in the 3rd century B.C.


CALLI`OPE, the muse of epic poetry and eloquence, is represented
with a tablet and stylus, and sometimes with a paper roll. See
MUSES.


CALLIS`THENES, a disciple of Aristotle, who accompanied Alexander
the Great to India, and was put to death by his order for remonstrating
with him on his adoption of the manners and style of the potentates of
the East, but professedly on a charge of treason.


CALLIS`TRATUS, an Athenian orator, who kindled in Demosthenes a
passion for his art; his Spartan sympathies brought him to grief, and led
to his execution as a traitor.


CALLOT, JACQUES, engraver and etcher, born at Nancy; his etchings,
executed many of them at the instance of the Grand-duke of Tuscany and
Louis XIII. of France, amounted to 1600 pieces, such as those of the
sieges of Breda and Rochelle, which are much admired, as also those of
the gipsies with whom he associated in his youth (1593-1633).


CALMET, AUGUSTINE, a learned Benedictine and biblical scholar, born
in Lorraine, but known in England by his "Historical, Critical, and
Chronological Dictionary of the Bible," the first published book of its
kind of any note, and much referred to at one time as an authority; he
wrote also a "Commentary on the Bible" in 23 vols., and a "Universal
History" in 17 vols. (1672-1757).


CALMS, THE, tracts of calm in the ocean, on the confines of the
trade winds, and which lasts for weeks at a time.


CALOMAR`DE, DUKE, a Spanish statesman; minister of Ferdinand VII.; a
violent enemy of liberal principles and measures, and a reactionary;
obnoxious to the people; arrested for treachery, escaped into France by
bribing his captors (1773-1842).


CALONNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, French financier under Louis XVI.,
born at Douay; a man of "fiscal genius; genius for persuading, before all
things for borrowing"; succeeded Necker in 1783 as comptroller-general of
the finances in France; after four years of desperate attempts at
financial adjustment, could do nothing but convoke the Notables in 1787;
could give no account of his administration that would satisfy them; was
dismissed, and had to quit Paris and France; "his task to raise the wind
and the winds," says Carlyle, "and he did it," referring to the
Revolution he provoked; was permitted by Napoleon to return to France,
where he died in embarrassed circumstances (1734-1802).


CALORIC, the name given by physicists to the presumed subtle element
which causes heat.


CALORIUS, ABRAHAM, a fiery Lutheran polemic, a bitter enemy of
George Calixtus (1612-1686).


CALOTYPE, a process of photography invented by Fox Talbot in 1840,
by means of the action of light on nitrate of silver.


CALPE, Gibraltar, one of the PILLARS OF HERCULES (q. v.).


CALPURNIA, the last wife of Julius Caesar, daughter of the consul
Piso, who, alive to the danger of conspiracy, urged Caesar to stay at home
the day he was assassinated.


CALTAGIRONE (28), a city 38 m. SW. of Catania; the staple industry
is pottery and terra-cotta ware.


CAL`UMET, among the American Indians a pipe for smoking, which if
accepted when offered, was an emblem of peace, and if rejected, a
declaration of war.


CALVADOS (428), a maritime dep. in N. of France, skirted by
dangerous rocks of the same name, with a fertile soil and a moist
climate.


CALVAERT, DENIS, a painter, born at Antwerp; settled at Bologna,
where he founded a school, from whence issued many eminent artists, among
others Guidi Reni, Domenichino, and Albani; his masterpiece, "St.
Michael" in St. Peter's, Bologna (1555-1619).


CALVARY, the place of the crucifixion, identified with a hill on the
N. of Jerusalem, looked down upon from the city, with a cliff on which
criminals were cast down prior to being stoned; also name given to
effigies of the crucifixion in Catholic countries, erected for devotion.


CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART, a clever English parodist, Fellow of
Christ's Church, Oxford; wrote "Fly-Leaves" and "Verses and
Translations"; his parodies among the most amusing of the century,
flavoured by the author's scholarship (1831-1884).


CALVERT, GEORGE and CECIL, father and son, Lords Baltimore;
founders, under charter from James I., of Maryland, U.S.


CALVIN, JOHN, or CAUVIN, the great Reformer, born at Noyon, in
Picardy; devoted for a time to the law, was sent to study at the
university of Orleans, after having mastered Latin as a boy at Paris;
became acquainted with the Scriptures, and acquired a permanently
theological bent; professed the Protestant faith; proceeded to Paris;
became the centre of a dangerous religious excitement; had to flee for
his life from France; retired to Basel, where he studied Hebrew and wrote
his great epoch-making book, the "Institutes of the Christian Religion";
making after this for Strassburg, he chanced to pass through Geneva, was
arrested as by the hand of God to stay and help on God's work in the
place, but proceeded with such rigour that he was expelled, though
recalled after three years; on his return he proposed and established his
system of Church government, which allowed of no license in faith any
more than conduct, as witness the burning of Servetus for denying the
doctrine of the Trinity; for twenty years he held sway in Geneva, and for
so long he was regarded as the head of the Reformed Churches in Scotland,
Switzerland, Holland, and France. Besides his "Institutes," he found time
to write Commentaries on nearly all the books of the Bible; was a man of
masculine intellect and single-hearted devotion to duty, as ever in the
"Great Taskmaster's" eye. His greatest work was his "Institutes,"
published in Basel in 1535-36. It was written in Latin, and four years
after translated by himself into French. "In the translated form," says
Prof. Saintsbury, "it is beyond all question the first serious work of
great literary merit not historical in the history of French prose....
Considering that the whole of it was written before the author of it was
seven-and-twenty, it is perhaps the most remarkable work of its
particular kind to be anywhere found; the merits of it being those of
full maturity and elaborate preparation rather than of youthful
exuberance" (1509-1564).


CALVINISM, the theological system of Calvin, the chief
characteristic of which is that it assigns all in salvation to the
sovereign action and persistent operation of Divine grace.


CALVO, CHARLES, an Argentine publicist, born at Buenos Ayres in
1824; author of "International Law, Theoretical and Practical."


CALYPSO, in the Greek mythology a nymph, daughter of Atlas, queen of
the island of Ogygia, who by her fascinating charms detained Ulysses
beside her for 7 of the 10 years of his wanderings home from Troy; she
died of grief on his departure.


CAMARILLA, a name of recent origin in Spain for a clique of private
counsellors at court, who interpose between the legitimate ministers and
the crown.


CAMBACERES, JEAN JACQUES REGIS DE, Duke of Parma, born at
Montpellier; bred to the legal profession, took a prominent part as a
lawyer in the national Convention; after the Revolution of the 18th
Brumaire, was chosen second consul; was sincerely attached to Napoleon;
was made by him High Chancellor of the Empire as well as Duke of Parma;
his "Projet de Code" formed the basis of the _Code Napoleon_ (1753-1824).


CAMBAY (31), a town and seaport N. of Bombay, on a gulf of the same
name, which is fast silting up, in consequence of which the place, once a
flourishing port, has fallen into decay.


CAMBO`DIA (1,500), a small kingdom in Indo-China, occupying an area
as large as Scotland in the plains of the Lower Mekong. The coast-line is
washed by the Gulf of Siam; the landward boundaries touch Siam, Annam,
and French Cochin-China; in the N. are stretches of forest and hills in
which iron and copper are wrought; a branch of the Mekong flows backward
and forms the Great Lake; most of the country is inundated in the rainy
season, and rice, tobacco, cotton, and maize are grown in the tracts thus
irrigated; spices, gutta-percha, and timber are also produced; there are
iron-works at Kompong Soai; foreign trade is done through the port
Kampot. The capital is Pnom-Penh (35), on the Mekong. The kingdom was
formerly much more extensive; remarkable ruins of ancient grandeur are
numerous; it has been under French protection since 1863.


CAMBRAI (17), a city in the dep. of Nord, in France, on the Scheldt;
famous for its fine linen fabrics, hence called _cambrics_. Fenelon was
archbishop here, in the cathedral of which is a monument to his memory.


CAMBRIA, the ancient name of Wales, country of the Kymry, a Celtic
race, to which the Welsh belong.


CAMBRIDGE (44), county town of Cambridgeshire, stands in flat
country, on the Cam, 28 m. NE. of London; an ancient city, with
interesting archaeological remains; there are some fine buildings, the
oldest round church in England, Holy Sepulchre, and a Roman Catholic
church. The glory of the city is the University, founded in the 12th
century, with its colleges housed in stately buildings, chapels,
libraries, museums, &c., which shares with Oxford the academic prestige
of England. It lays emphasis on mathematical, as Oxford on classical,
culture. Among its eminent men have been Bacon, Newton, Cromwell, Pitt,
Thackeray, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Wordsworth, and Tennyson.


CAMBRIDGE (70), a suburb of Boston, U.S., one of the oldest towns
in New England; seat of Harvard University; the centre of the book-making
trade; here Longfellow resided for many years.


CAMBRIDGE, FIRST DUKE OF, seventh and youngest son of George III.;
served as volunteer under the Duke of York, and carried a marshal's
baton; was made viceroy of Hanover, which he continued to be till, in
1837, the crown fell to the Duke of Cumberland (1774-1850).


CAMBRIDGE, SECOND DUKE OF, son of the preceding and cousin to the
Queen, born in Hanover; served in the army; became commander-in-chief in
1856 on the resignation of Viscount Hardinge; retired in 1895, and was
succeeded by Lord Wolseley; _b_. 1819.


CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY contains 17 colleges: Peterhouse, founded 1257;
Clare College, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville and Caius, 1348; Trinity
Hall, 1350; Corpus Christi, 1352; King's, 1441; Queens', 1448; St.
Catherine's, 1473; Jesus, 1496; Christ's, 1505; St John's, 1511;
Magdalene, 1519; Trinity, 1546; Emmanuel, 1584; Sidney Sussex, 1598; and
Downing, 1800. Each college is a corporation by itself, governed by
statutes sanctioned by the crown, and capable of holding landed or other
property.


CAMBRIDGESHIRE (188), an inland agricultural county, nine-tenths of
its surface under cultivation; famed for its butter and cheese; very
flat, marshy in the N., with a range of chalk-hills, the Gog-Magog in the
S.; is rich in Roman remains.


CAMBRONNE, French general, born at Nantes; served under the Republic
and the Empire; accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814; commanded a
division of the Old Guard at Waterloo; fought to the last; though
surrounded by the enemy and summoned to surrender, refused, and was taken
prisoner; is credited with the saying, _La Garde meurt, et ne se rend
pas_, "The Guard dies, but does not surrender" (1770-1842).


CAMBUS`CAN, king of Tartary, identified with Genghis Khan, who had a
wonderful steed of brass, magically obedient to the wish of the rider,
together with a magical mirror, sword, and ring.


CAMBY`SES, king of Persia, succeeded his father, the great Cyrus;
invaded and subdued Egypt, but afterwards suffered serious reverses, and
in the end gave himself up to dissipation and vindictive acts of cruelty,
from which not only his subjects suffered, but the members of his own
family; _d_. 54 B.C.


CAMBYSES, KING, a ranting character in a play called "The Lamentable
Tragedy"; referred to by Falstaff in I Henry IV., Act ii. sc. 4.


CAMDEN (58), a busy town in New Jersey, U.S., on the left bank of
the Delaware, opposite Philadelphia; the terminus of six railways.


CAMDEN, CHARLES PRATT, FIRST EARL OF, a distinguished British lawyer
and statesman, chief-justice of the King's Bench in George I.'s reign,
and ultimately Lord Chancellor of England; opposed, as judge in the case,
the prosecution of Wilkes as illegal, and as a statesman the policy and
action of the government towards the American colonies; he was created
earl in 1786 (1713-1794).


CAMDEN, WILLIAM, a learned English antiquary, the first and most
famous born in London; second master, and eventually head-master in
Westminster School, during which time he gave proof of his antiquarian
knowledge, which led to his appointment as Clarencieux king-at-arms;
author of "Britannia," a historical and topographical account of the
British Isles, his most widely known work, and "Annals of Elizabeth's
Reign," both, as all the rest of his works, written in Latin; he has been
surnamed the Strabo and the Pausanias of England (1551-1623).


CAMELOT, a place in Somerset, where, it is presumed, King Arthur
held his court, and where entrenchments of an old town are still to be
seen.


CAMENAE, in the Roman mythology a set of nymphs endowed with
semi-prophetic powers, and sometimes identified with the Muses.


CAMEO, a precious stone cut in relief; consists generally of two or
three different colours, the upper cut in relief and the under forming
the ground.


CAMERA LUCIDA, an optical instrument or contrivance, by means of
which the image of an object may be made to appear on a light or white
surface.


CAMERA OBSCURA, an optical contrivance, by means of which the images
of external objects are exhibited distinctly on a surface in the focus of
the lens.


CAMERARIUS, a distinguished scholar, born at Bamberg; active as a
German Reformer; played a prominent part in the religious struggles of
his time; friend and biographer of Melanchthon; collaborated with him in
drawing up the Augsburg Confession (1500-1574).


CAMERON, JOHN, a learned divine, born in Glasgow, who held several
professorial appointments on the Continent; was for a time Principal of
Glasgow University; his knowledge was so extensive that he was styled a
"walking library," but he fell in disfavour with the people for his
doctrine of passive obedience, and he died of a wound inflicted by an
opponent of his views (1579-1625).


CAMERON, RICHARD, a Scotch Covenanter of the 17th century, born in
Falkland, Fife; a ringleader of the persecuted Presbyterians, took to
arms along with sixty others in defence of his rights; was surprised by a
body of dragoons at AIRDS MOSS (q. v.), and after a brave fight
slain, his head and hands cut off, and fixed on the Netherbow Port, at
the head of the Canongate, Edinburgh, in 1680.


CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT, African explorer, born near Weymouth;
traversed Africa all the way from east to west (1873-75); he was on the
track of important discoveries, but his explorations were cut short by
the natives; wrote "Across Africa" (1844-1894).


CAMERONIANS (1), a Presbyterian body in Scotland who derived their
name from Richard Cameron, contended like him for the faith to which the
nation by covenant had bound itself, and even declined to take the oath
of allegiance to sovereigns such as William III. and his successors, who
did not explicitly concede to the nation this right. (2) Also a British
regiment, originally raised in defence of Scottish religious rights; for
long the 26th Regiment of the British line, now the Scottish Rifles.


CAMEROON, (1) a river in W. Africa, falling by a wide estuary into
the Bight of Biafra, known as the oil river, from the quantities of
palm-oil exported; (2) a mountain range, a volcanic group, the highest
peak nearly 14,000 ft., NW. of the estuary; (3) also a German colony,
extending 199 m. along the coast.


CAMILLA, (1) a virgin queen of the Volsci, one of the heroines in
the "AEneid," noted for her preternatural fleetness on the racecourse,
and her grace; (2) also a sister of the HORATII (q. v.), killed
by her brother because she wept at the death of her affiance, one of the
CURIATII (q. v.), whom the Horatii slew.


CAMILLUS, MARCUS FURIUS, a famous patrician of early Rome; took
Veii, a rival town, after a ten years' siege; retired into voluntary
exile at Ardea on account of the envy of his enemies in Rome; recalled
from exile, saved Rome from destruction by the Gauls under Brennus, was
five times elected dictator, and gained a succession of victories over
rival Italian tribes; died at eighty of the plague, in 365 B.C.,
lamented by the whole nation, and remembered for generations after as one
of the noblest heroic figures in Roman history.


CAMISARDS, Huguenots of the Cevennes, who took up arms by thousands
in serious revolt against Louis XIV., in which others joined, under Jean
Cavalier their chief, after, and in consequence of, the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes (1685); so called because they wore a _camiso_ (Fr. a
_chemise_), a blouse over their armour; were partly persuaded and partly
compelled into submission by Marshal Villars in 1704.


CAMOENS, the poet of Portugal, born at Lisbon, studied at Coimbra;
fell in passionate love with a lady of high rank in Lisbon, as she with
him, but whom he was not allowed to marry; left Lisbon, joined the army,
and fought against the Moors; volunteered service in India, arrived at
Goa, and got into trouble with the Portuguese authorities; was banished
to Macao, and consoled himself by writing his "Lusiad"; coming home he
lost everything but his poem; died neglected and in poverty; the title of
the poem is properly "The Lusiads," or the Lusitanians, i. e. the
Portuguese, and is their national epic, called, not inaptly, the "Epos of
Commerce"; it has been translated into most European languages, and into
English alone no fewer than six times (1524-1580).


CAMORRA, a secret society in Naples with wide ramifications, which
at one time had by sheer terrorism considerable political influence in
the country; when steps were taken by Francis II. to suppress it, the
members of it joined the revolutionary party, and had their revenge in
the expulsion eventually of the Bourbons from Italy.


CAMPAGNA, (1) an unhealthy flat district round Rome, co-extensive
with ancient Latium, infested with malaria; (2) a town in Italy, in
Salerno, with a cathedral, and a trade in wine, oil, and fruit.


CAMPAIGN, THE, poem by Addison in celebration of Marlborough's
victory at Blenheim.


CAMPAN, MME. DE, born at Paris, faithful friend and confidante of
Marie Antoinette; after the Revolution opened a boarding-school at St.
Germain; became under Napoleon matron of an institution for daughters of
officers of the Legion of Honour; wrote the "Private Life of Marie
Antoinette" (1752-1822).


CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO, an Italian philosopher of the transition
period, originally a Dominican monk, born in Calabria; contemporary of
Bacon; aimed, like him, at the reform of philosophy; opposed
scholasticism, fell back upon the ancient systems, and devoted himself to
the study of nature; was persecuted all along by the Church, and spent 27
years of his life in a Neapolitan dungeon; released, he retired to
France, and enjoyed the protection of Richelieu; he was the author of
sonnets as well as philosophical works (1568-1639).


CAMPANIA, an ancient prov. in the W. of Italy, of great fertility,
and yields corn, wine, and oil in great abundance; Capua was the capital,
the chief towns of which now are Naples, Salerno, and Gaeta; it was a
favourite resort of the wealthy families of ancient Rome.


CAMPANILE, a tower for bells constructed beside a church, but not
attached to it; very common in Italian cities, the leaning tower of Pisa
being one, and that of Florence one of the most famous.


CAMPBELL, a celebrated Scottish Highland clan, the members of which
have played an important role in English and Scottish history.


CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER, an Anti-Calvinistic Baptist, born in Antrim;
emigrated to America in 1807, and founded a sect called the "Disciples of
Christ"; disowned creeds, and owned no authority in religion but the
Bible; the sect has upwards of 5000 meeting-houses in America, and over
half a million members. Campbell executed a translation of the New
Testament, in which he employed the words "immercer" and "immersion" for
"baptist" and "baptism" (1788-1866).


CAMPBELL, SIR COLIN, LORD CLYDE, born in Glasgow, son of a carpenter
named Macliver; entered the army, and rose rapidly; served in China and
the Punjab; commanded the Highland Brigade in the Crimea; won the day at
Alma and Balaclava; commanded in India during the Mutiny; relieved
Lucknow, and quelled the rebellion; was made field-marshal, with a
pension of L2000, and created Lord Clyde; he was one of the bravest
soldiers of England (1792-1863).


CAMPBELL, GEORGE, a Scotch divine, Principal of Aberdeen University;
wrote "Philosophy of Rhetoric," and an able reply to Hume's argument
against miracles, entitled "Dissertation on Miracles" (1709-1796).


CAMPBELL, JOHN, Lord Chancellor of England, born at Cupar-Fife; a
son of the manse; destined for the Church, but took the study of law; was
called to the bar; did journalistic work and law reports; was a Whig in
politics; held a succession of offices both on the Bench and in the
Cabinet; wrote the "Lives of the Chancellors" and the "Lives of the Chief
Justices" (1779-1861).


CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, born at Islay, author of, among other works,
"Popular Tales of the West Highlands, orally collected," a collection all
his own, and a remarkable one for the enthusiasm and the patriotic
devotion it displays (1822-1885).


CAMPBELL, JOHN MACLEOD, a Scotch clergyman, born in Argyll; deposed
from the ministry of the Scotch Church in 1831 for his liberal
theological sentiments; a saintly man, whose character alone should have
protected him from such an indignity; his favourite theme was the
self-evidencing character of revelation, while the doctrine for which he
was deposed, the Fatherhood of God, is being now adopted as the central
principle of Scotch theology; he continued afterwards to ply his vocation
as a minister of Christ in a quiet way to some quiet people like himself,
and before his death a testimonial and address in recognition of his
worth was presented to him by representatives of nearly every religious
community in Scotland (1801-1872).


CAMPBELL, THOMAS, poet, born in Glasgow; studied with distinction at
the University; when a student of law in Edinburgh wrote "The Pleasures
of Hope"; the success of the work, which was great, enabled him to travel
on the Continent, where he wrote the well-known lines, "Ye Mariners of
England," "Hohenlinden," and "The Exile of Erin"; married, and settled in
London, where he did writing, lecturing, and some more poetry, in
particular "The Last Man"; after settling in London a pension of L200 was
awarded him through the influence of Fox; he wrote in prose as well as
verse; he was elected Rector of Glasgow University in 1827, and again in
the following year: buried in Westminster (1777-1844).


CAMPBELTOWN, a town in Kintyre, Argyllshire, with a fine harbour; is
a great fishing centre; and has over 20 whisky distilleries.


CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH, German educationist; disciple of Basedow,
and author of educational works (1746-1818).


CAMPEACHY (12), a Mexican seaport on a bay of the same name;
manufactures cigars.


CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO, cardinal; twice visited England as legate, the
last time in connection with the divorce between Henry VIII. and
Catherine, with the effect of mortally offending the former and being of
no real benefit to the latter, whom he would fain have befriended; his
mission served only to embitter the relations of Henry with the see of
Rome (1474-1539).


CAMPER, PETER, a Dutch anatomist, born at Leyden; held sundry
professorships; made a special study of the facial angle in connection
with intelligence; he was an artist as well as a scientist, and a patron
of art (1722-1789).


CAMPERDOWN, a tract of sandy hills on the coast of N. Holland, near
which Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Winter in 1797.


CAMPHUYSEN, a Dutch landscape painter of the 17th century, famous
for his moonlight pieces.


CAMPI, a family of painters, distinguished in the annals of Italian
art at Cremona in the 16th century.


CAMPINE, a vast moor of swamp and peat to the E. of Antwerp, being
now rendered fertile by irrigation.


CAMPION, EDMUND, a Jesuit, born in London; a renegade from the
Church of England; became a keen Catholic propagandist in England; was
arrested for sedition, of which he was innocent, and executed; was in
1886 beatified by Pope Leo XIII. (1540-1581).


CAMPO-FORMIO, a village near Udine, in Venetia, where a treaty was
concluded between France and Austria in 1797, by which the Belgian
provinces and part of Lombardy were ceded to France, and certain Venetian
States to Austria in return.


CAMPO SANTO (_Holy Ground_), Italian and Spanish name for a
burial-place.


CAMPOS (13), a trading city of Brazil, in the prov. of Rio Janeiro.


CAMPVERE, now called VERE, on the NE. of the island of
Walcheren; had a Scotch factory under Scotch law, civil and
ecclesiastical.


CAMUS, bishop of Belley, born at Paris; a violent enemy of the
mendicant monks (1582-1663).


CAMUS, a learned French jurisconsult, member of the National
Convention; a determined enemy of the Court party in France; voted for
the execution of the king as a traitor and conspirator; was conservator
of the national records, and did good service in preserving them
(1740-1804).


CANAAN, originally the coast land, but eventually the whole, of
Palestine W. of the Jordan.


CANAANITES, a civilised race with towns for defence; dependent on
agriculture; worshippers of the fertilising powers of nature; and the
original inhabitants of Palestine, from which they were never wholly
rooted out.


CANADA (5,000), which with Newfoundland forms British North America,
occupies the northern third of the continent, stretches from the Atlantic
to the Pacific, from the United States to Alaska and the Arctic Ocean;
nearly as large as Europe, it comprises a lofty and a lower tableland W.
and E. of the Rocky Mountains, the peninsulas of Labrador and Nova
Scotia, and between these a vast extent of prairie and undulating land,
with rivers and lakes innumerable, many of them of enormous size and
navigable, constituting the finest system of inland waterways in the
world; the Rocky Mountains rise to 16,000 ft., but there are several
gorges, through one of which the Canadian Pacific railroad runs; the
chief rivers are the Fraser, Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, and St. Lawrence;
Great Slave, Great Bear, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Superior, Huron,
Erie, and Ontario are the largest lakes; the climate is varied, very cold
in the north, very wet west of the Rockies, elsewhere drier than in
Europe, with hot summers, long, cold, but bracing and exhilarating
winters; the corn-growing land is practically inexhaustible; the finest
wheat is grown without manure, year after year, in the rich soil of
Manitoba, Athabasca, and the western prairie; the forests yield maple,
oak, elm, pine, ash, and poplar in immense quantities, and steps are
taken to prevent the wealth of timber ever being exhausted; gold, coal,
iron, and copper are widely distributed, but as yet not much wrought;
fisheries, both on the coasts and inland, are of great value; agriculture
and forestry are the most important industries; the chief trade is done
with England and the United States; the twelve provinces, Quebec,
Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, British
Columbia, Manitoba, Keewatin, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and
Athabasca, each with its own Parliament, are united under the Dominion
Government; the Governor-General is the Viceroy of the Queen; the
Dominion Parliament meets at Ottawa, the federal capital; nearly every
province has its university, that of Toronto being the most important;
the largest town is Montreal; Toronto, Quebec, Hamilton, and Halifax are
all larger than the capital; taken possession of by France in 1534,
settlement began at Quebec in 1608; by the treaty of Utrecht, 1703,
Hudson Bay, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland passed to England; the rest of
French territory was ceded to England in 1763; constituted at different
times, the various provinces, except Newfoundland, were finally
confederated in 1871.


CANALETTO, ANTONIO, a Venetian painter, famous for his pictures of
Venice and handling of light and shade (1697-1768).


CANALETTO, BERNARDO BELLOTTO, nephew and pupil of preceding;
distinguished for his perspective and light and shade (1720-1780).


CANARIS, CONSTANTINE, a Greek statesman, did much to free and
consolidate Greece, more than any other statesman (1790-1877).


CANARY ISLANDS (288), a group of mountainous islands in the
Atlantic, off the NW. African coast, belonging to Spain, with rocky
coasts, and wild, picturesque scenery; on the lower levels the climate is
delightful, and sugar, bananas, and dates grow; farther up there are
zones where wheat and cereals are cultivated; the rainfall is low, and
water often scarce; sugar, wine, and tobacco are exported; the islands
are a health resort of growing favour.


CANCAN, the name of an ungraceful and indecent dance practised in
the Paris dancing saloons.


CANDIA (12), the ancient name of Crete, now the name of the capital,
in the centre of the N. coast.


CANDIDE, a philosophic romance by Voltaire, and written in ridicule
of the famous maxim of Leibnitz, "All for the best in the best of all
possible worlds"; it is a sweeping satire, and "religion, political
government, national manners, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty,
all come in for a sneer."


CANDLEMAS, a festival in commemoration of the purification of the
Virgin, held on February 2, celebrated with lighted candles; an old Roman
custom in honour of the goddess Februa.


CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH, a Scottish ecclesiastic, born in Edinburgh;
distinguished, next to Chalmers, for his services in organising the Free
Church of Scotland; was an able debater and an eloquent preacher
(1806-1873).


CANDOLLE. See DE CANDOLLE.


CANDOUR, MRS., a slanderess in Sheridan's "Rivals."


CANEA (12), chief commercial town in Crete, on NW. coast; trades in
wax, oil, fruit, wool, and silk.


CANINA, LUIGI, Italian architect; wrote on the antiquities of Rome,
Etruria, &c. (1795-1856).


CANNAE, ancient town in Apulia, near the mouth of the Aufidus, where
Hannibal, in a great battle, defeated the Romans in 216 B.C., but
failing to follow up his success by a march on Rome, was twitted by
Maherbal, one of his officers, who addressing him said, "You know how to
conquer, Hannibal, but not how to profit by your victory."


CANNES (15), a French watering-place and health resort on the
Mediterranean, in the SE. of France, where Napoleon landed on his return
from Elba.


CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL, grandson of the succeeding; after
service in cabinet offices, was made Governor-General of India, 1856, in
succession to Lord Dalhousie; held this post at the time of the Mutiny in
1857; distinguished himself during this trying crisis by his discretion,
firmness, and moderation; became viceroy on the transfer of the
government to the crown in 1858; died in London without issue, and the
title became extinct (1812-1862).


CANNING, GEORGE, a distinguished British statesman and orator, born
in London; studied for the bar; entered Parliament as a protege of Pitt,
whom he strenuously supported; was rewarded by an under-secretaryship;
married a lady of high rank, with a fortune; satirised the Whigs by his
pen in his "Anti-Jacobin"; on the death of Pitt became minister of
Foreign Affairs; under Portland distinguished himself by defeating the
schemes of Napoleon; became a member of the Liverpool ministry, and once
more minister of Foreign Affairs; on the death of Liverpool was made
Prime Minister, and after a period of unpopularity became popular by
adopting, to the disgust of his old colleagues, a liberal policy; was not
equal to the opposition he provoked, and died at the age of 57
(1770-1827).


CANO, ALONZO, a celebrated artist, born at Granada; surnamed the
Michael Angelo of Spain, having been painter, sculptor, and architect
(1601-1667).


CANO, SEBASTIAN DEL, a Spanish navigator, the first to sail round
the world; perished on his second voyage to India (1460-1526).


CANON, the name given to the body of Scripture accepted by the
Church as of divine authority.


CANON OF COLORADO, a gorge in Arizona through which the Colorado
River flows, the largest and deepest in the world, being 300 m. long,
with a wall from 3000 to 6000 ft. in perpendicular height.


CANONISATION, in the Romish Church, is the solemn declaration by the
Pope that a servant of God, renowned for his virtue and for miracles he
has wrought, is to be publicly venerated by the whole Church, termed
Saint, and honoured by a special festival. A preparatory stage is
beatification, and the beatification and canonisation of a saint are
promoted by a long, tedious, and costly process, much resembling a suit
at law.


CANOPUS, the blue vault of heaven with its stars, revered and
worshipped by the son of the sandy desert as a friend and guide to him,
as he wanders over the waste at night alone.


CANOSA (18), a town in Apulia, abounding in Roman remains, on the
site of ancient Canusium.


CANOSSA, a town NW. of Bologna, in the courtyard of the castle of
which the Emperor Henry IV. stood three days in the cold, in January
1077, bareheaded and barefooted, waiting for Pope Gregory VII. to remove
from him the sentence of excommunication.


CANOVA, ANTONIO, a great Italian sculptor, born in Venetia; gave
early proof of his genius; his first great work, and which established
his fame, was the group of "Theseus and the Minotaur," which was
by-and-by succeeded by his "Cupid and Psyche," distinguished by a
tenderness and grace quite peculiar to him, and erelong by "Perseus with
the Head of Medusa," perhaps the triumph of his art; his works were
numerous, and brought him a large fortune, which he made a generous use
of (1757-1822).


CANROBERT, FRANCOIS, marshal of France; served for some 20 years in
Algeria; was a supporter of Napoleon III., and a tool; commanded in the
Crimea, first under, and then in succession to St. Arnaud; fought in
Italy against Austria; was shut up in Metz with Bazaine, and made
prisoner; became a member of the senate under the Republic (1809-1895).


CANT, affectation of thinking, believing, and feeling what one in
his heart and reality does not, of which there are two degrees, insincere
and sincere; insincere when one cants knowing it, and sincere when one
cants without knowing it, the latter being of the darker and deeper dye.


CANT, ANDREW, a Scotch Presbyterian minister, who had an equal zeal
for the Scotch covenant and the cause of Charles Stuart (1610-1664). A
son of his was Principal of Edinburgh University from 1675 to 1685.


CANTABRI, the original inhabitants of the N. of Spain; presumed to
be the ancestors of the Basques.


CANTACUZE`NUS, JOHN, emperor of the East; an able statesman, who
acting as regent for the heir, had himself crowned king, but was driven
to resign at length; retired to a monastery on Mount Athos, where he
wrote a history of his time; died in 1411, 100 years old.


CANTARINI, SIMONE, an Italian painter, born at Pesaro; a pupil of
Guido and a rival, but only an imitator from afar (1612-1648).


CANTERBURY (23), in E. Kent, on the Stour, by rail 62 m. SE. of
London; is the ecclesiastical capital of England; the cathedral was
founded A.D. 597 by St. Augustin; the present building belongs to
various epochs, dating as far back as the 11th century; it contains many
interesting monuments, statues, and tombs, among the latter that of
Thomas a Becket, murdered in the north transept, 1170; the cloisters,
chapter-house, and other buildings occupy the site of the old monastic
houses; the city is rich in old churches and ecclesiastical monuments;
there is an art gallery; trade is chiefly in hops and grain. Kit Marlowe
was a native.


CANTERBURY (128), a district in New Zealand, in the centre of the
South Island, on the east side of which are the Canterbury Plains or
Downs, a great pasture-land for sheep of over three million acres.


CANTERBURY TALES, a body of tales by Chaucer, conceived of as
related by a small company of pilgrims from London to the shrine of
Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. They started from the Tabard Inn at
Southwark, and agreed to tell each a tale going and each another coming
back, the author of the best tale to be treated with a supper. None of
the tales on the homeward journey are given.


CANTICLES, a book in the Bible erroneously ascribed to Solomon, and
called in Hebrew the Song of Songs, about the canonicity and
interpretation of which there has been much debate, though, as regards
the latter, recent criticism inclines, if there is any unity in it at
all, to the conclusion that it represents a young maiden seduced into the
harem of Solomon, who cannot be persuaded to transfer to the king the
affection she has for a shepherd in the northern hills of Galilee, her
sole beloved; the aim of the author presumed by some to present a
contrast between the morals of the south and those of the north, in
justification possibly of the secession. It was for long, and is by some
still, believed to be an allegory in which the Bridegroom represents
Christ and the Bride His Church.


CANTON (1,800), chief commercial city and port of Southern China;
stands on a river almost on the seaboard, 90 m. NW. of Hong-Kong, and is
a healthy town, but with a heavy rainfall; it is surrounded by walls, has
narrow crooked streets, 125 temples, mostly Buddhist, and two pagodas, 10
and 13 centuries old respectively; great part of the population live in
boats on the river; the fancy goods, silk, porcelain, ivory, and metal
work are famous; its river communication with the interior has fostered
an extensive commerce; exports, tea, silk, sugar, cassia, &c.


CANTON, JOHN, an ingenious experimentalist in physics, and
particularly in electricity, born at Stroud; discovered the means of
making artificial magnets and the compressibility of water (1718-1772).


CANTU, CAESARE, an Italian historian, born in Lombardy; imprisoned by
the Austrian government for his bold advocacy of liberal views, but at
length liberated; wrote, among a number of other works, literary as well
as historical, a "Universal History" in 35 vols. (1807-1895).


CANUTE, or CNUT, THE DANE, called the Great, son of Sweyn, king
of Denmark; invaded England, and after a success or two was elected king
by his fleet; the claim was repudiated by the Saxons, and he had to flee;
returned in 1015, and next year, though London held out for a time,
carried all before him; on the death of his sole rival became undisputed
king of England, and ruled it as an Englishman born, wisely, equitably,
and well, though the care of governing Denmark and Norway lay on his
shoulders as well; died in England, and was buried in Winchester Minster;
every one is familiar with the story of the rebuke he administered to the
courtiers by showing how regardless the waves of the sea were of the
authority of a king (994-1035).


CAPE BRETON (92), the insular portion of the prov. of Nova Scotia at
its eastern extremity, 100 m. long and 85 broad; is covered with forests
of pine, oak, &c., and exports timber and fish.


CAPE COAST CASTLE (11), capital of the Gold Coast colony.


CAPE COLONY (1,527), comprises the extremity of the African
continent south of the Orange River and Natal, and is nearly twice the
size of the United Kingdom; the Nieuwveld Berge, running E. and W.,
divides the country into two slopes, the northern slope long and gradual
to the Orange River, the southern shorter and terraced to the sea;
two-thirds of the country is arid plain, which, however, only requires
irrigation to render it very fertile; the climate is dry and healthy, but
hot in summer; the prevalent vegetation is heath and bulbous plants.
Sheep and ostrich farming are the chief industries; wool, goats' hair,
ostrich feathers, hides, diamonds from Kimberley and copper from
Namaqualand are the chief exports; two-thirds of the people are of
African race, chiefly Kaffirs, who flourish under British rule; the
remainder are of Dutch, English, French, and German origin; Cape Town is
the capital, Kimberley and Port Elizabeth the only other large towns, but
there are many small towns; roads are good; railway and telegraph
communication is rapidly developing. The government is in the hands of a
governor, appointed by the crown, assisted by an executive council of
five and a parliament of two houses; local government is in vogue all
over the country; education is well cared for; the university of the Cape
of Good Hope was founded in 1873. Discovered by the Portuguese Diaz in
1486, the Cape was taken possession of by the Dutch in 1652, from whom it
was captured by Great Britain in 1805. Various steps towards
self-government culminated in 1872. In recent years great tracts to the
N. have been formally taken under British protection, and the policy of
extending British sway from the Cape to Cairo is explicitly avowed.


CAPE HORN, a black, steep, frowning rock at the SE. extremity of the
Fuegean Islands; much dreaded at one time by sailors.


CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a cape in South Africa, discovered by Diaz in
1486; called at first "Cape of Storms," from the experience of the first
navigators; altered in consideration of the promised land reached beyond.


CAPE TOWN (84), capital of Cape Colony, situated at the head of
Table Bay, on the SW. coast, with Table Mountain rising behind it; is a
regularly built, flat-roofed, imposing town, with handsome buildings and
extensive Government gardens; well drained, paved, and lit, and with a
good water supply. The Government buildings and law courts, museum and
art gallery, bank and exchange, are its chief architectural features. It
has docks, and a graving dock, and is a port of call for vessels of all
nations, with a thriving commerce.


CAPE VERDE ISLANDS (110), a group of mountainous, volcanic islands,
belonging to Portugal, 350 m. from Cape Verde, on the W. of Africa, of
which 10 are inhabited, the largest and most productive Santiago and St.
Vincent, with an excellent harbour, oftenest visited. These islands are
unhealthy, and cattle-breeding is the chief industry.


CAPELL, EDWARD, an inspector of plays, born at Bury St. Edmunds;
spent 20 years in editing the text of Shakespeare, in three vols., with
notes and various readings (1713-1781).


CAPELLA, a reddish star of the first magnitude in the northern
constellation of Auriga.


CAPELLA, an encyclopaedist, born in North Africa in the 5th century;
author of a work called the "Satiricon," a strange medley of curious
learning.


CAPERCAILZIE, the wood-grouse, a large game-bird found in fir woods
in mountainous districts, and highly esteemed for table.


CAPERNAUM, a town on the N. side of the Sea of Galilee, the centre
of Christ's labours, the exact site of which is uncertain.


CAPET, the surname of Hugh, the founder, in 987, of the third
dynasty of French kings, which continued to rule France till 1328, though
the name is applied both to the Valois dynasty, which ruled till 1589,
and the Bourbon, which ruled till 1848, Louis XVI. having been officially
designated as a Capet at his trial, and under that name sentenced to the
guillotine.


CAPGRAVE, JOHN, Augustine friar, wrote "Chronicle of England," and
voluminously both in French and English (1393-1464).


CAPISTRANO, GIOVANNI DA, an Italian Franciscan, a rabid adversary of
the Hussites, aided John Hunniades in 1456 in defending Belgrade against
the Turks (1385-1456).


CAPITOL, a temple and citadel erected by Tarquin on the Capitoline
Hill, one of the seven hills of Rome, and where victors who were voted a
triumph were crowned; terminated at its southern extremity by Tarpeian
Rock, from which criminals guilty of treason were precipitated; hence the
saying, "The Tarpeian Rock is near the Capitol," to denote the close
connection between glory and disgrace.


CAPITULARIES, collections of royal edicts issued by the Frankish
kings of the Carlovingian dynasty, with sanction of the nobles, for the
whole Frankish empire, as distinct from the laws for the separate peoples
comprising it, the most famous being those issued or begun by Charlemagne
and St. Louis.


CAPO D'ISTRIA, COUNT OF, born in Corfu; entered the Russian
diplomatic service; played a prominent part in the insurrection of the
Greeks against Turkey; made President of the Greek Republic; assassinated
at Nauplia from distrust of his fidelity (1776-1831).


CAPO D'ISTRIA, a port of a small island in the government of
Trieste, connected with the mainland by a causeway half a mile in length.


CAPPADOCIA, an ancient country in the heart of Asia Minor, of varied
political fortune; a plateau with pastures for immense flocks.


CAPRARA, CARDINAL, born at Bologna, legate of Pius VII. in France,
concluded the "Concordat" of 1801 (1733-1810).


CAPRE`RA, a small, barren island off the N. coast of Sardinia, the
home of Garibaldi, where he died, and his burial-place.


CAPRI, a small island at the entrance from the S. of the bay of
Naples, with a capital of the same name on the eastern side; a favourite
retreat of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, and noted for its fine air
and picturesque scenery.


CAPRIVI, COUNT, born in Berlin, entered the army in 1849; held chief
posts in the Austrian and Franco-German wars; in 1890 succeeded Bismarck
as Imperial Chancellor; resigned in 1894 (1831-1899).


CAPUA (11), a fortified city in Campania, on the Volturno, 27 m. N.
of Naples, where, or rather near which, in a place of the same name,
Hannibal, at the invitation of the citizens, retired with his army to
spend the winter after the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and where, from
the luxurious life they led, his soldiers were enervated, after which it
was taken by the Romans, destroyed by the Saracens in 840, and the modern
city built in its stead.


CAPUCHINS, monks of the Franciscan Order, founded in 1526, so called
from a cowl they wear; they were a mendicant order, and were twice over
suppressed by the Pope, though they exist still in Austria and
Switzerland.


CAPULETS, a celebrated Ghibelline family of Verona at mortal feud
with that of the Montagues, familiar to us through Shakespeare's "Romeo
and Juliet," Romeo being of the latter and Juliet of the former.


CAPYBA`RA, the water-hog, the largest rodent extant, in appearance
like a small pig.


CARACALLA, a Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus, born at Lyons;
his reign (211-217) was a series of crimes, follies, and extravagances;
he put to death 20,000 persons, among others the jurist Papinianus, and
was assassinated himself by one of his guards.


CARACAS or CARRACAS (72), the cap. of Venezuela, stands at an
altitude 3000 ft. above the level of the sea; subject to earthquakes, in
one of which (1812) 12,000 perished, and great part of the city was
destroyed; it contains the tomb of Bolivar.


CARACCI or CARRACCI, a family of painters, born at Bologna:
LUDOVICO, the founder of a new school of painting, the principle of
which was eclecticism, in consequence of which it is known as the
Eclectic School, or imitation of the styles of the best masters
(1555-1619); ANNIBALE, cousin and pupil, did "St. Roche distributing
Alms," and his chief, "Three Marys weeping over Christ"; went to Rome and
painted the celebrated Farnese gallery, a work which occupied him four
years (1560-1609); AGOSTINO, brother of above, assisted him in the
frescoes of the gallery, the "Communion of St. Jerome" his greatest work
(1557-1602).


CARACTACUS, a British chief, king of the Silures, maintained a
gallant struggle against the Romans for nine years, but was overthrown by
Ostorius, 50 A.D., taken captive, and led in triumphal procession
through Rome, when the Emperor Claudius was so struck with his dignified
demeanour, that he set him and all his companions at liberty.


CARADOC, a knight of the Round Table, famous for his valour and the
chastity and constancy of his wife.


CARAFFA, a distinguished Neapolitan family, which gave birth to a
number of distinguished ecclesiastics, Paul IV. one of them.


CARAGLIO, an eminent Italian engraver, born at Verona, engraved on
gems and medals as well as copper-plate, after the works of the great
masters (1500-1570).


CARAVAGGIO, an Italian painter, disdained the ideal and the ideal
style of art, and kept generally to crass reality, often in its grossest
forms; a man of a violent temper, which hastened his end; a painting by
him of "Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus" is in the National Gallery,
London (1569-1609).


CARAVANSERAI, a large unfurnished inn, with a court in the middle
for the accommodation of caravans and other travellers at night in the
East.


CARBOHYDRATES, a class of substances such as the sugars, starch,
&c., consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the latter in the
proportion in which they exist in water.


CARBONARI (lit. _charcoal burners_), a secret society that, in the
beginning of the 19th century, originated in Italy and extended itself
into France, numbering hundreds of thousands, included Lord Byron, Silvio
Pellico, and Mazzini among them, the object of which was the overthrow of
despotic governments; they were broken up by Austria, and absorbed by the
Young Italy party.


CARDAN, JEROME, Italian physician and mathematician, born at Pavia;
was far-famed as a physician; studied and wrote on all manner of known
subjects, made discoveries in algebra, believed in astrology, left a
candid account of himself entitled "De Vita Propria"; was the author of
"Cardan's Formula" a formula for the solution of cubic equations; he is
said to have starved himself to death so as to fulfil a prophecy he had
made as to the term of his life (1501-1576).


CARDIFF (129), county town of Glamorganshire, S. Wales, on the river
Taff, the sea outlet for the mineral wealth and products of the district,
a town that has risen more rapidly than any other in the kingdom, having
had at the beginning of the century only 2000 inhabitants; it has a
university, a number of churches, few of them belonging to the Church of
England, and has also three daily papers.


CARDIGAN, EARL OF, a British officer; commanded the Light Cavalry
Brigade in the Crimean war, and distinguished himself in the famous
charge of the Six Hundred, which he led; his favourite regiment, the 11th
Hussars, on the equipment of which he lavished large sums of money
(1797-1868).


CARDIGANSHIRE (62), a county in S. Wales, low-lying on the coast,
level towards the coast, and mountainous in the interior, but with
fertile valleys.


CARDINAL VIRTUES, these have been "arranged by the wisest men of all
time, under four general heads," and are defined by Ruskin as "Prudence
or Discretion (the spirit which discerns and adopts rightly), Justice
(the spirit which rules and divides rightly), Fortitude (the spirit that
persists and endures rightly), and Temperance (the spirit which stops and
refuses rightly). These cardinal and sentinel virtues," he adds, "are not
only the means of protecting and prolonging life itself, but are the
chief guards or sources of the material means of life, and the governing
powers and princes of economy."


CARDINALISTS, name given to the partisans in France of Richelieu and
Mazarin.


CARDUCCI, Florentine artists, brothers, of the 17th century; did
their chief work in Spain.


CARDUCCI, GIOSUE, an Italian poet and critic; author of "Hymn to
Satan," "Odi Barbari," "Commentaries on Petrarch," &c.; _b_. 1837.


CAREW, THOMAS, English courtier poet; his poems, chiefly masks and
lyrics (1589-1639).


CAREY, HENRY, English poet and musician, excelled in ballads;
composed "Sally in Our Alley"; _d_. 1743.


CAREY, SIR ROBERT, warden of the Border Marches under Elizabeth;
present at her deathbed rode off post-haste on the occurrence of the
death with the news to Edinburgh to announce it to King James
(1560-1639).


CAREY, WILLIAM, celebrated Baptist missionary, born in
Northamptonshire; founder of the Baptist Missionary Society, and its
first missionary; founded the mission at Serampore and directed its
operations, distributing Bibles and tracts by thousands in native
languages, as well as preparing grammars and dictionaries; was 29 years
Oriental professor in the College of Fort William. Calcutta (1761-1834).


CARGILL, DONALD, a Scotch Covenanter, born in Perthshire; was
minister of the Barony Parish, Glasgow; fought at Bothwell Brig; suffered
at the Cross of Edinburgh for daring to excommunicate the king; died with
the faith and courage of a martyr (1619-1681).


CARIA, a SW. country in Asia Minor, bordering on the Archipelago, of
which the Maeander is the chief river.


CARIBBEAN SEA, an inland sea of the Atlantic, lying between the
Great Antilles and South America, subject to hurricanes; it corresponds
to the Mediterranean in Europe, and is the turning-point of the Gulf
Stream.


CARIBS, a race of American Indians, originally inhabiting the West
Indies, now confined to the southern shores of the Caribbean Sea, as far
as the mouth of the Amazon; they are a fine race, tall, and of
ruddy-brown complexion, but have lost their distinctive physique by
amalgamation with other tribes; they give name to the Caribbean Sea.


CARINTHIA (361), since 1849 crownland of Austria, near Italy; is a
mountainous and a mineral country; rears cattle and horses; manufactures
hardware and textile fabrics; the principal river is the Drave; capital,
Klagenfurt.


CARISBROOKE, a village in the Isle of Wight, in the castle of which,
now in ruins, Charles I. was imprisoned 13 months before his trial; it
was at one time a Roman station.


CARLEN, EMILIA, Swedish novelist; her novels, some 30 in number,
treat of the everyday life of the lower and middle classes (1807-1883).


CARLETON, WILLIAM, Irish novelist; his first work, and the
foundation of his reputation, "Traits and Stories of the Irish
Peasantry," followed by others of a like class (1794-1860).


CARLI, Italian archaeologist, numismatist, and economist, born at
Capo d'Istria; wrote as his chief work on political economy; president of
the Council of Commerce at Milan (1720-1795).


CARLILE, RICHARD, English Radical and Freethinker, born in
Devonshire; a disciple of Tom Paine's, and propagandist of his views with
a zeal which no prosecution could subdue, although he time after time
suffered imprisonment for it, as well as those who associated themselves
with him, his wife included; his principal organ was "The Republican,"
the first twelve volumes of which are dated from his prison; he was a
martyr for the freedom of the press, and in that interest did not suffer
in vain (1790-1843).


CARLISLE (39), county town of Cumberland, on the Eden; a great
railway centre; with an old castle of historical interest, and a
cathedral founded by William Rufus and dedicated to Henry I.


CARLISLE, GEORGE FREDERICK WILLIAM HOWARD, EARL OF, a Whig in
politics; supported the successive Whig administrations of his time, and
became eventually Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland under Palmerston
(1802-1864).


CARLISTS, a name given in France to the partisans of Charles X.
(1830), and especially in Spain to those of Don Carlos (1833), and those
of his grandson (1873-1874).


CARLOMAN, son of Charles Martel, and brother of Pepin le Bref, king
of Austrasia from 741 to 747; abdicated, and retired into a monastery,
where he died.


CARLOMAN, son of Pepin le Bref, and brother of Charlemagne, king of
Austrasia, Burgundy, and Provence in 768; _d_. 771.


CARLOMAN, king of France conjointly with his brother Louis III.;
_d_. 884.


CARLOS, DON, son of Philip II. of Spain, born at Valladolid, and
heir to the throne, but from incapacity, or worse, excluded by his father
from all share in the government; confessed to a priest a design to
assassinate some one, believed to be his father; was seized, tried, and
convicted, though sentence against him was never pronounced; died shortly
after; the story of Don Carlos has formed the subject of tragedies,
especially one by Schiller, the German poet (1545-1568).


CARLOS, DON, the brother of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, on whose death
he laid claim to the crown as heir, against Isabella, Ferdinand's
daughter who by the Salic law, though set aside in her favour by her
father, had, he urged, no right to the throne; his cause was taken up by
a large party, and the struggle kept up for years; defeated at length he
retired from the contest, and abdicated in favour of his son
(1785-1855).


CARLOS, DON, grandson of the preceding, and heir to his rights;
revived the struggle in 1870, but fared no better than his grandfather;
took refuge in London; _b_. 1848.


CARLOVINGIANS, or KARLINGS, the name of the second dynasty of
Frankish kings, in succession to the Merovingian, which had become
_faineant_; bore sway from 762 to 987, Pepin le Bref the first, and Louis
V. the last; Charlemagne was the greatest of the race, and gave name to
the dynasty.


CALLOW (40), an inland county in Leinster, Ireland; also the county
town.


CARLOWITZ, a town on the Danube, 30 m. NW. of Belgrade, where a
treaty was concluded in 1699 between Turkey and other European powers,
very much to the curtailment of the territories of the former.


CARLSBAD (10), a celebrated watering-place in Bohemia, of
aristocratic resort, the springs being the hottest in Europe, the water
varying from 117 deg. to 165 deg.; population nearly trebled in the season; the
inhabitants are engaged in industries which minister to the tastes of the
visitors and their own profit.


CARLSCRONA (21), a Swedish town, strongly fortified, on the Baltic,
with a spacious harbour, naval station, and arsenal; it is built on five
rocky islands united by dykes and bridges.


CARLSRUHE (73), the capital of the Grand-Duchy of Baden, a great
railway centre; built in the form of a fan, its streets, 32 in number,
radiating so from the duke's palace in the centre.


CARLSTADT, a German Reformer, associated for a time with Luther, but
parted from him both on practical and dogmatical grounds; succeeded
Zwingli as professor at Basel (1483-1541).


CARLTON CLUB, the Conservative club in London, so called, as erected
on the site of Carlton House, demolished in 1828, and occupied by George
IV. when he was Prince of Wales.


CARLYLE, ALEXANDER, surnamed Jupiter Carlyle, from his noble head
and imposing person, born in Dumfriesshire; minister of Inveresk,
Musselburgh, from 1747 to his death; friend of David Hume, Adam Smith,
and Home, the author of "Douglas"; a leader of the Moderate party in the
Church of Scotland; left an "Autobiography," which was not published till
1860, which shows its author to have been a man who took things as he
found them, and enjoyed them to the full as any easy-going, cultured
pagan (1722-1805).


CARLYLE, THOMAS, born in the village of Ecclefechan, Annandale,
Dumfriesshire; son of James Carlyle, a stone-mason, and afterwards a
small farmer, a man of great force, penetration, and integrity of
character, and of Margaret Aitken, a woman of deep piety and warm
affection; educated at the parish school and Annan Academy; entered the
University of Edinburgh at the age of 14, in the Arts classes;
distinguished himself early in mathematics; enrolled as a student in the
theological department; became a teacher first in Annan Academy, then at
Kirkcaldy; formed there an intimate friendship with Edward Irving; threw
up both school-mastering and the church; removed to Edinburgh, and took
to tutoring and working for an encyclopedia, and by-and-by to translating
from the German and writing criticisms for the Reviews, the latter of
which collected afterwards in the "Miscellanies," proved "epoch-making"
in British literature, wrote a "Life of Schiller"; married Jane Welsh, a
descendant of John Knox; removed to Craigenputtock, in Dumfriesshire,
"the loneliest nook in Britain," where his original work began with
"Sartor Resartus," written in 1831, a radically spiritual book, and a
symbolical, though all too exclusively treated as a speculative, and an
autobiographical; removed to London in 1834, where he wrote his "French
Revolution" (1837), a book instinct with the all-consuming fire of the
event which it pictures, and revealing "a new moral force" in the
literary life of the country and century; delivered three courses of
lectures to the _elite_ of London Society (1837-1840), the last of them
"Heroes and Hero-Worship," afterwards printed in 1840; in 1840 appeared
"Chartism," in 1843 "Past and Present," and in 1850 "Latter-Day
Pamphlets"; all on what he called the "Condition-of-England-Question,"
which to the last he regarded, as a subject of the realm, the most
serious question of the time, seeing, as he all along taught and felt,
the social life affects the individual life to the very core; in 1845 he
dug up a hero literally from the grave in his "Letters and Speeches of
Oliver Cromwell," and after writing in 1851 a brief biography of his
misrepresented friend, John Sterling, concluded (1858-1865) his life's
task, prosecuted from first to last, in "sore travail" of body and soul,
with "The History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the
Great," "the last and grandest of his works," says Froude; "a book," says
Emerson, "that is a Judgment Day, for its moral verdict on men and
nations, and the manners of modern times"; lies buried beside his own
kindred in the place where he was born, as he had left instructions to
be. "The man," according to Ruskin, his greatest disciple, and at
present, as would seem, the last, "who alone of all our masters of
literature, has written, without thought of himself, what he knew to be
needful for the people of his time to hear, if the will to hear had been
in them ... the solitary Teacher who has asked them to be (before all)
brave for the help of Man, and just for the love of God" (1795-1881).


CARMAGNOLE, a Red-republican song and dance.


CARMARTHENSHIRE (30), a county in S. Wales, and the largest in the
Principality; contains part of the coal-fields in the district; capital
Carmarthen, on the right bank of the Towy, a river which traverses the
county.


CARMEL, a NW. extension of the limestone ridge that bounds on the S.
the Plain of Esdraelon, in Palestine, and terminates in a rocky
promontory 500 ft. high; forms the southern boundary of the Bay of Acre;
its highest point is 1742 ft. above the sea-level.


CARMELITES, a monastic order, originally an association of hermits
on Mount Carmel, at length mendicant, called the Order of Our Lady of
Mount Carmel, i. e. the Virgin, in consecration to whom it was founded
by a pilgrim of the name Berthold, a Calabrian, in 1156. The Order is
said to have existed from the days of Elijah.


CARMEN SYLVA, the _nom-de-plume_ of Elizabeth, queen of Roumania;
lost an only child, and took to literature for consolation; has taken an
active interest in the elevation and welfare of her sex; _b_. 1843.


CARMONTEL, a French dramatist; author of little pieces under the
name of "Proverbes" (1717-1806).


CARNAC, a seaside fishing-village in the Bay of Quiberon, in the
dep. of Morbihan, France, with interesting historical records,
particularly Celtic, many of them undecipherable by the antiquary.


CARNARVON, a maritime county in N. Wales, with the highest mountains
and grandest scenery in the Principality, and a capital of the same name
on the Menai Strait, with the noble ruins of a castle, in which Edward
II., the first Prince of Wales, was born.


CARNARVON, HENRY HOWARD, Earl of, Conservative statesman; held
office under Lord Derby and Disraeli; was a good classical scholar; wrote
the "Druses of Mount Lebanon" (1831-1890).


CARNATIC, an old prov. in the Madras Presidency of India that
extended along the Coromandel coast from Cape Comorin, 600 m. N.


CARNEADES, a Greek philosopher, born at Cyrene; his whole philosophy
a polemic against the dogmatism of the Stoics, on the alleged ground of
the absence of any criterion of certainty in matters of either science or
morality; conceded that truth and virtue were admirable qualities, but he
denied the reality of them; sent once on an embassy to Rome, he
propounded this doctrine in the ears of the Conscript Fathers, upon which
Cato moved he should be expelled from the senate-house and sent back to
Athens, where he came from (213-129 B.C.).


CARNEGIE, ANDREW, ironmaster, born in Dunfermline, the son of a
weaver; made a large fortune by his iron and steel works at Pittsburg,
U.S., out of which he has liberally endowed institutions and libraries,
both in America and his native country; _b_. 1835.


CARNIOLA (500), a crownland of the Austrian empire, SW. of Austria,
on the Adriatic, S. of Carinthia; contains quicksilver mines, second only
to those of Almaden, in Spain; the surface is mountainous, and the soil
is not grain productive, though in some parts it yields wine and fine
fruit.


CARNIVAL, in Roman Catholic countries the name given to a season of
feasting and revelry immediately preceding Lent, akin to the Saturnalia
of the Romans.


CARNOT, LEONARD SADI, son of Nicolas, founder of thermo-dynamics; in
his "Reflexions sur la Puissance du Feu" enunciates the principle of
Reversibility, considered the most important contribution to physical
science since the time of Newton (1796-1832). See DR. KNOTT'S
"PHYSICS."


CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS, civil engineer and statesman, born at
Limoges, nephew of the preceding; Finance Minister in 1879 and 1887;
became President in 1887; was assassinated at Lyons by an anarchist in
1894.


CARNOT, NICOLAS, French mathematician and engineer, born at Nolay,
in Burgundy; a member of the National Convention; voted for the death of
the king; became member of the Committee of Public Safety, and organiser
of the armies of the Republic, whence his name, the "organiser of
victory"; Minister of War under Napoleon; defender of Antwerp in 1814;
and afterwards Minister of the Interior (1753-1823).


CARO, ANNIBALE, an Italian author and poet, notable for his classic
style (1507-1566).


CARO, MARIE, a French philosopher, born at Poitiers; a popular
lecturer on philosophy, surnamed _le philosophe des dames_; wrote on
mysticism, materialism, and pessimism (1826-1887).


CAROLINA, NORTH, one of the original 13 States of N. America, on the
Atlantic, about the size of England, S. of Virginia, 480 m. from E. to W.
and 180 m. from N. to S.; has a fertile, well-watered subsoil in the high
lands; is rich in minerals and natural products; the mountains are
covered with forests, and the manufactures are numerous.


CAROLINA, SOUTH, S. of N. Carolina, is alluvial with swamps, 100 m.
inland from the coast, is well watered; produces rice and cotton in large
quantities and of a fine quality.


CAROLINE ISLANDS (36), a stretch of lagoon islands, 2000 m. from E.
to W., belonging to Spain, N. of New Guinea and E. of the Philippine
Islands; once divided into eastern, western, and central; the soil of the
western is fertile, and there is plenty of fish and turtle in the
lagoons.


CAROLINE OF BRUNSWICK, queen of George IV. and daughter of the Duke
of Brunswick; married George, then Prince of Wales, in 1795; gave birth
to the Princess Charlotte the year following, but almost immediately
after her husband abandoned her; she retired to a mansion at Blackheath;
was allowed to go abroad after a time; on the accession of her husband
she was offered a pension of L50,000 if she stayed out of the country,
but rejected it and claimed her rights as queen; was charged with
adultery, but after a long trial acquitted; on the day of the coronation
sought admission to Westminster Abbey, but the door was shut against her;
she died a fortnight after (1768-1821).


CARON, LIEUTENANT-COLONEL, under the first Empire; head of the
Belford conspiracy in 1820 under the Restoration; executed 1822.


CARPACCIO, VITTORE, a Venetian painter of great celebrity,
particularly in his early pieces, for his truth of delineation, his
fertile imagination, and his rich colouring; his works are numerous, and
have nearly all of them sacred subjects; an Italian critic says of him,
"He had truth in his heart" (1450-1522).


CARPATHIANS, a range of wooded mountains in Central Europe, 880 m.
long, which, in two great masses, extend from Presburg to Orsova, both on
the Danube, in a semicircle round the greater part of Hungary,
particularly the whole of the N. and E., the highest of them Negoi, 8517
ft., they are rich in minerals, and their sides clothed with forests,
principally of beech and pine.


CARPEAUX, JEAN BAPTISTE, sculptor, born at Valenciennes; adorned by
his art, reckoned highly imaginative, several of the public monuments of
Paris, and the facade of the Opera House (1827-1875).


CARPENTARIA, GULF OF, a broad, deep gulf in the N. of Australia;
contains several islands, and receives several rivers.


CARPENTER, MARY, a philanthropist, born at Exeter, daughter of Dr.
Lant Carpenter, Unitarian minister; took an active part in the
establishment of reformatory and ragged schools, and a chief promoter of
the Industrial Schools Act; her philanthropic efforts extended to India,
which, in her zeal, she visited four times, and she was the founder of
the National Indian Association (1807-1877).


CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN, biologist, brother of the preceding;
author, among other numerous works, of the "Principles of General and
Comparative Physiology" (1838); contributed to mental physiology; held
several high professional appointments in London; inaugurated deep-sea
soundings, and advocated the theory of a vertical circulation in the
ocean (1813-1877).


CARPI, GIROLAMO DA, Italian painter and architect, born at Ferrara;
successful imitator of Correggio (1501-1556).


CARPI, UGO DA, Italian painter and wood engraver; is said to have
invented engraving in chiaroscuro (1486-1530).


CARPINI, a Franciscan monk, born in Umbria; headed an embassy from
Pope Innocent IV. to the Emperor of the Mogul Tartars to persuade him out
of Europe, which he threatened; was a corpulent man of 60; travelled from
Lyons to beyond Lake Baikal and back; wrote a report of his journey in
Latin, which had a quieting effect on the panic in Europe (1182-1252).


CARPIO, a legendary hero of the Moors of Spain; is said to have
slain Roland at Roncesvalles.


CARPOC`RATES, a Gnostic of Alexandria of the 2nd century, who
believed in the transmigration of the soul and its final emancipation
from all external bonds and obligations, by means of concentrated
meditation on the divine unity, and a life in conformity therewith; was
the founder of a sect called after his name.


CARRARA (11), a town in N. Italy, 30 m. NW. of Leghorn; famous for
its quarries of white statuary marble, the working of which is its staple
industry; these quarries have been worked for 2000 years, are 400 in
number, and employ as quarrymen alone regularly over 3000 men.


CARREL, ARMAND, French publicist, born at Rouen; a man of high
character, and highly esteemed; editor of the _National_, which he
conducted with great ability, and courage; died of a wound in a duel with
Emile de Girardin (1800-1836).


CARRICK, the southern division of Ayrshire. See AYRSHIRE.


CARRICKFERGUS (9), a town and seaport N. of Belfast Lough, 91/2 m.
from Belfast, with a picturesque castle.


CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the most blood-thirsty of the French
Revolutionists, born near Aurillac; an attorney by profession; sent on a
mission to La Vendee; caused thousands of victims to be drowned,
beheaded, or shot; was guillotined himself after trial by a Revolutionary
tribunal (1756-1794). See NOYADES.


CARRIERE, MORITZ, a German philosopher and man of letters, born in
Hesse, author of works on aesthetics and art in its relation to culture
and the ideal; advocated the compatibility of the pantheistic with the
deistic view of the world (1817-1893).


CARROL, LEWIS, pseudonym of C. L. DODGSON (q. v.), the
author of "Alice in Wonderland," with its sequel, "Through the
Looking-Glass."


CARSE, the name given in Scotland to alluvial lands bordering on a
river.


CARSON, KIT, American trapper, born in Kentucky; was of service to
the States in expeditions in Indian territories from his knowledge of the
habits of the Indians (1809-1878).


CARSTAIRS, WILLIAM, a Scotch ecclesiastic, born at Cathcart, near
Glasgow; sent to Utrecht to study theology; recommended himself to the
regard of the Prince of Orange, and became his political adviser;
accompanied him to England as chaplain in 1688, and had no small share in
bringing about the Revolution; controlled Church affairs in Scotland; was
made Principal of Edinburgh University; was chief promoter of the Treaty
of Union; was held in high esteem by his countrymen for his personal
character as well as his public services; was a most sagacious man
(1649-1715).


CARSTENS, ASMUS JAKOB, Danish artist, born in Sleswig; on the
appearance of his great picture, "The Fall of the Angels," rose at once
into fame; was admitted to the Berlin Academy; afterwards studied the
masters at Rome; brought back to Germany a taste for art; was the means
of reviving it; treated classical subjects; quarrelled the Academy; died
in poverty at Rome (1754-1798).


CARTAGENA (86), a naval port of Spain, on the Mediterranean, with a
capacious harbour; one of the oldest towns in it, founded by the
Carthaginians; was once the largest naval arsenal in Europe. Also capital
(12) of the Bolivar State in Colombia.


CARTE, THOMAS, historian, a devoted Jacobite, born near Rugby; wrote
a "History of England," which has proved a rich quarry of facts for
subsequent historians (1686-1754).


CARTE-BLANCHE, a blank paper with a signature to be filled up with
such terms of an agreement as the holder is authorised to accept in name
of the person whose signature it bears.


CARTER, ELIZABETH, an accomplished lady, born at Deal, friend of Dr.
Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others; a great Greek and Italian
scholar; translated Epictetus and Algarotti's exposition of Newton's
philosophy; some of her papers appear in the _Rambler_ (1717-1806).


CARTERET, JOHN, EARL GRANVILLE, eminent British statesman, orator,
and diplomatist, entered Parliament in the Whig interest; his first
speech was in favour of the Protestant succession; after service as
diplomatist abroad, was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, in which
capacity he was brought into contact with Swift, first as an enemy but at
length as a friend, and proved a successful viceroy; in Parliament was
head of the party opposed to Sir Robert Walpole and of the subsequent
administration; his foreign policy has been in general approved of; had
the satisfaction of seeing, which he was instrumental in securing, the
elder Pitt installed in office before he retired; was a "fiery, emphatic
man" (1690-1763).


CARTERET, PHILIP, English sailor and explorer, explored in the
Southern Seas, and discovered several islands, Pitcairn's Island among
the number; _d_. 1796.


CARTHAGE, an ancient maritime city, on a peninsula in the N. of
Africa, near the site of Tunis, and founded by Phoenicians in 850 B.C.;
originally the centre of a colony, it became the capital of a wide-spread
trading community, which even ventured to compete with, and at one time
threatened, under Hannibal, to overthrow, the power of Rome, in a series
of protracted struggles known as the Punic Wars, in the last of which it
was taken and destroyed by Publius Cornelius Scipio in 146 B.C., after a
siege of two years, though it rose again as a Roman city under the
Caesars, and became a place of great importance till burned in A.D. 698
by Hassan, the Arab; the struggle during the early part of its history
was virtually a struggle for the ascendency of the Semitic people over
the Aryan race in Europe.


CARTHUSIANS, a monastic order of a very severe type, founded by St.
Bruno in 1086, each member of which had originally a single cell,
eventually one consisting of two or three rooms with a garden, all of
them opening into one corridor; they amassed considerable wealth, but
were given to deeds of benefaction, and spent their time in study and
contemplation, in consequence of which they figure not so much in the
outside world as many other orders do.


CARTIER, a French navigator, born at St. Malo, made three voyages to
N. America in quest of a North-West passage, at the instance of Francis
I.; took possession of Canada in the name of France, by planting the
French flag on the soil (1494-1554).


CARTOONS, drawings or designs made on stiff paper for a fresco or
other paintings, transferred by tracing or pouncing to the surface to be
painted, the most famous of which are those of Raphael.


CARTOUCHE, a notorious captain of a band of thieves, born in Paris,
who was broken on the wheel alive in the Place de Greve (1698-1721).


CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, inventor of the powerloom and the carding
machine, born in Nottinghamshire; bred for the Church; his invention, at
first violently opposed, to his ruin for the time being, is now
universally adopted; a grant of L10,000 was made him by Parliament in
consideration of his services and in compensation for his losses; he had
a turn for versifying as well as mechanical invention (1743-1823).


CARTWRIGHT, JOHN, brother of the preceding; served in the navy and
the militia, but left both services for political reasons; took to the
study of agriculture, and the advocacy of radical political reform much
in advance of his time (1740-1824).


CARUS, KARL GUSTAV, a celebrated German physiologist, born at
Leipzig; a many-sided man; advocate of the theory that health of body and
mind depends on the equipoise of antagonistic principles (1789-1869).


CARY, HENRY FRANCIS, translator of Dante, born at Gibraltar; his
translation is admired for its fidelity as well as for its force and
felicity (1772-1844).


CARYATIDES, draped female figures surmounting columns and supporting
entablatures; the corresponding male figures are called Atlantes.


CASA, Italian statesman, Secretary of State under Pope Paul IV.;
wrote "Galateo; or, the Art of Living in the World" (1503-1556).


CASABIANCA, LOUIS, a French naval officer, born in Corsica, who, at
the battle of Aboukir, after securing the safety of his crew, blew up his
ship and perished along with his son, who would not leave him
(1755-1798).


CASA`LE (17), a town on the Po; manufactures silk twist.


CASANOVA, painter, born in London, of Venetian origin; painted
landscapes and battle-pieces (1727-1806).


CASANOVA DE SEINGALT, a clever Venetian adventurer and scandalous
impostor, of the Cagliostro type, who insinuated himself into the good
graces for a time of all the distinguished people of the period,
including even Frederick the Great, Voltaire, and others; died in Bohemia
after endless roamings and wrigglings, leaving, as Carlyle would say,
"the smell of brimstone behind him"; wrote a long detailed, brazen-faced
account of his career of scoundrelism (1725-1798).


CASAS, BARTOLOMEO DE LAS, a Spanish prelate, distinguished for his
exertions in behalf of the Christianisation and civilisation of the
Indians of S. America (1474-1566).


CASAUBON, ISAAC, an eminent classical scholar and commentator, born
in Geneva; professor of Greek at Geneva and Montpellier, and afterwards
of belles-lettres at Paris, invited thither by Henry IV., who pensioned
him; being a Protestant he removed to London on Henry's death, where
James I. gave him two prebends; has been ranked with Lepsius and Scaliger
as a scholar (1559-1614).


CASAUBON, MERIC, son of preceding; accompanied his father to
England; held a church living under the Charleses; became professor of
Theology at Oxford, and edited his father's works (1599-1671).


CASCADE MOUNTAINS, a range in Columbia that slopes down toward the
Pacific from the Western Plateau, of which the Rocky Mountains form the
eastern boundary; they are nearly parallel with the coast, and above 100
m. inland.


CASERTA (35), a town in Italy, 20 m. from Naples, noted for a
magnificent palace, built after plans supplied by Vanvitelli, one of the
architects of St. Peter's at Rome.


CASHEL, a town in Tipperary, Ireland, 49 m. NE. of Cork; a bishop's
see, with a "Rock" 300 ft. high, occupied by interesting ruins; it was
formerly the seat of the kings of Munster.


CASHMERE or KASHMIR (2,543), a native Indian State, bordering
upon Tibet, 120 m. long and 80 m. wide, with beautiful scenery and a
delicious climate, in a valley of the Himalayas, forming the basin of the
Upper Indus, hemmed in by deep-gorged woods and snow-peaked mountains,
and watered by the Jhelum, which spreads out here and there near it into
lovely lakes; shawl weaving and lacquer-work are the chief occupations of
the inhabitants.


CASIMIR, the name of five kings of Poland; the most eminent, Casimir
III., called the Great, after distinguishing himself in wars against the
Teutonic Knights, was elected king in 1333; recovered Silesia from
Bohemia in two victories; defeated the Tartars on the Vistula, and
annexed part of Lithuania; formed a code of laws, limiting both the royal
authority and that of the nobles (1309-1370).


CASIMIR-PERIER, president of the French Republic, born in Paris; a
man of moderate views and firm character; was premier in 1893; succeeded
Carnot in 1894; resigned 1895, because, owing to misrepresentation, the
office had become irksome to him; _b_. 1847.


CASINO, a club-house or public building in Continental towns
provided with rooms for social gatherings, music, dancing, billiards, &c.


CASIRI, a Syro-Maronite religious, and a learned Orientalist
(1710-1791).


CASPARI, KARL PAUL, German theologian, born at Dessau; professor at
Christiania (1814-1892).


CASPIAN SEA, an inland sea, partly in Europe and partly in Asia, the
largest in the world, being 600 m. from N. to S. and from 270 to 130 m.
in breadth, with the Caucasus Mts. on the W. and the Elburz on the S., is
the fragment of a larger sea which extended to the Arctic Ocean; shallow
in the N., deep in the S.; the waters, which are not so salt as the
ocean, abound in fish, especially salmon and sturgeon.


CASS, LEWIS, an eminent American statesman, a member of the
Democratic party, and openly hostile to Great Britain; though in favour
of slave-holding, a friend of Union; wrote a "History of the U.S.
Indians" (1782-1867).


CASSAGNAC, GRANIER DE, a French journalist; at first an Orleanist,
became a supporter of the Empire; started several journals, which all
died a natural death; edited _Le Pays_, a semi-official organ; embroiled
himself in duels and lawsuits without number (1806-1880).


CASSAGNAC, PAUL, son of preceding; editor of _Le Pays_ and the
journal _L'Autorite_; an obstinate Imperialist; _b_. 1843.


CASSANDER, king of Macedonia, passed over in the succession by his
father Antipater; allied himself with the Greek cities; invaded Macedonia
and ascended the throne; married Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander
the Great, but put Alexander's mother to death, thus securing himself
against all rival claimants; left his son Philip as successor
(354-297 B.C.).


CASSANDRA, a beautiful Trojan princess, daughter of Priam and
Hecuba, whom Apollo endowed with the gift of prophecy, but, as she had
rejected his suit, doomed to utter prophecies which no one would believe,
as happened with her warnings of the fate and the fall of Troy, which
were treated by her countrymen as the ravings of a lunatic; her name is
applied to any one who entertains gloomy forebodings.


CASSANO, a town in the S. of Italy; also a town near Milan, scene of
a French victory under Vendome in 1705, and a French defeat under Moreau
in 1799.


CASSATION, COURT OF, a court of highest and last appeal in France,
appointed in the case of appeal to revise the forms of a procedure in an
inferior court; it consists of a president and vice-president, 49 judges,
a public prosecutor called the _procureur-general_, and six
advocates-general; it consists of three sections: first, one to determine
if the appeal should be received; second, one to decide in civil cases;
and third, one to decide in criminal cases.


CASSEL (72), capital of Hesse-Cassel, an interesting town, 120 m.
from Frankfort-on-Main; it is the birthplace of Bunsen.


CASSELL, JOHN, the publisher, born in Manchester; a self-made man,
who knew the value of knowledge and did much to extend it (1817-1865).


CASSIANUS, JOANNUS, an Eastern ascetic; came to Constantinople, and
became a pupil of Chrysostom, who ordained him; founded two monasteries
in Marseilles; opposed the extreme views of Augustine in regard to grace
and free-will, and human depravity; and not being able to go the length
of Pelaganism, adopted SEMI-PELAGIANISM, q. v. (360-448).


CASSINI, name of a family of astronomers of the 17th and 18th
centuries, of Italian origin; distinguished for their observations and
discoveries affecting the comets, the planets, and the moon; they
settled, father and son and grandson, in Paris, and became in succession
directors of the observatory of Paris, the last of whom died in 1864,
after completing in 1793 a great topographical map of France begun by his
father.


CASSIODO`RUS, a Latin statesman and historian, born in Calabria;
prime minister of Theodoric the Great and his successor; retired into a
monastery about 70, and lived there nearly 30 years; wrote a history of
the Goths, and left letters of great historical value (468-568).


CASSIOPE`IA, queen of Ethiopia, mother of Andromeda, placed after
death among the constellations; a constellation well north in the
northern sky of five stars in the figure of a W.


CASSIQUIA`RI, a remarkable river in Venezuela, which, like a canal,
connects the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon, with the Orinoco.


CASSITER`IDES, islands in the Atlantic, which the Phoenician sailors
visited to procure tin; presumed to have been the Scilly Islands or
Cornwall, which they adjoin.


CASSIUS, CAIUS, chief conspirator against Caesar; won over Brutus to
join in the foul plot; soon after the deed was done fled to Syria, made
himself master of it; joined his forces with those of Brutus at Philippi;
repulsed on the right, thought all was lost; withdrew into his tent, and
called his freedmen to kill him; Brutus, in his lamentation over him,
called him the "last of the Romans"; _d_. 42 B.C.


CASSIUS, SPURIUS, a Roman, thrice chosen consul, first time 502
B.C.; subdued the Sabines, made a league with the Latins, promoted an
agrarian law, the first passed, which conceded to the plebs a share in
the public lands.


CASSIVELLAUNUS, a British warlike chief, who unsuccessfully opposed
Caesar on his second invasion of Britain, 52 B.C.; surrendered after
defeat, and became tributary to Rome.


CASTALIA, a fountain at the foot of Parnassus sacred to the Muses;
named after a nymph, who drowned herself in it to escape Apollo.


CASTANET, bishop of Albi; procured the canonisation of St. Louis
(1256-1317).


CASTANOS, a Spanish general; distinguished for his victory over the
French under Dupont, whom he compelled to surrender and sign the
capitulation of Baylen, in 1808; after this he served under Wellington in
several engagements, and was commander of the Spanish army, ready, if
required, to invade France in 1815 (1758-1852).


CASTE, rank in society of an exclusive nature due to birth or
origin, such as prevails among the Hindus especially. Among them there
are originally two great classes, the twice-born and the once-born, _i.
e_. those who have passed through a second birth, and those who have not;
of the former there are three grades, Brahmans, or the priestly caste,
from the mouth of Brahma; Kshatriyas, or the soldier caste, from the
hands of Brahma; and Vaisyas, or the agricultural caste, from the feet of
Brahma; while the latter are of one rank and are menial to the other,
called Sudras, earth-born all; notwithstanding which distinction often
members of the highest class sink socially to the lowest level, and
members of the lowest rise socially to the highest.


CASTEL, RENE-RICHARD, French poet and naturalist (1758-1832).


CASTELAR, EMILIO, a Spanish republican, born in Cadiz; an eloquent
man and a literary; appointed dictator of Spain in 1873, but not being
equal to the exigency in the affairs of the State, resigned, and made way
for the return of monarchy, though under protest; wrote a history of the
"Republican Movement in Europe" among other works of political interest;
_b_. 1832.


CASTELLAMARE (15), a port on the coast of Italy, 115 m. SE. of
Naples, the scene of Pliny's death from the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D.
79. It takes its name from a castle built on it by the Emperor Frederick
II.; has a cathedral, arsenal, and manufactures.


CASTELLIO, Protestant theologian, a protege of Calvin's for a time,
till he gave expression to some heretical views, which led to a rupture;
he ventured to pronounce the Song of Solomon a mere erotic poem
(1515-1563).


CASTIGLIONE, a town of Sicily, on N. slope of Etna, 35 m. SW. of
Messina; famed for hazel nuts.


CASTIGLIONE, COUNT, an accomplished Italian, born in Mantua; author
of "II Cortegiano," a manual for courtiers, called by the Italians in
admiration of it "The Golden Book"; had spent much of his time in courts
in England and Spain, as well as Rome, and was a courtly man (1478-1529).


CASTILE, a central district of Spain, divided by the mountains of
Castile into Old Castile (1,800) in the N., and New Castile (3,500) in
the S.: the former consisting of a high bare plateau, bounded by
mountains on the N. and on the S., with a variable climate, yields wheat
and good pasturage, and is rich in minerals; the latter, also tableland,
has a richer soil, and yields richer produce, breeds horses and cattle,
and contains besides the quicksilver mines of Almaden. Both were at one
time occupied by the Moors, and were created into a kingdom in the 11th
century, and united to the crown of Spain in 1469 by the marriage of
Ferdinand and Isabella.


CASTLE GARDEN, the immigration depot of New York where immigrants
land, report themselves, and are advised where to settle or find work.


CASTLE OF INDOLENCE, a poem of Thomson's, a place in which the
dwellers live amid luxurious delights, to the enervation of soul and
body.


CASTLEFORD (14), a town 10 m. SE. of Leeds, with extensive
glass-works, especially bottles.


CASTLEREAGH, LORD, entered political life as a member of the Irish
Parliament, co-operated with Pitt in securing the Union, after which he
entered the Imperial Parliament, became War Minister (1805), till the
ill-fated Walcheren expedition and a duel with Canning obliged him to
resign; became Foreign Secretary in 1812, and the soul of the coalition
against Napoleon; represented the country in a congress after Napoleon's
fall; succeeded his father as Marquis of Londonderry in 1821, and
committed suicide the year following; his name has been unduly defamed,
and his services to the country as a diplomatist have been entirely
overlooked (1769-1822).


CASTLES IN SPAIN, visionary projects.


CASTLETOWN, a seaport in the Isle of Man, 11 m. SW. of Douglas, and
the former capital.


CASTLEWOOD, the heroine in Thackeray's "Esmond."


CASTOR AND POLLUX, the Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus by Leda;
great, the former in horsemanship, and the latter in boxing; famed for
their mutual affection, so that when the former was slain the latter
begged to be allowed to die with him, whereupon it was agreed they should
spend a day in Hades time about; were raised eventually to become stars
in the sky, the Gemini, twin signs in the zodiac, rising and setting
together; this name is also given to the electric phenomenon called
ST. ELMO'S FIRE (q. v.).


CASTREN, MATHIAS ALEXANDER, an eminent philologist, born in Finland,
professor of the Finnish Language and Literature in Helsingfors;
travelled all over Northern Europe and Asia, and left accounts of the
races he visited and their languages; translated the "KALEVALA"
(q. v.) the epic of the Finns; died prematurely, worn out with his
labours (1813-1852).


CASTRES (22), a town in the dep. of Tarn, 46 m. E. of Toulouse; was
a Roman station, and one of the first places in France to embrace
Calvinism.


CASTRO, GUILLEN DE, a Spanish dramatist, author of the play of "The
Cid," which gained him European fame; he began life as a soldier, got
acquainted with Lope de Vega, and took to dramatic composition
(1569-1631).


CASTRO, INEZ DE, a royal heiress of the Spanish throne in the 14th
century, the beloved wife of Don Pedro, heir of the Portuguese throne;
put to death out of jealousy of Spain by the latter's father, but on his
accession dug out of her grave, arrayed in her royal robes, and crowned
along with him, after which she was entombed again, and a magnificent
monument erected over her remains.


CASTRO, JUAN DE, a Portuguese soldier, born at Lisbon, distinguished
for his exploits in behalf of Portugal; made viceroy of the Portuguese
Indies, but died soon after in the arms of Francis Xavier (1500-1548).


CASTRO, VACA DE, a Spaniard, sent out by Charles V. as governor of
Peru, but addressing himself to the welfare of the natives rather than
the enrichment of Spain, was recalled, to pine and die in prison in 1558.


CASTROGIOVANNI (18), a town in a strong position in the heart of
Sicily, 3270 ft. above the sea-level; at one time a centre of the worship
of Ceres, and with a temple to her.


CASTRUCCIO-CASTRACANI, Duke of Lucca, and chief of the Ghibelline
party in that town, the greatest war-captain in Europe in his day; lord
of hundreds of strongholds; wore on a high occasion across his breast a
scroll, inscribed, "He is what God made him," and across his back
another, inscribed, "He shall be what God will make"; _d_. 1328, "crushed
before the moth."


CATACOMBS, originally underground quarries, afterwards used as
burial-places for the dead, found beneath Paris and in the neighbourhood
of Rome, as well as elsewhere; those around Rome, some 40 in number, are
the most famous, as having been used by the early Christians, not merely
for burial but for purposes of worship, and are rich In monuments of art
and memorials of history.


CATALANI, ANGELICA, a celebrated Italian singer and prima donna,
born near Ancona; began her career in Rome with such success that it led
to engagements over all the chief cities of Europe, the enthusiasm which
followed her reaching its climax when she came to England, where, on her
first visit, she stayed eight years; by the failure of an enterprise in
Paris she lost her fortune, but soon repaired it by revisiting the
capitals of Europe; died of cholera in Paris (1779-1840).


CATALONIA (1,900), old prov. of Spain, on the NE.; has a most
fertile soil, which yields a luxuriant vegetation; chief seat of
manufacture in the country, called hence the "Lancashire of Spain"; the
people are specially distinguished from other Spaniards for their
intelligence and energy.


CATAMAR`CA (ISO), NW. prov. of the Argentine Republic; rich in
minerals, especially copper.


CATA`NIA (123), an ancient city at the foot of Etna, to the S., on a
plain called the Granary of Sicily; has been several times devastated by
the eruptions of Etna, particularly in 1169, 1669, and 1693; manufactures
silk, linen, and articles of amber, &c., and exports sulphur, grain, and
fruits.


CATANZA`RO (20), a city in Calabria, 6 m. from the Gulf of
Squillace, with an old castle of Robert Guiscard.


CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, Kant's name for the self-derived moral law,
"universal and binding on every rational will, a commandment of the
autonomous, one and universal reason."


CATEGORIES are either classes under which all our Notions of things
may be grouped, or classes under which all our Thoughts of things may be
grouped; the former called Logical, we owe to Aristotle, and the latter
called Metaphysical, we owe to Kant. The Logical, so derived, that group
our notions, are ten in number: Substance or Being, Quantity, Quality,
Relation, Place, Time, Position, Possession, Action, Passion. The
Metaphysical, so derived, that group our thoughts, are twelve in number:
(1) as regards _quantity_, Totality, Plurality, Unity; (2) as regards
_quality_, Reality, Negation, Limitation; (3) as regards _relation_,
Substance, Accident, Cause and Effect, Action and Reaction; (4) as
regards _modality_, Possibility and Impossibility, Existence and
Nonexistence, Necessity and Contingency. John Stuart Mill resolves the
categories into five, Existence, Co-existence, Succession, Causation, and
Resemblance.


CATESBY, MARK, an English naturalist and traveller, wrote a natural
history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamas (1680-1750).


CATESBY, ROBERT, born in Northamptonshire, a Catholic of good birth;
concerned in the famous Gunpowder Plot; shot dead three days after its
discovery by officers sent to arrest him (1573-1605).


CATH`ARI, OR CATHARISTS, i. e. purists or puritans, a sect of
presumably Gnostic derivation, scattered here and there under different
names over the S. and W. of Europe during the Middle Ages, who held the
Manichaean doctrine of the radically sinful nature of the flesh, and the
necessity of mortifying all its desires and affections to attain purity
of soul.


CATHARINE, ST., OF ALEXANDRIA, a virgin who, in 307, suffered
martyrdom after torture on the wheel, which has since borne her name; is
represented in art as in a vision presented to Christ by His Mother as
her sole husband, who gives her a ring. Festival, Nov. 25.


CATHARINE I., wife of Peter the Great and empress of Russia,
daughter of a Livonian peasant; "a little stumpy body, very brown,...
strangely chased about from the bottom to the top of the world,... had
once been a kitchen wench"; married first to a Swedish dragoon, became
afterwards the mistress of Prince Menschikoff, and then of Peter the
Great, who eventually married her; succeeded him as empress, with
Menschikoff as minister; for a time ruled well, but in the end gave
herself up to dissipation, and died (1682-1727).


CATHARINE II. THE GREAT, empress of Russia, born at Stettin,
daughter of Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst; "a most-clever, clear-eyed,
stout-hearted woman"; became the wife of Peter III., a scandalous mortal,
who was dethroned and then murdered, leaving her empress; ruled well for
the country, and though her character was immoral and her reign despotic
and often cruel, her efforts at reform, the patronage she accorded to
literature, science, and philosophy, and her diplomatic successes,
entitle her to a high rank among the sovereigns of Russia; she reigned
from 1763 to 1796, and it was during the course of her reign, and under
the sanction of it, that Europe witnessed the three partitions of Poland
(1729-1796).


CATHARINE DE' MEDICI, daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, wife of Henry
II. of France, and mother of his three successors; on the accession of
her second son, Charles IX.--for the reign of her first, Francis II., was
very brief--acted as regent during his minority; joined heart and soul
with the Catholics in persecuting the Huguenots, and persuaded her son to
issue the order which resulted in the massacre of St. Bartholomew; on his
death, which occurred soon after, she acted as regent during the minority
of her third son, Henry III., and lived to see both herself and him
detested by the whole French people, and this although she was during her
ascendency the patroness of the arts and of literature (1519-1589).


CATHARINE OF ARAGON, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of
Spain, and wife of Henry VIII., her brother-in-law as widow of Arthur,
from whom, and at whose instance, after 18 years of married life, and
after giving birth to five children, she was divorced on the plea that,
as she had been his brother's wife before, it was not lawful for him to
have her; after her divorce she remained in the country, led an austere
religious life, and died broken-hearted. The refusal of the Pope to
sanction this divorce led to the final rupture of the English Church from
the Church of Rome, and the emancipation of the nation from priestly
tyranny (1483-1536).


CATHARINE OF BRAGANZA, the wife of Charles II. of England, of the
royal house of Portugal; was unpopular in the country as a Catholic and
neglected by her husband, on whose death, however, she returned to
Portugal, and did the duties ably of regent for her brother Don Pedro
(1638-1705).


CATHARINE OF SIENNA, born at Sienna, a sister of the Order of St.
Dominic, and patron saint of the Order; celebrated for her ecstasies and
visions, and the marks which by favour of Christ she bore on her body of
His sufferings on the Cross (1347-1380). Festival, April 30. Besides her,
are other saints of the same name.


CATHARINE OF VALOIS, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and wife of
Henry V. of England, who, on his marriage to her, was declared heir to
the throne of France, with the result that their son was afterwards,
while but an infant, crowned king of both countries; becoming a widow,
she married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, whereby a grandson of his
succeeded to the English throne as Henry VII., and the first of the
Tudors (1401-1438).


CATHARINE PARR, the sixth wife of Henry VIII. and the daughter of a
Westmoreland knight; was of the Protestant faith and obnoxious to the
Catholic faction, who trumped up a charge against her of heresy and
treason, from which, however, she cleared herself to the satisfaction of
the king, over whom she retained her ascendency till his death; _d_.
1548.


CATHARINE THEOT, a religious fanatic, born in Avranches; gave
herself out as the Mother of God; appeared in Paris in 1794, and declared
Robespierre a second John the Baptist and forerunner of the Word; the
Committee of Public Safety had her arrested and guillotined.


CATHAY, the name given to China by mediaeval writers, which it still
bears in Central Asia.


CATHCART, EARL, a British general and diplomatist, born in
Renfrewshire; saw service in America and Flanders; distinguished himself
at the bombardment of Copenhagen; represented England at the court of
Russia and the Congress of Vienna (1755-1843).


CATHCART, SIR GEORGE, a lieutenant-general, son of the preceding;
enlisted in the army; served in the later Napoleonic wars; was present at
Quatre-Bras and Waterloo; was governor of the Cape; brought the Kaffir
war to a successful conclusion; served in the Crimea, and fell at
Inkerman (1794-1854).


CATHEDRAL, the principal church in a diocese, and which contains the
throne of the bishop as his seat of authority; is of a rank corresponding
to the dignity of the bishop; the governing body consists of the dean and
chapter.


CATHELINEAU, JACQUES, a famous leader of the Vendeans in their
revolt against the French Republic on account of a conscription in its
behalf; a peasant by birth; mortally wounded in attacking Nantes; he is
remembered by the peasants of La Vendee as the "Saint of Anjou"
(1759-1793).


CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION, the name given to the emancipation in 1829 of
the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom from disabilities which
precluded their election to office in the State, so that they are
eligible now to any save the Lord Chancellorship of England and offices
representative of royalty.


CATHOLIC EPISTLES, the name, equivalent to encyclical, given to
certain epistles in the New Testament not addressed to any community in
particular, but to several, and given eventually to all not written by
St. Paul.


CATHOLIC MAJESTY, a title given by the Pope to several Spanish
monarchs for their zeal in the defence of the Catholic faith.


CATILINE, or LUCIUS SERGIUS CATILINA, a Roman patrician, an
able man, but unscrupulously ambitious; frustrated in his ambitious
designs, he formed a conspiracy against the State, which was discovered
and exposed by Cicero, a discovery which obliged him to leave the city;
he tried to stir up hostility outside; this too being discovered by
Cicero, an army was sent against him, when an engagement ensued, in
which, fighting desperately, he was slain, 62 B.C.


CATINAT, NICOLAS, a marshal of France, born in Paris; one of the
greatest military captains under Louis XIV.; defeated the Duke of Savoy
twice over, though defeated by Prince Eugene and compelled to retreat;
was an able diplomatist as well as military strategist (1637-1712).


CATLIN, GEORGE, a traveller among the North American Indians, and
author of an illustrated work on their life and manners; spent eight
years among them (1796-1872).


CATO DIONYSIUS, name of a book of maxims in verse, held in high
favour during the Middle Ages; of unknown authorship.


CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO MAJOR, surnamed Censor, Priscus,
and Sapiens, born at Tusculum, of a good old family, and trained to
rustic, frugal life; after serving occasionally in the army, removed to
Rome; became in succession censor, aedile, praetor, and consul; served in
the second Punic war, towards the end of it, and subjugated Spain; was a
Roman of the old school; disliked and denounced all innovations, as
censor dealt sharply with them; sent on an embassy to Africa, was so
struck with the increasing power and the threateningly evil ascendency of
Carthage, that on his return he urged its demolition, and in every speech
which he delivered afterwards he ended with the words, _Ceterum censeo
Carthaginem esse delendam_, "But, be that as it may, my opinion is
Carthage must be destroyed" (234-149 B.C.).


CATO, MARCUS PORTIUS, or CATO THE YOUNGER, or UTICENSIS,
great-grandson of the former, and a somewhat pedantic second edition of
him; fortified himself by study of the Stoic philosophy; conceived a
distrust of the public men of the day, Caesar among the number; preferred
Pompey to him, and sided with him; after Pompey's defeat retired to
Utica, whence his surname, and stabbed himself to death rather than fall
into the hands of Caesar (95-46 B.C.).


CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, an insignificant, abortive plot, headed by
one Thistlewood, to assassinate Castlereagh and other ministers of the
crown in 1820; so called from their place of meeting off the Edgeware
Road, London.


CATRAIL, an old Roman earthwork, 50 m. long, passing S. from near
Galashiels, through Selkirk and Roxburgh, or from the Cheviots; it is
known by the name of the "Devil's Dyke."


CATS, JACOB, a Dutch poet and statesman, venerated in Holland as
"Father Cats"; his works are written in a simple, natural style, and
abound in wise maxims; he did service as a statesman; twice visited
England as an envoy, and was knighted by Charles I. (1577-1660).


CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, a group of mountains, of steep ascent, and with
rocky summits, in New York State, W. of the Hudson, none of them
exceeding 4000 feet; celebrated as the scene of Rip Van Winkle's long
slumber; belong to the Appalachians.


CATTEGAT, an arm of the sea, 150 m. in length and 84 of greatest
width, between Sweden and Jutland; a highway into the Baltic, all but
blocked up with islands; is dangerous to shipping on account of the
storms that infest it at times.


CATTERMOLE, GEORGE, artist, born in Norfolk; illustrated Britton's
"English Cathedrals," "Waverley Novels," and the "Historical Annual" by
his brother; painted mostly in water-colour; his subjects chiefly from
English history (1800-1868).


CATTLE PLAGUE, or RINDERPEST, a disease which affects
ruminants, but especially bovine cattle; indigenous to the East, Russia,
Persia, India, and China, and imported into Britain only by contagion of
some kind; the most serious outbreaks were in 1865 and 1872.


CATULLUS, CAIUS VALERIUS, the great Latin lyric poet, born at
Verona, a man of wealth and good standing, being, it would seem, of the
equestrian order; associated with the best wits in Rome; fell in love
with Clodia, a patrician lady, who was the inspiration, both in peace and
war, of many of his effusions, and whom he addresses as Lesbia; the death
of a brother affected him deeply, and was the occasion of the production
of one of the most pathetic elegies ever penned; in the civic strife of
the time he sided with the senate, and opposed Caesar to the length of
directing against him a coarse lampoon (84-54 B.C.).


CAUCA, a river in Colombia, S. America, which falls into the
Magdalena after a northward course of 600 m.


CAUCASIA, a prov. of Russia, geographically divided into
Cis-Caucasia on the European side, and Trans-Caucasia on the Asiatic side
of the Caucasus, with an area about four times as large as England.


CAUCASIAN RACE, a name adopted by Blumenbach to denote the
Indo-European race, from the fine type of a skull of one of the race
found in Georgia.


CAUCASUS, an enormous mountain range, 750 m. in length, extending
from the Black Sea ESE. to the Caspian, in two parallel chains, with
tablelands between, bounded on the S. by the valley of the Kur, which
separates it from the tableland of Armenia; snow-line higher than that of
the Alps; has fewer and smaller glaciers; has no active volcanoes, though
abundant evidence of volcanic action.


CAUCHON, bishop of Beauvais, infamous for the iniquitous part he
played in the trial and condemnation of Joan of Arc; _d_. 1443.


CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, mathematician, born in Paris; wrote largely
on physical subjects; his "Memoir" on the theory of the waves suggested
the undulatory theory of light; professor of Astronomy at Paris; declined
to take the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III., and retired (1789-1857).


CAUCUS, a preliminary private meeting to arrange and agree on some
measure or course to propose at a general meeting of a political party.


CAUDINE FORKS, a narrow mountain gorge in Samnium, in which, during
the second Samnite war, a Roman army was entrapped and caught by the
Samnites, who obliged them to pass under the yoke in token of
subjugation, 321 B.C.


CAUDLE, MRS., an imaginary dame, a conception of Douglas Jerrold,
famous for her "Curtain Lectures" all through the night for 30 years to
her husband Mr. Job Caudle.


CAUL, a membrane covering the head of some children at birth, to
which a magical virtue was at one time ascribed, and which, on that
account, was rated high and sold often at a high price.


CAULAINCOURT, ARMAND DE, a French general and statesman of the
Empire, a faithful supporter of Napoleon, who conferred on him a peerage,
with the title of Duke of Vicenza, of which he was deprived at the
Restoration; represented Napoleon at the Congress of Chatillon
(1772-1827).


CAUS, SALOMON DE, a French engineer, born at Dieppe; discovered the
properties of steam as a motive force towards 1638; claimed by Arago as
the inventor of the steam-engine in consequence.


CAUSALITY, the philosophic name for the nature of the relation
between cause and effect, in regard to which there has been much
diversity of opinion among philosophers.


CAUTERETS, a fashionable watering-place in the dep. of the
Hautes-Pyrenees, 3250 ft. above the sea, with sulphurous springs of very
ancient repute, 25 in number, and of varying temperature.


CAVAIGNAC, LOUIS EUGENE, a distinguished French general, born in
Paris; appointed governor of Algeria in 1849, but recalled to be head of
the executive power in Paris same year; appointed dictator, suppressed
the insurrection in June, after the most obstinate and bloody struggle
the streets of Paris had witnessed since the first Revolution; stood
candidate for the Presidency, to which Louis Napoleon was elected; was
arrested after the _coup d'etat_, but soon released; never gave in his
adherence to the Empire (1802-1857).


CAVALCASELLE, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian writer on art; joint-author
with J. A. Crowe of works on the "Early Flemish Painters" and the
"History of Painting in Italy"; chief of the art department under the
Minister of Public Instruction in Rome; _b_. 1820.


CAVALIER, JEAN, leader of the CAMISARDS (q. v.), born at
Ribaute, in the dep. of Gard; bred a baker; held his own against
Montreval and Villars; in 1704 concluded peace with the latter on
honourable terms; haughtily received by Louis XIV., passed over to
England; served against France, and died governor of Jersey (1679-1740).


CAVALIERS, the royalist partisans of Charles I. in England in
opposition to the parliamentary party, or the Roundheads, as they were
called.


CAVALLO, a distinguished Italian physicist, born at Naples
(1749-1809).


CAVAN (111), inland county S. of Ulster, Ireland, with a poor soil;
has minerals and mineral springs.


CAVE, EDWARD, a London bookseller, born in Warwickshire; projected
the Gentleman's Magazine, to which Dr. Johnson contributed; was the first
to give Johnson literary work, employing him as parliamentary reporter,
and Johnson was much attached to him; he died with his hand in Johnson's
(1691-1754).


CAVE, WILLIAM, an English divine; author of works on the Fathers of
the Church and on primitive Christianity, of high repute at one time
(1637-1713).


CAVENDISH, the surname of the Devonshire ducal family, traceable
back to the 14th century.


CAVENDISH, GEORGE, the biographer of Wolsey; never left him while he
lived, and never forgot him or the lesson of his life after he was dead;
this appears from the vivid picture he gives of him, though written 30
years after his death (1500-1561).


CAVENDISH, LORD FREDERICK, brother of the ninth Duke of Devonshire,
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and a Liberal; was made
Chief-Secretary for Ireland in 1882, but chancing to walk home one
evening through the Phoenix Park, he fell a victim, stabbed to the heart,
of a conspiracy that was aimed at Mr. Burke, an unpopular subordinate,
who was walking along with him, and came to the same fate. Eight months
after, 20 men were arrested as concerned in the murder, when one of the
20 informed; five of them were hanged; the informer Carey was afterwards
murdered, and his murderer, O'Donnel, hanged (1836-1882).


CAVENDISH, HENRY, natural philosopher and chemist, born at Nice, of
the Devonshire family; devoted his entire life to scientific
investigations; the first to analyse the air of the atmosphere, determine
the mean density of the earth, discover the composition of water, and
ascertain the properties of hydrogen; was an extremely shy, retiring man;
born rich and died rich, leaving over a million sterling (1731-1810).


CAVENDISH, SPENCER COMPTON, ninth Duke of Devonshire, for long known
in public life as Marquis of Hartington; also educated at Trinity
College, and a leader of the Liberal party; served under Gladstone till
he adopted Home Rule for Ireland, but joined Lord Salisbury in the
interest of Union, and one of the leaders of what is called the
Liberal-Unionist party; _b_. 1833.


CAVENDISH, THOMAS, an English navigator, fitted out three vessels to
cruise against the Spaniards; extended his cruise into the Pacific;
succeeded in taking valuable prizes, with which he landed in England,
after circumnavigating the globe; he set out on a second cruise, which
ended in disaster, and he died in the island of Ascension broken-hearted
(1555-1592).


CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, English courtier and cavalier in the reigns of
James I. and Charles I.; joined Charles II. in exile; returned at the
Restoration; was made Duke of Newcastle; wrote on horsemanship
(1592-1676).


CAVENDISH, WILLIAM, first Duke of Devonshire; friend and protector
of Lord William Russell; became a great favourite at court, and was
raised to the dukedom (1640-1707).


CAVIARE, the roe (the immature ovaries) of the common sturgeon and
other kindred fishes, caught chiefly in the Black and Caspian Seas, and
prepared and salted; deemed a great luxury by those who have acquired the
taste for it; largely imported from Astrakhan.


CAVOUR, COUNT CAMILLO BENSO DE, one of the greatest of modern
statesmen, born the younger son of a Piedmontese family at Turin; entered
the army, but was precluded from a military career by his liberal
opinions; retired, and for 16 years laboured as a private gentleman to
improve the social and economic condition of Piedmont; in 1847 he threw
himself into the great movement which resulted in the independence and
unification of Italy; for the next 14 years, as editor of _Il
Risorgimento_, member of the chamber of deputies, holder of various
portfolios in the government, and ultimately as prime minister of the
kingdom of Sardinia, he obtained a constitution and representative
government for his country, improved its fiscal and financial condition,
and raised it to a place of influence in Europe; he co-operated with the
allies in the Crimean war; negotiated with Napoleon III. for the
expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, and so precipitated the successful
war of 1859; he encouraged Garibaldi in the expedition of 1860, which
liberated Sicily and Southern Italy, and saw the parliament of 1861
summoned, and Victor Emmanuel declared king of Italy; but the strain of
his labours broke his health, and he died a few months later (1810-1861).


CAWNPORE (188), a city on the right bank of the Ganges, in the
North-Western Provinces of India, 40 m. SW. of Lucknow, and 628 NW. of
Calcutta; the scene of one of the most fearful atrocities, perpetrated by
Nana Sahib, in the Indian Mutiny in 1857.


CAXTON, WILLIAM, the first English printer, born in Kent, bred a
mercer, settled for a time in Bruges, learned the art of printing there,
where he printed a translation of the "Recuyell of the Historyes of
Troyes," and "The Game and Playe of Chesse"; returning to England, set up
a press in Westminster Abbey, and in 1477 issued "Dictes and Sayings of
the Philosophers," the first book printed in England, which was soon
followed by many others; he was a good linguist, as well as a devoted
workman (1422-1491).


CAYENNE (10), cap. and port of French Guiana, a swampy, unhealthy
place, rank with tropical vegetation; a French penal settlement since
1852.


CAYLA, COUNTESS OF, friend and confidante of Louis XVIII.
(1784-1850).


CAYLEY, ARTHUR, an eminent English mathematician, professor at
Cambridge, and president of the British Association in 1883 (1821-1895).


CAYLEY, CHARLES BAGOT, a linguist, translated Dante into the metre
of the original, with annotations, besides metrical versions of the
"Iliad," the "Prometheus" of AEschylus, the "Canzoniere" of Petrarch, &c.
(1823-1883).


CAYLUS, COUNT, a distinguished archaeologist, born in Paris; author
of a "Collection of Antiquities of Egypt, Etruria," &c., with excellent
engravings (1692-1765).


CAYLUS, MARQUISE DE, born in Poitou, related to Mme. de Maintenon;
left piquant souvenirs of the court of Louis XIV. and the house of St.
Cyr (1672-1729).


CAZALES, a member of French Constituent Assembly, a dragoon captain,
a fervid, eloquent orator of royalism, who "earned thereby," says
Carlyle, "the shadow of a name" (1758-1805).


CAZOTTE, author of the "Diable Amoureux"; victim as an enemy of the
French Revolution; spared for his daughter's sake for a time, but
guillotined at last; left her a "lock of his old grey hair" (1720-1792).


CEAN-BERMUDEZ, a Spanish writer on art; author of a biographical
dictionary of the principal artists of Spain (1749-1834).


CEARA (35), cap. of the prov. (900) of the name, in N. of Brazil.


CE`BES, a Greek philosopher, disciple and friend of Socrates,
reputed author of the "Pinax" or Tablet, a once popular book on the
secret of life, being an allegorical representation of the temptations
that beset it.


CECIL, ROBERT, EARL OF SALISBURY, succeeded his father, Lord
Burleigh, as first Minister under Elizabeth, and continued in office
under James I., whose friendship he sedulously cultivated before his
accession, and who created him earl (1565-1612). See BURLEIGH,
LORD.


CECILIA, ST., a Roman virgin and martyr, A.D. 230, patron saint of
music, especially church music, and reputed inventor of the organ;
sometimes represented as holding a small organ, with her head turned
heavenwards as if listening to the music of the spheres, and sometimes as
playing on an organ and with a heavenly expression of face. Festival,
Nov. 22.


CECROPS, the mythical first king and civiliser of Attica and founder
of Athens with its citadel, dedicated by him to Athena, whence the name
of the city.


CEDAR RAPIDS (25), a manufacturing town in Iowa, U.S.; a great
railway centre.


CELADON, poetical name for a languid swain, all sighs and longings.


CELAENO, name of one of the HARPIES (q. v.).


CELEBES (1,000), an island in the centre of the Eastern Archipelago,
third in size, in the shape of a body with four long limbs, traversed by
mountain chains, and the greater part of it a Dutch possession, though it
contains a number of small native states; it yields among its mineral
products gold, copper, tin, &c.; and among its vegetable, tea, coffee,
rice, sugar, pepper, &c.; capital. Macassar.


CELESTE, MME., a dancer, born in Paris; made her _debut_ in New
York; in great repute in England, and particularly in the States, where
she in her second visit realised L40,000 (1814-1882).


CELESTIAL EMPIRE, China, as ruled over by a dynasty appointed by
Heaven.


CELESTINE, the name of five Popes: C. I., Pope from 422 to 432; C.
II., Pope from 1143 to 1144; C. III., Pope from 1191 to 1198; C. IV.,
Pope for 18 days in 1241; C. V., Pope in 1294, a hermit for 60 years;
nearly 80 when elected against his wish; abdicated in five months;
imprisoned by order of Boniface VIII.; _d_. 1296; canonised 1313.


CELESTINES, an order of monks founded by Celestine V. before he was
elected Pope in 1354; they followed the rule of the Benedictine Order,
and led a contemplative life.


CELLINI, BENVENUTO, a celebrated engraver, sculptor, and goldsmith,
a most versatile and erratic genius, born at Florence; had to leave
Florence for a bloody fray he was involved in, and went to Rome; wrought
as a goldsmith there for 20 years, patronised by the nobles; killed the
Constable de Bourbon at the sack of the city, and for this received
plenary indulgence from the Pope; Francis I. attracted him to his court
and kept him in his service five years, after which he returned to
Florence and executed his famous bronze "Perseus with the Head of
Medusa," which occupied him four years; was a man of a quarrelsome
temper, which involved him in no end of scrapes with sword as well as
tongue; left an autobiography, from its self-dissection of the deepest
interest to all students of human nature (1500-1571).


CELSIUS, a distinguished Swedish astronomer, born at Upsala, and
professor of Astronomy there; inventor of the Centigrade thermometer
(1701-1744).


CELSUS, a celebrated Roman physician of the age of Augustus, and
perhaps later; famed as the author of "De Medicina," a work often
referred to, and valuable as one of the sources of our knowledge of the
medicine of the ancients.


CELSUS, a philosopher of the 2nd century, and notable as the first
assailant on philosophic grounds of the Christian religion, particularly
as regards the power it claims to deliver from the evil that is inherent
in human nature, inseparable from it, and implanted in it not by God, but
some inferior being remote from Him; the book in which he attacked
Christianity is no longer extant, only quotations from it scattered over
the pages of the defence of Origen in reply.


CELTIBE`RI, an ancient Spanish race occupying the centre of the
peninsula, sprung from a blending of the aborigines and the Celts, who
invaded the country; a brave race, divided into four tribes;
distinguished in war both as cavalry and infantry, and whom the Romans
had much trouble in subduing.


CELTS. The W. of Europe was in prehistoric times subjected to two
invasions of Aryan tribes, all of whom are now referred to as Celts. The
earlier invaders were Goidels or Gaels; they conquered the Ivernian and
Iberian peoples of ancient Gaul, Britain, and Ireland; their successors,
the Brythons or Britons pouring from the E., drove them to the
westernmost borders of these countries, and there compelled them to make
common cause with the surviving Iberians in resistance; in the eastern
parts of the conquered territories they formed the bulk of the
population, in the W. they were in a dominant minority; study of
languages in the British Isles leads to the conclusion that the Irish,
Manx, and Scottish Celts belonged chiefly to the earlier immigration,
while the Welsh and Cornish represent the latter; the true Celtic type is
tall, red or fair, and blue-eyed, while the short, swarthy type, so long
considered Celtic, is now held to represent the original Iberian races.


CENCI, THE, a Roman family celebrated for their crimes and
misfortunes as well as their wealth. FRANCESCO CENCI was twice
married, had had twelve children by his first wife, whom he treated
cruelly; after his second marriage cruelly treated the children of his
first wife, but conceived a criminal passion for the youngest of them, a
beautiful girl named BEATRICE, whom he outraged, upon which, being
unable to bring him to justice, she, along with her stepmother and a
brother, hired two assassins to murder him; the crime was found out, and
all three were beheaded (1599); this is the story on which Shelley
founded his tragedy, but it is now discredited.


CENIS, MONT, one of the Cottian Alps, over which Napoleon
constructed a pass 6884 ft. high in 1802-10, through which a tunnel 71/2 m.
long passes from Modane to Bardonneche, connecting France with Italy; the
construction of this tunnel cost L3,000,000, and Napoleon's pass a tenth
of the sum.


CENSORS, two magistrates of ancient Rome, who held office at first
for five years and then eighteen months, whose duty it was to keep a
register of the citizens, guard the public morals, collect the public
revenue, and superintend the public property.


CEN`TAURS, a savage race living between Pelion and Ossa, in
Thessaly, and conceived of at length by Pindar as half men and half
horses, treated as embodying the relation between the spiritual and the
animal in man and nature, in all of whom the animal prevails over the
spiritual except in Chiron, who therefore figures as the trainer of the
heroes of Greece; in the mythology they figure as the progeny of
Centaurus, son of IXION (q. v.) and the cloud, their mothers
being mares.


CENTRAL AMERICA (3,000), territory of fertile tableland sloping
gradually to both oceans, occupied chiefly by a number of small
republics, lying between Tehuantepec and Panama in N. America; it
includes the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, St. Salvador, Nicaragua,
and Costa Rica, and a few adjoining fractions of territory.


CENTRAL INDIA (10,000), includes a group of feudatory States lying
between Rajputana in the N. and Central Provinces in the S.


CENTRAL PROVINCES (12,944), States partly British and partly native,
occupying the N. of the Deccan, and lying between the Nerbudda and the
Godavary.


CEOS, one of the Cyclades, a small island 13 m. by 8 m., yields
fruits; was the birthplace of Simonides and Bacchylides.


CEPHALONIA (80), the largest of the Ionian Islands, 30 m. long, the
ancient Samos; yields grapes and olive oil.


CEPHALUS, king of Thessaly, who having involuntarily killed his wife
Procris, in despair put himself to death with the same weapon.


CERAM` (195), the largest of S. Moluccas; yields sago, which is
chiefly cultivated and largely exported.


CERBERUS, the three-headed or three-throated monster that guarded
the entrance to the nether world of Pluto, could be soothed by music, and
tempted by honey, only Hercules overcame him by sheer strength, dragging
him by neck and crop to the upper world.


CERES, the Latin name for DEMETER (q. v.); also the name of
one of the asteroids, the first discovered, by Piazzi, in 1801.


CERI`GO (14), an Ionian island, the southernmost, the ancient
Cythera; yields wine and fruits.


CERINTHUS, a heresiarch of the first century, whom, according to
tradition, St. John held in special detestation, presumably as denying
the Father and the Son.


CERRO DE PASCO, a town in Peru, 14,200 ft. above the sea-level, with
the richest silver mine in S. America.


CERUTTI, a Jesuit, born at Turin; became a Revolutionary in France;
pronounced the funeral oration at the grave of Mirabeau in 1789.


CERVANTES-SAAVEDRA, MIGUEL DE, the author of "Don Quixote," born at
Alcala de Henares; was distinguished in arms before he became
distinguished in letters; fought in the battle of Lepanto like a very
hero, and bore away with him as a "maimed soldier" marks of his share in
the struggle; sent on a risky embassy, was captured by pirates and
remained in their hands five years; was ransomed by his family at a cost
which beggared them, and it was only when his career as a soldier closed
that he took himself to literature; began as a dramatist before he
devoted himself to prose romance; wrote no fewer than 30 dramas; the
first part of the work which has immortalised his name appeared in 1605,
and the second in 1615; it took the world by storm, was translated into
all the languages of Europe, but the fortune which was extended to his
book did not extend to himself, for he died poor, some ten days before
his great contemporary, William Shakespeare; though carelessly written,
"Don Quixote" is one of the few books of all time, and is as fresh to-day
as when it was first written (1547-1616).


CERVIN, MONT, the French name for the Matterhorn, 705 ft., the
summit of the Pennine Alps, between Valais and Piedmont.


CESAREWITCH, the eldest son and heir of the Czar of Russia.


CE`SARI, GIUSEPPE, sometimes called ARPINO, an eminent Italian
painter; painted a series of frescoes in the Conservatorio of the
Capitol, illustrative of events in the history of Rome (1568-1640).


CESAROTTI, an Italian poet, translator of the "Iliad" and "Ossian"
into Italian (1730-1808).


CESTUS, a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women, specially the girdle
of Aphrodite, so emblazoned with symbols of the joys of love that no
susceptible soul could resist the power of it; it was borrowed by Hera to
captivate Zeus.


CETINJE, the capital of Montenegro, in a valley 2000 ft. high;
smallest of capital cities, with a population under 2000.


CETTE (36), a seaport, trading, and manufacturing town, on a tongue
of land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, 23 m. SW. of
Montpellier, with a large safe harbourage.


CE`UTA (12), a port opposite Gibraltar belonging to Spain, on the
coast of Morocco, guarded by a fort on one of the Pillars of Hercules,
overlooking it; of importance as a military and convict station.


CEVENNES, a range of low mountains on the eastern edge of the
central plateau of France, separating the basin of the Rhone from those
of the Loire and Garonne; average height from 3000 to 4000 ft.; the chief
scene of the dragonnades against the Huguenots under Louis XIV.


CEYLON (3,008), a pear-shaped island about the size of Scotland,
separated from India, to which it geographically belongs, and SE. of
which it lies, by Palk Strait, 32 m. broad; comprises a lofty, central
tableland with numerous peaks, the highest Tallagalla, 8000 ft., and a
broad border of well-watered plains. It was an ancient centre of
civilisation; the soil is everywhere fertile; the climate is hot, but
more equitable than on the mainland; the chief products are tea,
cinnamon, and tobacco; the forests yield satin-wood, ebony, &c.; the
cocoa-nut palm abounds; there are extensive deposits of iron, anthracite,
and plumbago; precious stones, sapphires, rubies, amethysts, &c., are in
considerable quantities; the pearl fisheries are a valuable government
monopoly. The chief exports are tea, rice, cotton goods, and coals.
Two-thirds of the people are Singhalese and Buddhists, there are 6000
Europeans. The island is a crown colony, the largest in the British
Empire, administered by a governor with executive and legislative
councils; the capital and chief port is Colombo (127).


CHABAS, FRANCOIS, a French Egyptologist, born in Briancon; his works
have contributed much to elucidate the history of the invasion and
repulsion of the Hyksos in Egypt (1817-1882).


CHABOT, a member of the National Convention of France, a "disfrocked
Capuchin," adjured "Heaven," amid enthusiasm, "that at least they may
have done with kings"; guillotined (1759-1794).


CHACKTAW INDIANS. See CHOCKTAW.


CHAD, LAKE, a shallow lake in the Sahara, of varied extent,
according as the season is dry or rainy, at its largest covering an area
as large as England, and abounding in hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, &c.,
as well as waterfowl and fish.


CHADBAND, REV. MR., a character in "Bleak House."


CHADWICK, SIR EDWIN, an English social reformer, born in Manchester,
associated with measures bearing upon sanitation and the improvement of
the poor-laws, and connected with the administration of them (1801-1890).


CHAERONEA, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon defeated the
Athenians, and extinguished the liberties of Greece.


CHALAIS, COUNT DE, a favourite of Louis XIII., accused of conspiracy
against Richelieu, arrested at Nantes, and beheaded (1599-1626).


CHALAZA, one of the two filaments attached to the ends of the yoke
of an egg to steady it in the albumen.


CHALCEDON, a city of Bithynia, at the entrance of the Thracian
Bosphorus, where the fourth Council of the Church was held in 451, which
defined the orthodox conception of Christ as God-man.


CHALCIDICE, the 3-fingered peninsula of the Balkan territory
stretching into the AEgean Sea.


CHALCIS, the ancient capital of Euboea or Negropont.


CHALDEA, ancient name for Babylonia.


CHALIER, a Piedmontese, head of the party of the Mountain at Lyons;
his execution the signal for an insurrection at Lyons against the
Convention (1747-1793).


CHALLENGER EXPEDITION, a scientific expedition sent out by the
British Government in the _Challenger_ in 1872 in the interest of
science, and under the management of scientific experts, to various
stations over the globe, to explore the ocean, and ascertain all manner
of facts regarding it open to observation, an expedition which concluded
its operations in 1876, of which as many as 50 volumes of reports have
been compiled.


CHALLIS, JAMES, an astronomer, born in Essex, noted the position of
the planet Neptune before its actual discovery (1803-1882).


CHALLONER, RICHARD, a Roman Catholic bishop, born at Lewes; a
zealous Catholic, author of "Garden of the Soul," a popular devotional
book, as well as several controversial books (1691-1781).


CHALMERS, ALEXANDER, a miscellaneous writer, born at Aberdeen;
settled in London; edited the "British Essayists" in 45 vols., and author
of "A General Biographical Dictionary."


CHALMERS, GEORGE, an English publicist, born at Fochabers, author of
"An Account, Historical and Topographical, of North Britain" (1742-1825).


CHALMERS, THOMAS, a celebrated Scotch ecclesiastic and pulpit
orator, born at Anstruther, Fife; studied for the Church, and entered the
ministry; after he did so was for some years more engrossed with physical
studies and material interests than spiritual, but he by-and-by woke up
to see and feel that the spiritual interest was the sovereign one, and to
the promotion of that he henceforth devoted himself body and soul; it was
for the sake of the spiritual he took the interest he did in the
ecclesiastical affairs of the nation, and that the Church might have
scope and freedom to discharge its spiritual functions was one chief
ruling passion of his life, and it is no wonder he bent all his energies
on a movement in the Church to secure this object; he was not much of a
scholar or even a theologian, but a great man, and a great force in the
religious life of his country; though the first pulpit-orator of his day,
and though he wrote largely, as well as eloquently, he left no writings
worthy of him except the "Astronomical Discourses" perhaps, to perpetuate
his memory; he was distinguished for his practical sagacity, and was an
expert at organisation; in his old age he was a most benignant,
venerable-looking man: "It is a long time," wrote Carlyle to his mother,
just after a visit he had paid him a few days before he died--"it is a
long time since I have spoken to so _good_ and really pious-hearted and
beautiful old man" (1780-1847).


CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (25), capital of the French dep. of Marne, 100 m.
E. of Paris, where Attila was defeated by the Romans and Goths in 451;
Napoleon III. formed a camp near it for the training of troops.


CHALONS-SUR-SAONE (24), a trading centre some 80 m. N. of Lyons;
manufactures machinery, glass, paper, and chemicals.


CHAINS, chief town of the French dep. of Haute Vienne, where Richard
Coeur de Lion was mortally wounded in 1199 by a shot with an arrow.


CHAM, the pseudonym of the French caricaturist Amedee de Noe, famous
for his humorous delineations of Parisian life (1819-1884).


CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, an association of merchants to promote and
protect the interests of trade, particularly of the town or the district
to which they belong.


CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, a French legislative assembly, elected now by
universal suffrage.


CHAMBERLAIN, RIGHT HON. JOSEPH, born in London, connected as a
business man with Birmingham; after serving the latter city in a
municipal capacity, was elected the parliamentary representative in 1876;
became President of the Board of Trade under Mr. Gladstone in 1880, and
chief promoter of the Bankruptcy Bill; broke with Mr. Gladstone on his
Home Rule measure for Ireland, and joined the Liberal-Unionists;
distinguished himself under Lord Salisbury as Colonial Secretary; _b_.
1836.


CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM, an English writer, born in Kendal, author of a
cyclopaedia which bears his name, and which formed the basis of subsequent
ones, as Johnson confessed it did of his Dictionary (1680-1750).


CHAMBERS, GEORGE, an English marine painter, born at Whitby; _d_.
1840.


CHAMBERS, ROBERT, brother of the succeeding and in the same line of
life, but of superior accomplishments, especially literary and
scientific, which served him well in editing the publications issued by
the firm; was the author of a great many works of a historical,
biographical, and scientific, as well as literary interest; wrote the
"Vestiges of Creation," a book on evolutionary lines, which made no small
stir at the time of publication, 1844, and for a time afterwards, the
authorship of which he was slow to own (1802-1871).


CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, born at Peebles; apprenticed to a bookseller
in Edinburgh, and commenced business on his own account in a small way;
edited with his brother the "Gazetteer of Scotland"; started, in 1832,
_Chambers's Edinburgh Journal_ to meet a demand of the time for popular
instruction in company with his brother founded a great printing and
publishing establishment, from which there has issued a number of
valuable works in the interest especially of the propagation of useful
knowledge of all kinds; was a distinguished Edinburgh citizen, and did
much for the expansion and improvement of the city (1800-1883)


CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, architect, born at Stockholm, of Scotch
origin; architect of Somerset House; was of the Johnson circle of wits
(1726-1796)


CHAMBERY (19), chief town of dep. of Savoy, in a beautiful district;
is the ancient capital, and contains the castle, of the dukes of Savoy;
manufactures cloth, wines, soap, and textile fabrics; is also a summer
resort.


CHAMBEZE, a head-stream of the Congo, N. of lake Nyassa.


CHAMBORD, spacious chateau in the dep. of Loire-et-Cher, France,
built by Francis I.; after being long a residence for royalty and people
of distinction, was presented in 1821 to the Duc de Bordeaux, the Comte
de Chambord.


CHAMBORD, COMTE DE, Duc de Bordeaux, son of the Duc de Berri and
grandson of Charles X., born at Paris; exiled in 1830, he retired to the
chateau of Frohsdorf, in Austria, where he died without issue; his father
and grandfather being dead, the monarchical party resolved to attempt a
restoration in his behalf in 1872, but he refused to adopt the tricolor
flag of the Revolution, and the scheme was abandoned, a like opportunity
offering itself twice before being let slip (1820-1883).


CHAMBRE ARDENTE, a name given to certain courts of justice
established to try certain cases that required to be sharply dealt with;
they were held at night, and even when held in the daytime with lighted
torches; a court of the kind was instituted for trial of the Huguenots in
1530, and again in 1680 and 1716.


CHAMFORT, a French wit and litterateur, born in Auvergne; took to
the Revolution, but offended the leaders, and being threatened with
arrest committed suicide, "cutting and slashing with frantic, uncertain
hand, gaining, not without difficulty, the refuge of death"; he was a
born cynic, and was famous for his keen insight into human nature and his
sharp criticisms of it, summed up in a collection of maxims he left, as
well as for his anecdotes in incisive portraiture of character. "He was a
man," says Professor Saintsbury, "soured by his want of birth, health,
and position, and spoilt by hanging on to the great persons of his time.
But for a kind of tragi-comic satire, a _soeva indignatio_, taking the
form of contempt for all that is exalted and noble, he has no equal in
literature except Swift" (1741-1794).


CHAMILLARD, Minister of Finance and of War under Louis XIV.;
"distinguished himself by his incapacity" (1651-1721).


CHAMISSO, ADALBERT VON, a German naturalist and litterateur born in
France, but educated in Berlin; is famous for his poetical productions,
but especially as the author of "Peter Schlemihl," the man who lost his
shadow, which has been translated into nearly every European language; he
wrote several works on natural history (1781-1838).


CHAMOUNI, OR CHAMONIX, a village in the dep. of Haute-Savoie, 33 m.
SE. of Geneva, in a valley forming the upper basin of the Arve, famous
for its beauty and for its glaciers; it is from this point that the
ascent of Mont Blanc is usually made.


CHAMOUSSET, a French philanthropist, born in Paris; the originator
of mutual benefit societies (1717-1773).


CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province of France, 180 m. long by 150 broad,
annexed to the Crown 1286, and including the deps. of Aube, Haute-Marne,
Marne, and Ardennes; the province where the wine of the name is
principally manufactured.


CHAMP-DE-MARS, a large space, of ground in Paris, between the front
of the Ecole Militaire and the left bank of the Seine; the site of recent
Expositions, and the scene of the Federation Fete, 14th July 1790.


CHAMPLAIN`, a beautiful lake between the States of New York and
Vermont; it is 100 m. in length, and from 1 m. at its S. end to 14 m. at
its N. end broad.


CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE, a French navigator, born at Brouage, in
Saintonge, was founder of Quebec, and French Governor of Canada; wrote an
account of his voyages (1570-1635).


CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANCOIS, a celebrated French Egyptologist, born
in Figeac, dep. of Lot; early gave himself to the study of Coptic and
Egyptian antiquities; was the first to decipher the hieroglyphics of
ancient Egypt, a great discovery; conducted a scientific expedition to
Egypt in 1828, and returned in 1830 with the fruits of his researches; a
chair of Egyptology was in consequence instituted in the College of
France, and he was installed as the first professor; his writings on the
science, of which he laid the foundation, are numerous (1790-1832).


CHAMPS-ELYSEES, a Parisian promenade between the Place de la
Concorde and the Arc de Triomphe.


CHANCELLOR, RICHARD, an English seaman, voyaging in northern parts,
arrived in the White Sea, and travelled to Moscow, where he concluded a
commercial treaty with Russia on behalf of an English company; wrote an
interesting account of his visit; after a second visit, in which he
visited Moscow, was wrecked on the coast of Aberdeenshire in 1556.


CHANDERNAGORE (25), a small town and territory on the Hooghly, 22 m.
N. of Calcutta, belonging to France.


CHANDLER, RICHARD, a learned Hellenistic archaeologist, born in
Hants; travelled in Asia Minor and Greece, along with two artists, to
examine and describe the antiquities; the materials collected were
published in his "Ionian Antiquities," "Travels in Asia Minor," &c.
(1738-1810).


CHANDOS, an English title inherited by the Grenville family, of
Norman origin.


CHANDOS, JOHN, a celebrated English general in the 14th century; was
present at Crecy, governor of English provinces in France ceded by treaty
of Bretigny; defeated and took prisoner Du Guesclin of Auray; served
under the Black Prince, and was killed near Poitiers, 1369.


CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS, French general, born at Autun; distinguished
himself in Algeria, was exiled after the _coup-d'etat_, returned in 1870,
served in the Franco-German war; surrendered at Metz, at the close of the
war came back, and assisted in reorganising the army (1793-1877).


CHANNEL, THE ENGLISH, an arm of the Atlantic between France and
England, 280 m. long and 100 m. wide at the mouth; the French call it _La
Manche_ (the sleeve) from its shape.


CHANNEL ISLANDS (92), a group of small islands off the NW. coast of
France, of which the largest are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark;
formerly part of the Duchy of Normandy, and now all that remains to
Britain of her French dominions, being subject to it since 1066; have a
delightful climate mild and bright, and varied and beautiful scenery;
the soil is fertile; flowers and fruit are grown for export to Britain,
also early potatoes for the London market; Guernsey pears and Jersey cows
are famous; valuable quarries of granite are wrought; the language is
Norman-French.


CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, a Unitarian preacher and miscellaneous
writer, born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.; a man of the most liberal
sentiments, who shrank from being classed with any sect; ranked high in
point of moral character; was a vigorous thinker, and eloquent with the
pen; "a man of faithful, long-continued striving towards what is Best"
(1780-1842).


CHANSON DE GESTES (i. e. Songs of Deeds), poems of a narrative
kind much in favour in the Middle Ages, relating in a legendary style the
history and exploits of some famous hero, such as the "Chanson de
Roland," ascribed to Theroulde, a trouvere of the 9th century.


CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS, an English sculptor, born in Derbyshire; was
apprenticed to a carver and gilder in Sheffield; displayed a talent for
drawing and modelling; received a commission to execute a marble bust for
the parish, church, which was so successful as to procure him further and
further commissions; executed four colossal busts of admirals for
Greenwich Hospital; being expert at portraiture, his busts were
likenesses; executed busts of many of the most illustrious men of the
time, among them of Sir Walter Scott, Wordsworth, Southey, and
Wellington, as well as of royal heads; made a large fortune, and left it
for the encouragement of art (1781-1841).


CHANZY, a French general, born at Nouart, Ardennes; served in
Algeria; commanded the army of the Loire in 1870-71; distinguished
himself by his brilliant retreat from Mans to Laval; was afterwards
Governor-General in Algeria; died suddenly, to the regret of his country
(1823-1883).


CHAOS, a name in the ancient cosmogomy for the formless void out of
which everything at first sprang into existence, or the wide-spread
confusion that prevailed before it shaped itself into order under the
breath of the spirit of life.


CHAPELAIN, a French poet, protege of Richelieu, born at Paris;
composed a pretentious poem on Joan of Arc, entitled "Pucelle," which was
laughed out of existence on the appearance of the first half, consisting
of only 12 of the 24 books promised, the rest having never passed beyond
the MS. stage (1595-1674).


CHAPMAN, GEORGE, English dramatic poet, born at Hitchin,
Hertfordshire; wrote numerous plays, both in tragedy and comedy, as well
as poems, of unequal merit, but his great achievement, and the one on
which his fame rests, is his translation into verse of the works of
Homer, which, though not always true to the letter, is instinct with
somewhat of the freshness and fire of the original; his translation is
reckoned the best yet done into English verse, and the best rendering
into verse of any classic, ancient or modern (1559-1634).


CHAPPELL, musical amateur, collector and editor of old English airs,
and contributor to the history of English national music; was one of the
founders of the Musical Hungarian Society, and the Percy Society
(1809-1888).


CHAPTAL, a distinguished French chemist and statesman, born at
Nogaret, Lozere; author of inventions in connection with the manufacture
of alum and saltpetre, the bleaching and the dyeing of cotton; held
office under Napoleon, and rendered great service to the arts and
manufactures of his country (1756-1832).


CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN, a French pathologist; made a special study of
nervous diseases, including hypnotism, and was eminent for his works in
connection therewith (1823-1893).


CHARDIN, SIR JOHN, traveller, born in Paris; author of "Travels in
India and Persia," valuable for their accuracy (1643-1713).


CHARENTE (360), a dep. of France, W. of the Gironde, capital
Angouleme; with vast chestnut forests; produces wines, mostly distilled
into brandy.


CHARENTE-INFERIEURE (456), a maritime dep. of France, W. of the
former; includes the islands of Rhe, Oleron, Aix, and Madame; capital, La
Rochelle.


CHARIVA`RI, a satirical journal, such as the English _Punch_;
originally a discordant mock serenade.


CHARLEMAGNE i. e. Charles or Karl the Great, the first
Carlovingian king of the Franks, son and successor of Pepin le Bref (the
Short); became sole ruler on the death of his brother Carloman in 771; he
subjugated by his arms the southern Gauls, the Lombards, the Saxons, and
the Avares, and conducted a successful expedition against the Moors in
Spain, with the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to the
Elbe; having passed over into Italy in support of the Pope, he was on
Christmas Day 800 crowned Emperor of the West, after which he devoted
himself to the welfare of his subjects, and proved himself as great in
legislation as in arms; enacted laws for the empire called capitularies,
reformed the judicial administration, patronised letters, and established
schools; kept himself in touch and _au courant_ with everything over his
vast domain; he died and was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle (742-814).


CHARLEROI (21), a manufacturing town in Hainault, Belgium, 35 m. SE.
of Brussels.


CHARLES II., surnamed THE BALD, son of Louis "le Debonnaire";
after conquering his brother Lothaire at Fontenoy in 841, became by the
treaty of Verdun king of France, 843; was unable to defend his kingdom
against the Normans; went to Italy, and had himself crowned emperor at
Rome: _d_. 877.


CHARLES III., surnamed THE SIMPLE, became king of France in
893; his reign one long struggle against the Normans, which ended by
conceding Normandy to Rollo; was conquered by Hugh Capet, a rival for the
crown, at Soissons, and dethroned in 922; died in captivity, 929.


CHARLES IV., THE FAIR, third son of Philip the Fair, king of France
from 1322 to 1328; lost to France Guienne, which was taken from him by
the English; was the last of the Capetians; _d_. 1328.


CHARLES V., THE WISE, son of John II., king of France from 1361 to
1380; recovered from the English almost all the provinces they had
conquered, successes due to his own prudent policy, and especially the
heroism of Du Guesclin, De Clisson, and De Boucicaut; France owed to him
important financial reforms, the extension of privileges to the
universities, and the establishment of the first national library, into
which were gathered together thousands of MSS.; the Bastille was founded
in his reign.


CHARLES VI., THE WELL-BELOVED, king of France from 1380 to 1422, was
son and successor of Charles V.; began his reign under the guardianship
of his uncles, who rifled the public treasury and provoked rebellion by
their exactions; gained a victory at Rossbach over the Flemings, then in
revolt, and a little after dismissed his uncles and installed in their
stead the wise councillors of his father, whose sage, upright, and
beneficent administration procured for him the title of "Well-Beloved," a
state of things, however, which did not last long, for the harassments he
had been subjected to drove him insane, and his kingdom, torn in pieces
by rival factions, was given over to anarchy, and fell by treaty of
Troyes almost entirely into the hands of the English conquerors at
Agincourt (1368-1422).


CHARLES VII., THE VICTORIOUS, son of Charles VI., became king of
France in 1422; at his accession the English held possession of almost
the whole country, and he indolently made no attempt to expel them, but
gave himself up to effeminate indulgences; was about to lose his whole
patrimony when the patriotism of the nation woke up at the enthusiastic
summons of Joan of Arc; her triumphs and those of her associates weakened
the English domination, and even after her death the impulse she gave
continued to work, till at the end of 20 years the English were driven
out of France, and lost all they held in it except the town of Calais,
along with Havre, and Guines Castle (1403-1461).


CHARLES VIII., king of France, son and successor of Louis XI.;
during his minority the kingdom suffered from the turbulence and revolts
of the nobles; married Anne of Brittany, heiress of the rich duchy of
that name, by which it was added to the crown of France; sacrificed the
interests of his kingdom by war with Italy to support the claims of
French princes to the throne of Naples, which, though successful in a
military point of view, proved politically unfruitful (1470-1498).


CHARLES IX., second son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici,
became king of France in 1560; the civil wars of the Huguenots and
Catholics fill up this reign; the first war concluded by the peace of
Amboise, during which Francis of Guise was assassinated; the second
concluded by the peace of Longjumeau, during which Montmorency fell; the
third concluded by the peace of St. Germain, in which Conde and
Moncontour fell, which peace was broken by the massacre of St.
Bartholomew, into the perpetration of which Charles was inveigled by his
mother and the Guises; incensed at this outrage the Huguenots commenced a
fourth war, and were undertaking a fifth when Charles died, haunted by
remorse and in dread of the infinite terror (1550-1574).


CHARLES X., brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII., the latter of
whom he succeeded on the throne of France in 1824; was unpopular in
France as Duc d'Artois in the time of the Revolution, and had to flee the
country at the outbreak of it, and stayed for some time as an exile in
Holyrood, Edinburgh; on his accession he became no less unpopular from
his adherence to the old regime; at an evil hour in 1830 he issued
ordinances in defiance of all freedom, and after an insurrection of three
days in the July of that year had again to flee; abdicating in favour of
his son, found refuge for a time again in Holyrood, and died at Goertz in
his eightieth year (1757-1837).


CHARLES V., (I. of Spain), emperor of Germany, son of Philip,
Archduke of Austria, born at Ghent; became king of Spain in 1516, on the
death of his maternal grandfather Ferdinand, and emperor of Germany in
1519 on the death of his paternal grandfather Maximilian I., being
crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1520; reigned during one of the most
important periods in the history of Europe; the events of the reign are
too numerous to detail; enough to mention his rivalry with Francis I. of
France, his contention as a Catholic with the Protestants of Germany, the
inroads of the Turks, revolts in Spain, and expeditions against the
pirates of the Mediterranean; the ambition of his life was the
suppression of the Protestant Reformation and the succession of his son
Philip to the Imperial crown; he failed in both; resigned in favour of
his son, and retired into the monastery of St. Yuste, in Estremadura,
near which he built a magnificent retreat, where, it is understood,
notwithstanding his apparent retirement, he continued to take interest in
political affairs, and to advise in the management of them (1500-1558).


CHARLES VI., emperor of Germany from 1711 to 1740, as well as king
of Spain from 1703, was son of the Emperor Leopold I., and father of
Maria Theresa.


CHARLES XII., king of Sweden, son of Charles XI., a warlike prince;
ascended the throne at the age of 15; had to cope with Denmark, Russia,
and Poland combined against him; foiled the Danes at Copenhagen, the
Russians at Narva, and Augustus II. of Poland at Riga; trapped in Russia,
and cooped up to spend a winter there, he was, in spring 1709, attacked
by Peter the Great at Pultowa and defeated, so that he had to take refuge
with the Turks at Bender; here he was attacked, captured, and conveyed to
Demotica, but escaping, he found his way miraculously back to Sweden, and
making peace with the Czar, commenced an attack on Norway, but was killed
by a musket-shot at the siege of Friedrickshall; "the last of the Swedish
kings"; "his appearance, among the luxurious kings and knights of the
North" at the time, Carlyle compares to "the bursting of a cataract of
bombshells in a dull ballroom" (1697-1718).


CHARLES I., king of England, third son of James I., born at
Dunfermline; failing in his suit for the Infanta of Spain, married
Henrietta Maria, a French princess, a devoted Catholic, who had great
influence over him, but not for good; had for public advisers Strafford
and Laud, who cherished in him ideas of absolute power adverse to the
liberty of the subject; acting on these ideas brought him into collision
with the Parliament, and provoked a civil war; himself the first to throw
down the gauntlet by raising the royal standard at Nottingham; in the end
of which he surrendered himself to the Scots army at Newark, who
delivered him to the Parliament; was tried as a traitor to his country,
condemned to death, and beheaded, 30th January, at Whitehall (1600-1649).


CHARLES II., king of England, son of Charles I., horn at St. James's
Palace, London; was at The Hague, in Holland, when his father was
beheaded; assumed the royal title; was proclaimed King by the Scots;
landed in Scotland, and was crowned at Scone; marching into England, was
defeated by Cromwell at Worcester, 3rd September 1651; fled to France; by
the policy of General Monk, after Cromwell's death, was restored to his
crown and kingdom in 1660, an event known as the Restoration; he was an
easy-going man, and is known in history as the "Merry Monarch"; his reign
was an inglorious one for England, though it is distinguished by the
passing of the Habeas Corpus Act, one of the great bulwarks of English
liberty next to the Magna Charta (1630-1685).


CHARLES, a French physicist, born at Beaugency; was the first to
apply hydrogen to the inflation of balloons (1746-1823).


CHARLES, ARCHDUKE, of Austria, son of the Emperor Leopold II. and
younger brother of Francis II., one of the ablest generals of Austria in
the wars against the French Republic and the Empire; lost the battle of
Wagram, after which, being wounded, he retired into private life
(1771-1847).


CHARLES ALBERT, king of Sardinia, succeeded Charles Felix in 1831;
conceived a design to emancipate and unite Italy; in the pursuit of this
object he declared war against Austria; though at first successful, was
defeated at Novara, and to save his kingdom was compelled to resign in
favour of his son Victor Emmanuel; retired to Oporto, and died of a
broken heart (1798-1849).


CHARLES EDWARD, the Young Pretender, grandson of James II. of
England, born at Rome, landed in Scotland (1745); issued a manifesto in
assertion of his father's claims; had his father proclaimed king at
Edinburgh; attacked and defeated General Cope at Prestonpans; marched at
the head of his adherents into England as far as Derby; returned, and
defeated the king's force at Falkirk, but retired before the Duke of
Cumberland, who dispersed his army at Culloden; wandered about thereafter
in disguise; escaped to France, and died at Florence (1721-1789).


CHARLES MARTEL (i. e. "Charles the Hammer"), son of Pepin
d'Heristal and grandfather of Charlemagne; became mayor of the Palace,
and as such ruler of the Franks; notable chiefly for his signal victory
over the Saracens at Poitiers in 732, whereby the tide of Mussulman
invasion was once for all rolled back and the Christianisation of Europe
assured; no greater service was ever rendered to Europe by any other
fighting man (689-741).


CHARLES OF ANJOU, brother of St. Louis, king of Naples; lost Sicily
after the Sicilian Vespers (1220-1285).


CHARLES OF VALOIS, third son of Philip the Bold, one of the greatest
captains of his age (1270-1324).


CHARLES THE RASH, last Duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Good,
born at Dijon; enemy of Louis XI. of France, his feudal superior; was
ambitious to free the duchy from dependence on France, and to restore it
as a kingdom, and by daring enterprises tried hard to achieve this; on
the failure of the last effort was found lying dead on the field
(1433-1477).


CHARLES'S WAIN, the constellation of Ursa Major, a wagon without a
wagoner.


CHARLESTON (56), the largest city in S. Carolina, and the chief
commercial city; also a town in Western Virginia, U.S., with a spacious
land-locked harbour; is the chief outlet for the cotton and rice of the
district, and has a large coasting trade.


CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT, a designer and painter, born in Paris;
famous for his sketches of military subjects and country life, in which
he displayed not a little humour (1792-1845).


CHARLEVILLE (17), a manufacturing and trading town in the dep. of
Ardennes, France; exports iron, coal, wines, and manufactures hardware
and beer.


CHARLEVOIX, a Jesuit and traveller, born at St. Quentin, explored
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi (1682-1761).


CHARLOTTE, PRINCESS, daughter and only child of George IV. of
England, married to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of
Belgium; died after giving birth to a still-born boy, to the great grief
of the whole nation (1796-1817).


CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA, second wife of the Duke of Orleans,
brother of Louis XIV., called the Princess Palatine (1652-1722).


CHARLOTTENBURG (76), a town on the Spree, 3 m. W. of Berlin, with a
palace, the favourite residence of Sophie Charlotte, the grandmother of
Frederick the Great, and so named by her husband Frederick I. after her
death; contains the burial-place of William I., emperor of Germany.


CHARLOTTETOWN (13), the capital of Prince Edward Island.


CHARMETTES, a picturesque hamlet near Chambery, a favourite retreat
of Rousseau's.


CHARNAY, a French traveller; a writer on the ancient civilisation of
Mexico, which he has made a special study; _b_. 1828.


CHARON, in the Greek mythology the ferryman of the ghosts of the
dead over the Styx into Hades, a grim old figure with a mean dress and a
dirty beard, peremptory in exacting from the ghosts he ferried over the
obolus allowed him for passage-money.


CHARONDAS, a Sicilian law-giver, disciple of Pythagoras; is said to
have killed himself when he found he had involuntarily broken one of his
own laws (600 B.C.).


CHARRON, PIERRE, a French moralist and theologian, as well as pulpit
orator, born in Paris; author of "Les Trois Verites," the unity of God,
Christianity the sole religion, and Catholicism the only Christianity;
and of a sceptical treatise "De la Sagesse"; a friend and disciple of
Montaigne, but bolder as more dogmatic, with less _bonhommie_ and
originality, and much of a cynic withal (1541-1603).


CHARTERHOUSE, a large London school, originally a Carthusian
monastery, and for a time a residence of the dukes of Norfolk.


CHARTIER, ALAIN, an early scholarly French poet and prose writer of
note, born at Bayeux; secretary to Charleses V., VI., and VII. of France,
whom Margaret, daughter of James I. of Scotland and wife of Louis XI.,
herself a poetess, once kissed as he lay asleep for the pleasure his
poems gave her; was a patriot, and wrote as one (1390-1458).


CHARTISM, a movement of the working-classes of Great Britain for
greater political power than was conceded to them by the Reform Bill of
1832, and which found expression in a document called the "People's
Charter," drawn up in 1838, embracing six "points," as they were called,
viz., Manhood Suffrage, Equal Electoral Districts, Vote by Ballot, Annual
Parliaments, Abolition of a Property Qualification in the Parliamentary
Representation, and Payment of Members of Parliament, all which took the
form of a petition presented to the House of Commons in 1839, and signed
by 1,380,000 persons. The refusal of the petition gave rise to great
agitation over the country, which gradually died out in 1848.


CHARTRES (23), the capital of the French dep. of Eure-et-Lois, 55 m.
SW. of Paris; gave title of Duke to the eldest of the Orleanist Bourbons.


CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, a monastery founded by St. Bruno in 1084 in
the dep. of Isere, 14 m. NE. of Grenoble; famous as the original place of
the manufacture of the Chartreuse liqueur, held in much repute; it was
honoured by a visit of Queen Victoria in 1887; Ruskin was disappointed
with both monks and monastery.


CHARYBDIS. See SCYLLA.


CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND, Chief-Justice of the United States; a great
anti-slavery advocate and leader of the Free-Soil party; aimed at the
Presidency, but failed (1773-1808).


CHASI`DIM, a party among the Jews identified with the Pharisees,
their supreme concern the observance of their religion in its purity.


CHASLES, MICHEL, an eminent French mathematician, and held one of
the first in the century; on the faith of certain autographs, which were
afterwards proved to be forgeries, he in 1867 astonished the world by
ascribing to Pascal the great discoveries of Newton, but had to admit he
was deceived (1793-1880).


CHASLES, PHILARETE, a French litterateur, born near Chartres, a
disciple of Rousseau; lived several years in England, and wrote
extensively on English subjects, Shakespeare, Mary Stuart, Charles I.,
and Cromwell among the chief (1799-1873).


CHASSE, DAVID HENDRIK, BARON, a Dutch soldier; served France under
Napoleon, who called him "General Baionnette," from his zealous use of
the bayonet; fought at Waterloo on the opposite side; as governor of
Antwerp, gallantly defended its citadel in 1832 against a French and
Belgian force twelve times larger than his own (1765-1849).


CHASSEPOT, a French breech-loading rifle named from the inventor.


CHASSEURS, picked bodies of light cavalry and infantry in the French
service, called respectively _Chasseurs-a-cheval_ and _Chasseurs-a-pied_.


CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOSCOSEL DE, grandson of Bayard; conceived an
insane passion for Queen Mary, whom he accompanied to Scotland; was
surprised in her bedchamber, under her bed, and condemned to death, it
being his second offence (1540-1562).


CHAT MOSS, a large bog in Lancashire, 7 m. W. of Manchester, which
is partly reclaimed and partly, through the ingenuity of George
Stephenson, traversed by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.


CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE DE, eminent French litterateur, born in
St. Malo, younger son of a noble family of Brittany; travelled to N.
America in 1791; returned to France on the arrest of Louis XVI., and
joined the EMIGRANTS (q. v.) at Coblenz; was wounded at the
siege of Thionville, and escaped to England; wrote an "Essay on
Revolutions Ancient and Modern," conceived on liberal lines; was tempted
back again to France in 1800; wrote "Atala," a story of life in the wilds
of America, which was in 1802 followed by his most famous work, "Genie du
Christianisme"; entered the service of Napoleon, but withdrew on the
murder of the Duc d'Enghien; though not obliged to leave France, made a
journey to the East, the fruit of which was his "Itineraire de Paris a
Jerusalem"; hailed with enthusiasm the restoration of the Bourbons in
1814; supported the Bourbon dynasty all through, though he wavered
sometimes in the interest of liberty; withdrew from public life on the
elevation of Louis Philippe to the throne; he was no thinker, but he was
a fascinating writer, and as such exercised no small influence on the
French literature of his day; he lived in a transition period, and
hovered between legitimism and liberty, the revolution and reaction, and
belonged to the Romantic school of literature--was perhaps the father of
it in France (1766-1848).


CHATEAUX EN ESPAGNE, castles in Spain, visionary projects.


CHATELET, MARQUISE DE, a learned Frenchwoman, born at Paris, with
whom Voltaire kept up an intimate acquaintanceship (1706-1749).


CHATELLERAULT (18), a town in the dep. of Vienne, 24 m. NE. of
Poitiers; gave title to the Scottish regent, the Earl of Arran;
manufactures cutlery and small-arms for the Government.


CHATHAM (59), a town in Kent, on the estuary of the Medway, a
fortified naval arsenal; is connected with Rochester.


CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF, a great British statesman and
orator, born in Cornwall; determined opponent of Sir Robert Walpole;
succeeded in driving him from power, and at length installing himself in
his place; had an eye to the greatness and glory of England, summoned the
English nation to look to its laurels; saw the French, the rivals of
England, beaten back in the four quarters of the globe; driven at length
from power himself, he still maintained a single regard for the honour of
his country, and the last time his voice was heard in the Parliament of
England was to protest against her degradation by an ignoble alliance
with savages in the war with America; on this occasion he fell back in a
faint into the arms of his friends around, and died little more than a
month after; "for four years" (of his life), says Carlyle, "king of
England; never again he; never again one resembling him, nor indeed can
ever be." See SMELFUNGUS on his character and position in
Carlyle's "Frederick," Book xxi. chap. i. (1708-1775).


CHATHAM ISLANDS, a group of islands 360 m. E. of New Zealand, and
politically connected with it; the chief industry is the rearing of
cattle.


CHATSWORTH, the palatial seat of the Duke of Devonshire, in
Derbyshire, 8 m. W. of Chesterfield, enclosed in a park, with gardens, 10
m. in circumference.


CHATTERTON, THOMAS, a poet of great promise, had a tragic fate, born
at Bristol, passed off while but a boy as copies of ancient MSS., and
particularly of poems which he ascribed to one Rowley, a monk of the 17th
century, what were compositions of his own, exhibiting a genius of no
small literary, not to say lyric, power; having vainly endeavoured to
persuade any one of their genuineness, though he had hopes of the
patronage of Sir Robert Walpole, he left Bristol for London, and made
vehement efforts with his pen to bespeak regard, but failed; grew
desperate, and committed suicide at the early age of 18 (1752-1770).


CHAUCER, GEOFFREY, the great early English poet, and father of
English poetry, the son of a vintner and taverner, born probably in
London, where he lived almost all his days; when a lad, served as page in
the royal household; won the favour and patronage of the king, Edward
III. and his son, John of Gaunt, who pensioned him; served in an
expedition to France; was made prisoner, but ransomed by the king; was
often employed on royal embassies, in particular to Italy; held
responsible posts at home; was thus a man of the world as well as a man
of letters; he comes first before us as a poet in 1369; his poetic powers
developed gradually, and his best and ripest work, which occupied him at
intervals from 1373 to 1400, is his "CANTERBURY TALES" (q. v.),
characterised by Stopford Brooke as "the best example of English
story-telling we possess"; besides which he wrote, among other
compositions, "The Life of St. Cecilia," "Troilus and Cressida," the
"House of Fame," and the "Legend of Good Women"; his influence on English
literature has been compared to that of Dante on Italian, and his
literary life has been divided into three periods--the French, the
Italian, and the English, according as the spirit of it was derived from
a foreign or a native source (1340-1400).


CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD, a violent member of the extreme party in
the French Revolution, could "recognise the suspect from the very face of
them"; provoked the disgust of even Robespierre, and was arrested amid
jeers and guillotined (1763-1794).


CHAUTAUQUA, a summer resort on a lake of the name in the W. of New
York State, centre of a novel institution, which prescribes a four years'
course of private readings, and grants diplomas to those who anywhere
achieve it.


CHAUVINISM, a name among the French for what is known as Jingoism
among the English, i. e. an extravagant zeal for the glory of one's
country or party, from one _Chauvin_, who made threatening displays of
his devotion to Napoleon after his fall in 1815.


CHEDDAR, a village in Somersetshire, on the Mendip Hills, famous for
its cheese.


CHEKE, SIR JOHN, a zealous Greek scholar, born at Cambridge, and
first regius professor of Greek there; did much to revive in England an
interest in Greek and Greek literature; was tutor to Edward VI., who
granted him landed estates; favouring the cause of Lady Jane Grey on the
accession of Mary, left the country, was seized, and sent back; for fear
of the stake abjured Protestantism, but never forgave himself, and died
soon after; he introduced the mode of pronouncing Greek prevalent in
England (1514-1557).


CHELMSFORD (11), the county town of Essex, on the Chelmer.


CHELSEA (96), a western suburb of London, on the N. of the Thames;
famous for its hospital for old and disabled soldiers, and the place of
residence of sundry literary celebrities, among others Sir Thomas More,
Swift, Steele, and Carlyle.


CHELTENHAM (49), a healthy watering-place and educational centre in
Gloucestershire; first brought into repute as a place of fashionable
resort by the visits of George III. to it; contains a well-equipped
college, where a number of eminent men have been educated.


CHELYUSKIN, CAPE, in Siberia, the most northerly point in the
Eastern hemisphere.


CHEMICAL AFFINITY, the tendency elementary bodies have to combine
and remain in combination.


CHEMISM, in the Hegelian philosophy "the mutual attraction,
interpenetration, and neutralisation of independent individuals which
unite to form a whole."


CHEMISTRY, the science that treats of elementary bodies and their
combinations: _inorganic_, relating to physical compounds; _organic_,
relating to vegetable and animal compounds.


CHEMNITZ (160), a manufacturing town in Saxony, called the "Saxon
Manchester," at the foot of the Erzgebirge, in a rich mineral district;
manufactures cottons, woollens, silks, machinery, &c.


CHEMNITZ, MARTIN, an eminent Lutheran theologian, born in
Brandenburg, a disciple of Melanchthon; author of "Loci Theologici," a
system of theology; took a leading part in procuring the adoption of the
"Formula of Concord"; his chief work "Examen Concilii Tridentini"
(1522-1586).


CHEMOSH, the national god of the Moabites, akin to Moloch, and their
stay in battle, but an abomination to the children of Jehovah.


CHEMULPO, a town on the W. coast of Corea; a thriving town since it
became a treaty-port in 1883.


CHENAB`, an affluent on the left bank of the Indus, and one of the
five rivers, and the largest, which give name to the Punjab; is 750 m.
long.


CHENERY, THOMAS, a journalist; became editor of the _Times_; was
distinguished for his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew, and was one of the
Old Testament revisers (1826-1884).


CHENIER, MARIE-ANDRE, French poet, greatest in the 18th century,
born at Constantinople; author of odes, idylls, and elegies, which place
him high among French poets; took part in the Revolution as a lover of
order as well as of liberty; offended Robespierre, and was guillotined
two days before the fall of Robespierre; as a poet he was distinguished
for the purity of his style and his originality (1762-1794).


CHENONCEAUX, a magnificent chateau near Amboise, in, France; built
by Francis I. for the Duchesse d'Etampes, afterwards the property of the
Condes, and afterwards of Madame Dupont.


CHENU, a French naturalist; author of an "Encyclopaedia of Natural
History" (1808-1879).


CHEOPHREN, king of Egypt, brother and successor of Cheops; built the
second great pyramid.


CHEOPS, king of Memphis, in Egypt, of the 4th dynasty; builder of
the largest of the pyramids about 3000 B.C.


CHEPSTOW (4), a port on the Wye, Monmouthshire, 17 m. N. of Newport;
with a tubular suspension bridge, and where the tides are higher than
anywhere else in Britain.


CHER, an affluent of the Loire below Tours; also the dep. in France
(359) to which it gives name; an agricultural and pastoral district;
capital Bourges.


CHERBOURG (40), a French port and arsenal in the dep. of Manche,
opposite the Isle of Wight, 70 m. distant, on the construction and
fortifications of which immense sums were expended, as much as eight
millions; the fortifications were begun by Vauban.


CHERBULIEZ, VICTOR, novelist, critic, and publicist, born at Geneva,
of a distinguished family; professor of Greek at Geneva; holds a high
place, and is widely known, as a writer of a series of works of fiction;
_b_. 1826.


CHER`IBON (11), a seaport of Java, on the N. of the island.


CHERITH, a brook E. of the Jordan, Elijah's hiding-place.


CHEROKEES, a tribe of American Indians, numbering some 20,000, in
the NW. of the Indian Territory, U.S.; civilised, self-governing, and
increasing; formerly occupied the region about the Tennessee River.


CHERONE`A, a town in Boeotia, where Philip of Macedon conquered the
Athenians and Thebans, 338 B.C., and Sulla defeated Mithridates, 86 B.C.;
the birthplace of Plutarch, who is hence called the Cheronean Sage.


CHERRA PUNJI (5), a village in the Khasi Hills, Assam, with the
heaviest rainfall of any place on the globe.


CHERSONE`SUS (i. e. continent island), a name which the Greeks
gave to several peninsulas, viz., the Tauric C., the Crimea, the Thracian
C., Gallipoli; the Cimbric C., Jutland; the Golden C., the Malay
Peninsula.


CHERTSEY (11), a very old town of Surrey, 21 m. SW. of London, on
the right bank of the Thames.


CHERUBIM, an order of angelic beings conceived of as accompanying
the manifestations of Jehovah, supporting His throne and protecting His
glory, guarding it from profane intrusion; winged effigies of them
overshadowed the MERCY SEAT (q. v.).


CHERUBIM, a character in the "Mariage de Figaro"; also the 11th
Hussars, from their trousers being of a cherry colour.


CHERUBINI, a celebrated musical composer, born at Florence;
naturalised in France; settled in Paris, the scene of his greatest
triumphs; composed operas, of which the chief were "Iphigenia in Aulis,"
and "Les deux Journees; or, The Water-Carrier," his masterpiece; also a
number of sacred pieces and requiems, all of the highest merit; there is
a portrait of him by Ingres (1842) in the Louvre, representing the Muse
of his art extending her protecting hand over his head (1760-1842).


CHERUEL, ADOLPHE, French historian, born at Rouen; author of
"History of France during the Minority of Louis XIV."; published the
"Memoirs of Saint-Simon" (1809-1891).


CHERUSCI, an ancient people of Germany, whose leader was Arminius,
and under whom they defeated the Romans, commanded by Varus, in 9 A.D.


CHESAPEAKE BAY, a northward-extending inlet on the Atlantic coast of
the United States, 200 m. long and from 10 to 40 m. broad, cutting
Maryland in two.


CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an English anatomist and surgeon, whose work,
"Anatomy of the Human Body," was long used as a text-book on that science
(1688-1752).


CHESHIRE (730), a western county of England, between the Mersey and
the Dee, the chief mineral products of which are coal and rock-salt, and
the agricultural, butter and cheese; has numerous manufacturing towns,
with every facility for inter-communication, and the finest pasture-land
in England.


CHESHUNT (9), a large village in Hertfordshire, 14 m. N. of London,
with rose gardens, and a college founded by the Countess of Huntingdon.


CHESIL BEACH, a neck of land on the Devonshire coast, 15 m. long,
being a ridge of loose pebbles and shingle.


CHESNEY, C. CORNWALLIS, professor of Military History, nephew of the
succeeding, author of "Waterloo Lectures" (1826-1876).


CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON, explorer, born in co. Down, Ireland;
explored with much labour the route to India by way of the Euphrates,
though his labours were rendered futile by the opposition of Russia;
proved, by survey of the isthmus, the practicability of the Suez Canal
(1798-1872).


CHESTER (41), the county town of Cheshire, on the Dee, 16 m. SE. of
Liverpool; an ancient city founded by the Romans; surrounded by walls
nearly 2 m. long, and from 7 to 8 ft. thick, forming a promenade with
parapets; the streets are peculiar; along the roofs of the lower storeys
of the houses there stretch piazzas called "Rows," at the original level
of the place, 16 ft. wide for foot-passengers, approached by steps; it
abounds in Roman remains, and is altogether a unique town.


CHESTERFIELD (22), a town in Derbyshire, 21 m. N. of Derby; in a
mineral district; manufactures cotton, woollen, and silk; has a canal
connecting it with the Trent.


CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, EARL OF, statesman, orator,
and man of letters, eldest son of the third earl, born in London; sat in
the House of Commons from 1716 to 1726; was an opponent of Walpole; held
office under the Pelhams; in 1748 retired from deafness, or perhaps
disgust, into private life; celebrated for his "Letters to his Son,"
models of elegance, though of questionable morality, which it appears he
never intended to publish, and for the scorn with which Dr. Johnson
treated him when he offered to help him, after he no longer needed any,
in a letter which gave the death-blow to the patronage of literature; is
credited by Carlyle with having predicted the French Revolution; it
should be added, the "Letters" were printed by his son's widow
(1694-1773).


CHEVALIER, MICHEL, a celebrated French economist, born at Limoges;
originally a Socialist of the St. Simonian school; for defending
Socialism was imprisoned, but recanted, and wrote ably against Socialism;
was a free-trader and coadjutor of Cobden (1806-1879).


CHEVALIER, SULPICE. See GAVARNI.


CHEVALIER D'INDUSTRIE, one who lives by his wits, specially by
swindling.


CHEVALIER ST. GEORGE, the Pretender.


CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, a military fence composed of a beam or a bar armed
with long spikes, literally Friesland horses, having been first used in
Friesland.


CHEVERT, a French general, born at Verdun; "a bit of right soldier
stuff"; distinguished himself in many engagements, and especially at the
siege of Prague in 1757 (1696-1773).


CHEVIOT HILLS, a range on the borders of England and Scotland,
extending 35 m. south-westwards, the highest in Northumberland 2676 ft.,
the Carter Fell being 2020 ft.; famous for its breed of sheep.


CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE, a French chemist, born at Angers; an expert
in the department of dyeing, and an authority on colours, as well as the
chemistry of fats; was director in the dyeing department in the Gobelins
manufactory; he lived to witness the centenary of his birth (1786-1889).


CHEVREUSE, DUCHESSE DE, played an important part in the Fronde and
in the plots against Richelieu and Mazarin; her Life has been written by
Victor Cousin (1600-1679).


CHEVRON, in heraldry an ordinary of two bands forming an angle
descending to the extremities of the shield; representing the two rafters
of a house, meeting at the top.


CHEVY CHASE, the subject and title of a highly popular old English
ballad, presumed to refer to an event in connection with the battle of
Otterburn; there were strains in it which Sir Philip Sidney said moved
his heart more than with a trumpet.


CHEYENNE INDIANS, a warlike tribe of Red Indians, now much reduced,
and partially settled in the Indian Territory, U.S.; noted for their
horsemanship.


CHEYNE, GEORGE, a physician and medical writer, born in
Aberdeenshire, in practice in London; suffered from corpulency, being 32
stone in weight, but kept it down by vegetable and milk diet, which he
recommended to others in the like case; wrote on fevers, nervous
disorders, and hygiene; wrote also on fluxions (1671-1743).


CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY, an eminent Biblical scholar, born in London;
Oriel Professor of Scripture Exegesis, Oxford, and canon of Rochester;
author of numerous works on the Old Testament, particularly on "Isaiah"
and the "Psalms," in which he advocates conclusions in accord with modern
critical results; _b_. 1841.


CHEZY, DE, a French Orientalist, born at Neuilly; the first to
create in France an interest in the study of Sanskrit (1773-1832).


CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO, an Italian lyric poet, born at Savona;
distinguished, especially for his lyrics; surnamed the "Pindar of Italy,"
Pindar being a Greek poet whom it was his ambition to imitate
(1552-1637).


CHIA`NA, a small, stagnant, pestilential affluent of the Tiber, now
deepened into a healthful and serviceable stream, connecting the Tiber
with the Arno.


CHIAPAS, LAS (270), a Pacific State of Mexico, covered with forests;
yields maize, sugar, cacao, and cotton.


CHIAROSCURO, the reproduction in art of the effects of light and
shade on nature as they mutually affect each other.


CHIBCHAS or MUYSCAS, a civilised people, though on a lower
stage than the Peruvians, whom the Spaniards found established in New
Granada in the 16th century, now merged in the Spanish population; they
worship the sun.


CHICA, an orange-red colouring matter obtained from boiling the
leaves of the _Bignonia chica_, and used as a dye.


CHICAGO (1,700), the metropolis of Illinois, in the NE. of the
State, on the SW. shore of Lake Michigan, is the second city in the
Union; its unparalleled growth, dating only from 1837--in 1832 a mere
log-fort, and now covering an area of 180 sq. m., being 21 m. in length
and 10 m. in breadth--is due to its matchless facilities for
communication. Situated in the heart of the continent, a third of the
United States railway system centres in it, and it communicates with all
Canada, and with the ocean by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River;
laid out with absolute regularity, it has many magnificent buildings,
enormously tall office "sky-scrapers," and an unrivalled system of parks
and avenues; there are a university, medical, commercial, and theological
colleges, an art institute, libraries, and observatory; it suffered
severely from fire in 1871 and 1874; it is the greatest grain and pork
market in the world, and its manufactures include almost every variety of
production; the population is a mixture of all European peoples;
native-born Americans are a small minority, outnumbered by the Germans
and almost equalled by the Irish.


CHICARD, the harlequin of the modern French carnival, grotesquely
dressed up.


CHICHELEY, HENRY, archbishop of Canterbury, a scholar and statesman,
often employed on embassies, a moderate churchman; accompanied Henry V.
to Agincourt (1362-1442).


CHICHESTER (9), a cathedral city in the W. of Sussex, 17 m. NE. of
Portsmouth, with a port on the Channel 2 m. SW. of it; chief trade in
agricultural produce.


CHICHEVACHE, a monster fabled to feed on good women, and starved,
from the scarcity of them, to skin and bone, in contrast with another
called Bicorn, that fed on good men, who are more plentiful, and was fat
and plump.


CHICKASAWS, N. American Indians, allied to the Chocktaws, settled in
a civilised state in the Indian Territory like the Cherokees.


CHICLANA (12), a watering-place 12 m. SB. of Cadiz, with mineral
baths.


CHIEF, the upper part of an escutcheon cut off by a horizontal line.


CHIEM-SEE, a high-lying lake in Upper Bavaria, 48 m. from Muenich,
adorned with three islands; famous for its fish.


CHIEN DE JEAN DE NIVELLE, the dog that never came when it was
called. See NIVELLE.


CHIE`TI (22), a city in Central Italy, 78 m. NE. of Rome, with a
fine Gothic cathedral.


CHIGI, a distinguished Italian family, eminent in the Church.


CHIGOE, an insect which infests the skin of the feet, multiplies
incredibly, and is a great annoyance to the negro, who, however, is
pretty expert in getting rid of it.


CHIHUA`HUA (25), a town in Mexico; capital of a State (298), the
largest in Mexico, of the same name, with famous silver and also copper
mines.


CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES, an American scholar, born in Boston; professor
of Anglo-Saxon and Early English Literature at Harvard; distinguished as
the editor of Spenser and of "English and Scottish Ballads," "a
monumental collection"; _b_. 1825.


CHILD, LYDIA MARIA, an American novelist and anti-slavery advocate
(1802-1880).


CHILD, SIR JOSHUA, a wealthy London merchant, author of "Discourse
on Trade," with an appendix against usury; advocated the compulsory
transportation of paupers to the Colonies (1630-1699).


CHILDE, the eldest son of a nobleman who has not yet attained to
knighthood, or has not yet won his spurs.


CHILDE HAROLD, a poem of Byron's, written between 1812 and 1819,
representing the author himself as wandering over the world in quest of
satisfaction and returning sated to disgust; it abounds in striking
thoughts and vivid descriptions; in his "Dernier Chant of C. H."
Lamartine takes up the hero where Byron leaves him.


CHILDERBERT I., son of Clovis, king of Paris, reigned from 511 to
558. C. II., son of Siegbert and Brunhilda, king of Austrasia,
reigned from 575 to 596. C. III., son of Thierri III., reigned over
all France from 695 to 711, under the mayor of the palace, Pepin
d'Heristal.


CHILDERBRAND, a Frank warrior, who figures in old chronicles as the
brother of Charles Martel, signalised himself in the expulsion of the
Saracens from France.


CHILDERIC I., the son of Merovig and father of Clovis, king of the
Franks; _d_. 481. C. II., son of Clovis II., king of Austrasia in
660, and of all France in 670; assassinated 673. C. III., son of the
preceding, last of the Merovingian kings, from 743 to 752; was deposed by
Pepin le Bref; died in the monastery of St. Omer in 755.


CHILDERMAS, a festival to commemorate the massacre of the children
by Herod.


CHILDERS, ROBERT C., professor of Pali and Buddhistic Literature in
University College, and author of Pali Dictionary (1809-1876).


CHILDREN OF THE WOOD, two children, a boy and girl, left to the care
of an uncle, who hired two ruffians to murder them, that he might inherit
their wealth; one of the ruffians relented, killed his companion, and
left the children in a wood, who were found dead in the morning, a
redbreast having covered their bodies with strawberry leaves; the uncle
was thereafter goaded to death by the furies.


CHILE (2,867), the most advanced and stable of the S. American
States, occupies a strip of country, 100 m. broad, between the Andes and
the Pacific Ocean, and stretching from Cape Horn northward 2200 m. to
Peru, with Argentine and Bolivia on its eastern borders. The climate is
naturally various. In the N. are rainless tracts of mountains rich in
copper, manganese, silver, and other metals, and deserts with wonderful
deposits of nitrate. In the S. are stretches of pastoral land and virgin
forest, with excessive rains, and cold, raw climate. The central portion
enjoys a temperate climate with moderate rainfall, and produces excellent
wheat, grapes, and fruits of all kinds. The Andes tower above the
snow-line, Aconcagua reaching 23,500 ft. The rivers are short and rapid,
of little use for navigation. The coast-line is even in the N., but
excessively rugged and broken in the S., the most southerly regions being
weird and desolate. The people are descendants of Spaniards, mingled with
Araucanian Indians; but there is a large European element in all the
coast towns. Mining and agriculture are the chief industries;
manufactures of various kinds are fostered with foreign capital. The
chief trade is with Britain: exports nitre, wheat, copper, and iodine;
imports, textiles, machinery, sugar, and cattle. Santiago (250) is the
capital; Valparaiso (150) and Iquique the principal ports. The government
is republican; Roman Catholicism the State religion; education is fairly
well fostered; there is a university at Santiago. The country was first
visited by Magellan in 1520. In 1540 Pedro Valdivia entered it from Peru
and founded Santiago. During colonial days it was an annex of Peru. In
1810 the revolt against Spain broke out. Independence was gained in 1826.
Settled government was established in 1847. Since then a revolution in
1851, successful wars with Spain 1864-66, with Bolivia and Peru 1879-81,
and a revolution in 1891, have been the most stirring events in its
history.


CHILLIANWALLA, a village in the Punjab, 80 m. NW. of Lahore, the
scene in 1849 of a bloody battle in the second Sikh War, in which the
Sikhs were defeated by Gen. Gough; it was also the scene of a battle
between Alexander the Great and Porus.


CHILLINGHAM, a village in Northumberland, 8 m. SW. of Belford, with
a park attached to the castle, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville,
containing a herd of native wild cattle.


CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, an able English controversial divine, who
thought forcibly and wrote simply, born at Oxford; championed the cause
of Protestantism against the claims of Popery in a long-famous work, "The
Religion of Protestants the Safe Way to Salvation," summing up his
conclusion in the oft-quoted words, "The Bible, the Bible alone, is the
religion of Protestants"; though a Protestant, he was not a Puritan or a
man of narrow views, and he suffered at the hands of the Puritans as an
adherent of the Royalist cause (1602-1643).


CHILLON, CASTLE OF, a castle and state prison built on a rock, 62
ft. from the shore, at the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva; surnamed
the Bastille of Switzerland, in which Bonivard, the Genevese patriot,
was, as celebrated by Byron, incarcerated for six years; it is now an
arsenal.


CHILOE (77), a thickly wooded island off the coast, and forming a
province, of Chile, 115 m. long from N. to S., and 43 m. broad; inhabited
chiefly by Indians; exports timber; is said to contain vast deposits of
coal.


CHILTERN HILLS, a range of chalk hills extending about 70 m. NE.
from the Thames in Oxfordshire through Bucks, from 15 to 20 m. broad, the
highest Wendover, 950 ft.


CHILTERN HUNDREDS, a wardship of beech forests on the Chiltern Hills
against robbers, that at one time infested them; now a sinecure office,
the acceptance of which enables a member of Parliament to resign his seat
if he wishes to retire, the office being regarded as a Government one.


CHIMAERA, a fire-breathing monster of the Greek mythology, with a
goat's body, a lion's head, and a dragon's tail; slain by Bellerophon,
and a symbol of any impossible monstrosity.


CHIMBORA`ZO, one of the loftiest peaks of the Andes, in Ecuador,
20,700 ft.; is an extinct volcano, and covered with perpetual snow.


CHIMPANZEE, a large African ape, from 3 to 4 ft. in height, and more
allied in several respects to man than any other ape: it is found chiefly
in W. Africa.


CHINA (300,000 to 400,000), which, with Tibet, Mongolia (from which
it is separated by the Great Wall), and parts of Turkestan, forms the
Chinese Empire; is a vast, compact, and densely peopled country in
Eastern Asia; bounded on the N. by Mongolia; W. by Tibet and Burmah; S.
by Siam, Annam, and the China Sea; and E. by the Pacific. In the W. are
lofty mountain ranges running N. and S., from which parallel ranges run
E. and W., rising to greatest height in the S. Two great rivers traverse
the country, the Hoang-ho and the Yangtse-kiang, the latter with many
large lakes in its course, and bearing on its waters an innumerable fleet
of boats and barges. Between the lower courses of these rivers lies the
Great Plain, one of the vastest and richest in the world, whose yellow
soil produces great crops with little labour and no manure. The
coast-line is long and much indented, and out of it are bitten the gulfs
of Pe-che-lee, the Yellow Sea, and Hang-chou. There are many small
islands off the coast; the mountainous Hainau is the only large one still
Chinese. The climate in the N. has a clear frosty winter, and warm rainy
summer; in the S. it is hot. The country is rich in evergreens and
flowering plants. In the N. wheat, millet, and cotton are grown; in the
S. rice, tea, sugar, silk, and opium. Agriculture is the chief industry,
and though primitive, it is remarkably painstaking and skilful. Forests
have everywhere been cleared away, and the whole country is marvellously
fertile. Its mineral wealth is enormous. Iron, copper, and coal abound in
vast quantities; has coal-fields that, it is said, if they were worked,
"would revolutionise the trade of the world." The most important
manufactures are of silk, cotton, and china. Commerce is as yet chiefly
internal; its inter-provincial trade is the largest and oldest in the
world. Foreign trade is growing, almost all as yet done with Britain and
her Colonies. Tea and silk are exported; cotton goods and opium imported.
About twenty-five ports are open to British vessels, of which the largest
are Shanghai and Canton. There are no railways; communication inland is
by road, river, and canals. The people are a mixed race of Mongol type,
kindly, courteous, peaceful, and extremely industrious, and in their own
way well educated. Buddhism is the prevailing faith of the masses,
Confucianism of the upper classes. The Government is in theory a
patriarchal autocracy, the Emperor being at once father and high-priest
of all the people, and vicegerent of heaven. The capital is Pekin (500),
in the NE. Chinese history goes back to 2300 B.C. English intercourse
with the Chinese began in 1635 A.D., and diplomatic relations between
London and Pekin were established this century. The Anglo-Chinese wars of
1840, 1857, and 1860 broke down the barrier of exclusion previously
maintained against the outside world. The Japanese war of 1894-95
betrayed the weakness of the national organisation; and the seizure of
Formosa by Japan, the Russo-Japanese protectorate over Manchuria and
Corea, the French demand for Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, enforced lease of
Kiao-chau to Germany, and of Wei-hai-wei to Britain (1898), seem to
forebode the partition of the ancient empire among the more energetic
Western nations.


CHINA, THE GREAT WALL OF, a wall, with towers and forts at
intervals, about 2000 m. long, from 20 to 30 ft. high, and 25 ft. broad,
which separates China from Mongolia on the N., and traverses high hills
and deep valleys in its winding course.


CHINAMPAS, floating gardens.


CHINCHA ISLANDS, islands off the coast of Peru that had beds of
guano, often 100 ft. thick, due to the droppings of penguins and other
sea birds, now all but, if not quite, exhausted.


CHINCHILLA, a rodent of S. America, hunted for its fur, which is
soft and of a grey colour; found chiefly in the mountainous districts of
Peru and Chile.


CHINESE GORDON, General Gordon, killed at Khartoum; so called for
having, in 1851, suppressed a rebellion in China which had lasted 15
years.


CHINOOK, a tribe of Indians in Washington Territory, noted for
flattening their skulls.


CHINSURA, a Dutch-built town on the right bank of the Hoogly, 20 m.
N. of Calcutta, with a college; is famous for cheroots.


CHINZ, a calico printed with flowers and other devices in different
colours; originally of Eastern manufacture.


CHIOGGIA (25), a seaport of Venetia, built on piles, on a lagoon
island at the mouth of the Brenta, connected with the mainland by a
bridge with 43 arches.


CHIOS, or SCIO (25), a small island belonging to Turkey, in the
Grecian Archipelago; subject to earthquakes; yields oranges and lemons in
great quantities; claims to have been the birthplace of Homer.


CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS, a cabinet-maker, born in Worcestershire; famous
in the last century for the quality and style of his workmanship; his
work still much in request.


CHIPPEWAYS, a Red Indian tribe, some 12,000 strong, located in
Michigan, U.S., and in Canada adjoining; originally occupied the N. and
W. of Lake Superior.


CHIQUITOS, Indians of a low but lively type in Bolivia and Brazil.


CHIRIQUI, an archipelago and a lagoon as well as province in Costa
Rica.


CHIRON, a celebrated Centaur, in whose nature the animal element was
subject to the human, and who was intrusted with the education of certain
heroes of Greece, among others Peleus and Achilles; was endowed with the
gift of prophecy, and skilled in athletics as well as music and the
healing art. See CENTAURS.


CHISLEHURST (6), a village in Kent, 10 m. SE. of London, where
Napoleon III. died in exile in 1873.


CHISWICK (21), a suburb of London, 7 m. SW. of St. Paul's; the
Church of St. Nicholas has monuments to several people of distinction.


CHITIN, a white horny substance found in the exoskeleton of several
invertebrate animals.


CHITRAL, a State on the frontier of India, NW. of Cashmere; since
1895 occupied by the British; a place of great strategical importance.


CHITTAGONG (24), a seaport in the Bay of Bengal, 220 m. E. of
Calcutta; exports rice, gum, tobacco, and jute.


CHITTIM, the Bible name for Cyprus.


CHIVALRY, a system of knighthood, for the profession of which the
qualifications required were dignity, courtesy, bravery, generosity; the
aim of which was the defence of right against wrong, of the weak against
the strong, and especially of the honour and the purity of women, and the
spirit of which was of Christian derivation; originally a military
organisation in defence of Christianity against the infidel.


CHIVALRY, COURT OF, a court established by Edward III., which took
cognisance of questions of honour and heraldry, as well as military
offences.


CHLADNI, FRIEDRICH, a physicist, born at Wittenberg; one of the
earliest investigators of the phenomena of sound; wrote also on aerolites
(1756-1827).


CHLOPICKI, JOSEPH, a Polish hero, born in Galicia; fought against
Russia under Napoleon; was chosen Dictator in 1830, but was forced to
resign; fought afterwards in the ranks, and was severely wounded
(1771-1854).


CHLORAL, a colourless narcotic liquid, obtained at first by the
action of chlorine on alcohol; treated with water it produces _chloral
hydrate_.


CHLORINE, elementary, greenish-yellow gas obtained from common salt;
powerful as a disinfectant, and a bleaching agent.


CHLORIS, the wife of Zephyrus, the goddess of flowers.


CHLOROFORM, a limpid, volatile liquid, in extensive use as an
anaesthetic; produced by treating alcohol with chloride of lime.


CHLOROPHYLL, the green colouring matter in plants, especially the
leaves; due to the presence and action of light.


CHLOROSIS, green sickness, a disease incident to young females at a
critical period of life, causing a pale-greenish complexion.


CHOCOLATE, a paste made by grinding the kernels of cocoa-nuts.


CHOCKTAWS, or CHACTAWS, a tribe of American Indians, settled to
civilised life in the Indian Territory, U.S.; the Chactaw Indian, with
his proud array of scalps hung up in his wigwam, is, with Carlyle, the
symbol of the pride of wealth acquired at the price of the lives of men
in body and soul.


CHOISEUL, DUC DE, minister of Louis XV.; served his master in
various capacities; was rewarded with a peerage; effected many reforms in
the army, strengthened the navy, and aided in bringing about the family
compact of the Bourbons; exercised a great influence on the politics of
Europe; was nicknamed by Catharine of Russia _Le Cocher de l'Europe_,
"the Driver of Europe"; but becoming obnoxious to Mme. du Barry, "in whom
he would discern nothing but a wonderfully dizened scarlet woman," was
dismissed from the helm of affairs, Louis's "last substantial man"
(1719-1795).


CHOISY, ABBE, a French writer, born in Paris; author of a "History
of the Church" (1644-1724).


CHOLERA MORBUS, an epidemic disease characterised by violent
vomiting and purging, accompanied with spasms, great pain, and debility;
originated in India, and has during the present century frequently spread
itself by way of Asia into populous centres of both Europe and America.


CHOLET (15), a French manufacturing town, 32 m. SW. of Angers.


CHOLULA, an ancient city, 60 m. SE. of Mexico; the largest city of
the Aztecs, with a pyramidal temple, now a Catholic church.


CHOPIN, a musical composer, born near Warsaw, of Polish origin; his
genius for music early developed itself; distinguished himself as a
pianist first at Vienna and then in Paris, where he introduced the
mazurkas; became the idol of the _salons_; visited England twice, in 1837
and 1848, and performed to admiration in London and three of the
principal cities; died of consumption in Paris; he suffered much from
great depression of spirits (1809-1849).


CHORLEY (23), a manufacturing town in N. Lancashire, 25 m. NE. of
Liverpool, with mines and quarries near it.


CHORUS, in the ancient drama a group of persons introduced on the
stage representing witnesses of what is being acted, and giving
expression to their thoughts and feelings regarding it; originally a band
of singers and dancers on festive occasions, in connection particularly
with the Bacchus worship.


CHOSROES I., surnamed the Great, king of Persia from 531 to 579, a
wise and beneficent ruler; waged war with the Roman armies successfully
for 20 years. CH. II., his grandson, king from 590 to 625; made
extensive inroads on the Byzantine empire, but was defeated and driven
back by Heraclius; was eventually deposed and put to death.


CHOUANS, insurrectionary royalists in France, in particular
Brittany, during the French Revolution, and even for a time under the
Empire, when their head-quarters were in London; so named from their
muster by night at the sound of the _chat-huant_, the screech-owl, a
nocturnal bird of prey which has a weird cry.


CHRETIEN, or CHRESTIEN, DE TROYES, a French poet or trouvere
of the last half of the 12th century; author of a number of vigorously
written romances connected with chivalry and the Round Table.


CHRIEMHILDE, a heroine in the "Niebelungen" and sister of Gunther,
who on the treacherous murder of her husband is changed from a gentle
woman into a relentless fury.


CHRISAOR, the sword of Sir Artegal in the "Faerie Queene"; it
excelled every other.


CHRIST CHURCH, a college in Oxford, founded by Wolsey 1525; was
Gladstone's college and John Ruskin's, as well as John Locke's.


CHRISTABEL, a fragmentary poem of Coleridge's; characterised by
Stopford Brooke as, for "exquisite metrical movement and for imaginative
phrasing," along with "Kubla Khan," without a rival in the language.


CHRISTADELPHIANS, an American sect, called also Thomasites, whose
chief distinctive article of faith is conditional immortality, that is,
immortality only to those who believe in Christ, and die believing in
him.


CHRISTCHURCH (16), capital of the province of Canterbury, New
Zealand, 5 m. from the sea; Littleton the port.


CHRISTIAN, the name of nine kings of Denmark, of whom the first
began to reign in 1448 and the last in 1863, and the following deserve
notice: CHRISTIAN II., conquered Sweden, but proving a tyrant, was
driven from the throne by Gustavus Vasa in 1522, upon which his own
subjects deposed him, an act which he resented by force of arms, in which
he was defeated in 1531, his person seized, and imprisoned for life;
characterised by Carlyle as a "rash, unwise, explosive man" (1481-1559).
CHRISTIAN IV., king from 1588 to 1648; took part on the Protestant
side in the Thirty Years' War, and was defeated by Tilly; he was a good
ruler, and was much beloved by his subjects; was rather unsteady in his
habits, it is said (1577-1648). CHRISTIAN IX., king from 1863; son
of Duke William of Sleswick-Holstein, father of the Princess of Wales,
George I., king of Greece, and the dowager Empress of Russia; _b_. 1818.


CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a sect in the United States which acknowledges
the Bible alone as the rule of faith and manners.


CHRISTIAN KING, THE MOST, a title of the king of France conferred by
two different Popes.


CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING (S. P. C. K.), a religious
association in connection with the Church of England, under the patronage
of the Queen and the presidency of the Archbishop of Canterbury,
established 1698, the object of which is to disseminate a knowledge of
Christian doctrine both at home and abroad by means of churches, schools,
and libraries, and by the circulation of Bibles and Christian literature.


CHRISTIANIA (130), the capital of Norway, romantically situated at
the head of Christiania Fiord; the residence of the king and the seat of
government; a manufacturing and trading city, but it is blocked up
against traffic for four months in the year.


CHRISTIANITY, BELIEF (q. v.) that there is in Christ, as in
no other, from first to last a living incarnation, a flesh and blood
embodiment, for salvation of the ever-living spirit of the ever-living
God and Father of man, and except that by eating His flesh and drinking
His blood, that is, except by participating in His divine-human life, or
except in His spirit, there is no assurance of life everlasting to any
man; but perhaps it has never been defined all round with greater brevity
and precision than it is by Ruskin in his "Praeterita," under the
impression that the time is come when one should say a firm word
concerning it: "The total meaning of it," he says, "was, and is, that the
God who made earth and its creatures, took, at a certain time upon the
earth, the flesh and form of man; in that flesh sustained the pain and
died the death of the creature He had made; rose again after death into
glorious human life, and when the date of the human race is ended, will
return in visible human form, and render to every mail according to his
work. _Christianity is the belief in, and love of, God thus manifested_.
Anything _less_ than this," he adds, "the mere acceptance of the sayings
of Christ, or assertion of any less than divine power in His Being, may
be, for aught I know, enough for virtue, peace, and safety; but they do
not make people Christians, or enable them to understand the heart of the
simplest believer in the old doctrine."


CHRISTIANSAND (12), a town and seaport in the extreme S. of Norway,
with a considerable trade.


CHRISTIE, WILLIAM HENRY MAHONEY, astronomer-royal, born at Woolwich,
of Trinity College, Cambridge; author of "Manual of Elementary
Astronomy"; _b_. 1845.


CHRISTINA, queen of Sweden, daughter and only child of Gustavus
Adolphus; received a masculine education, and was trained in manly
exercises; governed the country well, and filled her court with learned
men, but by-and-by her royal duties becoming irksome to her, she declared
her cousin as her successor, resigned the throne, and turned Catholic;
her cousin dying, she claimed back her crown, but her subjects would not
now have her; she stayed for a time in France, but was obliged to leave;
retired to Rome, where she spent 20 years of her life engaged in
scientific and artistic studies, and died (1628-1689).


CHRISTINA, MARIA, daughter of Francis I. of Naples, and wife of
Ferdinand VII. of Spain, on whose death she acted for four years as
regent, during the infancy of her daughter Isabella (1806-1878).


CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, toxicologist, born at Edinburgh, and
professor, first of Medical Jurisprudence and then of Materia Medica, in
his native city; wrote a "Treatise on Poison," a standard work
(1797-1882).


CHRISTMAS, the festival in celebration of the birth of Christ now
celebrated all over Christendom on 25th December, as coinciding with an
old heathen festival celebrated at the winter solstice, the day of the
return of the sun northward, and in jubilation of the prospect of the
renewal of life in the spring.


CHRISTOLOGY, the department of theology which treats of the person
of Christ.


CHRISTOPHE, HENRI, a negro, born in Grenada; one of the leaders of
the insurgent slaves in Hayti, who, proving successful in arms against
the French, became king under the title of Henry I., but ruling
despotically provoked revolt, and shot himself through the heart; he was
a man of powerful physique; _b_. 1820.


CHRISTOPHER, ST., (the Christ-Bearer), according to Christian legend
a giant of great stature and strength, who, after serving the devil for a
time, gave himself up to the service of Christ by carrying pilgrims
across a bridgeless river, when one day a little child, who happened to
be none else than Christ Himself, appeared to be carried over, but,
strange to say, as he bore Him across, the child grew heavier and
heavier, till he was nearly baffled in landing Him on the opposite shore.
The giant represented the Church, and the increasing weight of the child
the increasing sin and misery which the Church has from age to age to
bear in carrying its Christ across the Time-river; the giant is
represented in art as carrying the infant on his shoulder, and as having
for staff the stem of a large tree.


CHRISTOPHER NORTH, the name assumed by JOHN WILSON (q. v.)
in _Blackwood's Magazine_.


CHRISTOPHER'S, ST., (30), popularly called _St. Kitts_, one of the
Leeward Islands, discovered by Columbus (1493), who named it after
himself; belongs to England; has sugar plantations.


CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, the Blue-Coat School, London, was founded in
1547, a large institution, on the foundation of which there are now 2170
pupils instead of 1200 as formerly; entrance to it is gained partly by
presentation and partly by competition, and attached are numerous
exhibitions and prizes; among the _alumni_ have been several noted men,
such as Bishop Stillingfleet, Coleridge, Leigh Hunt, and Charles Lamb.


CHROMATICS, that department of optics which treats of colours, and
resolves the primary colours into three--red, yellow, and blue.


CHRONICLERS, THE RHYMING, a series of writers who flourished in
England in the 13th century, and related histories of the country in
rhyme, in which the fabulous occupies a conspicuous place, among which
Layamon's "Brut" (1205) takes the lead.


CHRONICLES I. and II., two historical books of the Old
Testament, the narratives of which, with additions and omissions, run
parallel with those of Samuel and Kings, but written from a priestly
standpoint, give the chief prominence to the history of Judah as the
support in Jerusalem of the ritual of which the priests were the
custodians; Ezra and Nehemiah are continuations.


CHRYSEIS, the daughter of Chryses, priest of Apollo, a beautiful
maiden who fell among the spoils of a victory to Agamemnon, and became
his slave, and whom he refused to restore to her father until a deadly
plague among the Greeks, at the hands of Apollo, whose priest her father
was, compelled him to give her up.


CHRYSIPPUS, a Greek philosopher, born at Soli, in Cilicia, and lived
in Athens; specially skilled in dialectic; the last and greatest
expounder and defender of the philosophy of the Stoa, so pre-eminent,
that it was said of him, "If Chrysippus were not, the Stoa were not"; is
said to have written 705 books, not one of which, however, has come down
to us save a few fragments (280-208 B.C.). See STOICISM.


CHRYSOLO`RAS, a Grecian scholar, born at Constantinople, left his
native country and lived in Florence, where he, in the 14th century,
became a teacher of Greek literature, and contributed thereby to the
revival of letters in Italy; _d_. 1415.


CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN, that is, Mouth of Gold, so called from his
eloquence, born at Antioch; converted to Christianity from a mild
paganism; became one of the Fathers of the Church, and Patriarch of
Constantinople; he was zealous in suppressing heresy, as well as
corruption in the Church, and was for that reason thrice over subjected
to banishment; in the course of the third of which and while on the way,
he died, though his remains was brought to Constantinople and there
deposited with great solemnity; he left many writings behind
him--sermons, homilies, commentaries, and epistles, of which his
"Homilies" are most studied and prized (347-407). Festival, Jan. 27.


CHUBB, THOMAS, an English Deist, born near Salisbury; he regarded
Christ as a divine teacher, but held reason to be sovereign in matters of
religion, yet was on rational grounds a defender of Christianity; had no
learning, but was well up in the religious controversies of the time, and
bore his part in them creditably (1679-1746).


CHUNDER SEN, one of the founders of the BRAHMO-SOMAJ (q. v.);
he visited Europe in 1870, and was welcomed with open arms by the
rationalist class of Churchmen and Dissenters.


CHUQUISA`CA (20), (i. e. Bridge of Gold), the capital of Bolivia,
in a sheltered plain 9000 ft. above the sea-level; is a cathedral city;
has a mild climate; it was founded in 1538 by the Spaniards on the site
of an old Peruvian town.


CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM, dean of St. Paul's, born in Lisbon; a
scholarly man; distinguished himself first as such by his "Essays and
Reviews," wrote thoughtful sermons, and "A Life of Anselm," also essays
on eminent men of letters, such as Dante, Spenser, and Bacon (1815-1890).


CHURCH, STATES OF THE, the Papal States, extending irregularly from
the Po to Naples, of which the Pope was the temporal sovereign, now part
of the kingdom of Italy.


CHURCHILL, CHARLES, an English poet, born at Westminster; began life
as a curate, an office which he was compelled to resign from his unseemly
ways; took himself to the satire, first of the actors of the time in his
"Rosciad," then of his critics in his "Apology," and then of Dr. Johnson
in the "Ghost"; he wrote numerous satires, all vigorous, his happiest
being deemed that against the Scotch, entitled "The Prophecy of Famine";
his life was a short one, and not wisely regulated (1731-1764).


CHURCHILL, LORD RANDOLPH, an English Conservative politician, third
son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough, who, though a man of mark, and more
than once in office, could never heart and soul join any party and settle
down to steady statesmanship; set out on travel, took ill on the journey,
and came home in a state of collapse to die (1849-1895).


CHUZZLEWIT, MARTIN, the hero of a novel by Dickens of the name.
JAMES, a character in the same novel, a man distinguished for his
mean and tyrannical character.


CHUSAN (30 or 40), principal island in the Chusan Archipelago, 18 m.
long and 10 broad; near the estuary of the Yangtse-kiang, has been called
"the Key of China."


CHYLE, a fluid of a milky colour, separated from the chyme by the
action of the pancreatic juice and the bile, and which, being absorbed by
the lacteal vessels, is gradually assimilated into blood.


CHYME, the pulpy mass into which the food is converted in the
stomach prior to the separation in the small intestines of the chyle.


CIALDINI, ENRICO, an Italian general and politician, born at Modena;
distinguished himself in Spain against the Carlists, and both as a
soldier and diplomatist in connection with the unification of Italy
(1811-1892).


CIBBER, COLLEY, actor and dramatist, of German descent; was manager
and part-proprietor of Drury Lane; wrote plays, one in particular, which
procured for him the post of poet-laureate, which he held till his death;
was much depreciated by Pope; wrote an "Apology for his Life," the most
amusing autobiography in the language (1671-1757).


CIBRARIO, LUIGI, an Italian historian and statesman, born at Turin;
he held office under Charles Albert of Sardinia (1802-1870).


CICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a Roman orator, statesman, and man of
letters, born near Arpinum, in Latium; trained for political life partly
at Rome and partly at Athens; distinguished himself as the first orator
at the Roman bar when he was 30, and afterwards rose through the
successive grades of civic rank till he attained the consulship in 63
B.C.; during this period he acquired great popularity by his exposure and
defeat of the conspiracy of Catiline, by which he earned the title of
_Father of his Country_, though there were those who condemned his action
and procured his banishment for a time; on his recall, which was
unanimous, he took sides first with Pompey, then with Caesar after
Pharsalia, on whose death he delivered a Philippic against Antony; was
proscribed by the second triumvirate, and put to death by Antony's
soldiers; he was the foremost of Roman orators, the most elegant writer
of the Latin language, and has left behind him orations, letters, and
treatises, very models of their kind; he was not a deep thinker, and his
philosophy was more eclectic than original (100-43 B.C.).


CICERO OF GERMANY, John III., Elector of Brandenburg, "could speak
'four hours at a stretch, in elegantly flowing Latin,' with a fair share
of meaning in it too" (1455-1499).


CICOGNARA, COUNT, an Italian writer, born at Ferrara; author of a
"History of Sculpture" (1767-1834).


CID CAMPEADOR, a famed Castilian warrior of the 11th century, born
at Burgos; much celebrated in Spanish romance; being banished from
Castile, in the interest of which he had fought valiantly, he became a
free-lance, fighting now with the Christians and now with the Moors, till
he made himself master of Valencia, where he set up his throne and
reigned, with his faithful wife Ximena by his side, till the news of a
defeat by the Moors took all spirit out of him, and he died of grief.
Faithful after death, his wife had his body embalmed and carried to his
native place, on the high altar of which it lay enthroned for 10 years;
his real name was Don Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar, and the story of his love
for Ximena is the subject of Corneille's masterpiece, "The Cid."


CIGOLI, a Florentine painter, called the Florentine Correggio, whom
he specially studied in the practice of his art; "The Apostle Healing the
Lame," in St. Peter's, is by him, as also the "Martyrdom of St. Stephen,"
in Florence (1559-1613).


CILICIA, an ancient province in S. of Asia Minor.


CILICIAN GATES, the pass across Mount Taurus by which Alexander the
Great entered Cilicia.


CIMABU`E, a Florentine painter, and founder of the Florentine
school, which ranked among its members such artists as Michael Angelo,
Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci; was the first to leave the stiff
traditional Byzantine forms of art and copy from nature and the living
model, though it was only with the advent of his great disciple Giotto
that art found beauty in reality, and Florence was made to see the divine
significance of lowly human worth, at sight of which, says Ruskin, "all
Italy threw up its cap"; his "Madonna," in the Church of Santa Maria, has
been long regarded as a marvel of art, and of all the "Mater Dolorosas"
of Christianity, Ruskin does not hesitate to pronounce his at Assisi the
noblest; "he was the first," says Ruskin, "of the Florentines, first of
European men, to see the face of her who was blessed among women, and
with his following hand to make visible the Magnificat of his heart"
(1240-1302).


CIMAROSA, DOMENICO, a celebrated Italian composer; composed between
20 and 30 operas, mostly comic, his masterpiece being "II Matrimoneo
Segreto"; he was imprisoned for sympathising with the principles of the
French Revolution, and treated with a severity which shortened his life;
said by some to have been poisoned by order of Queen Caroline of Naples
(1754-1801).


CIMBER, a friend of Caesar's who turned traitor, whose act of
presenting a petition to him was the signal to the conspirators to take
his life.


CIMBRI, a barbarian horde who, with the Teutons, invaded Gaul in the
2nd century B.C.; gave the Romans no small trouble, and were all but
exterminated by Marius in 101 B.C.; believed to have been a Celtic race,
who descended on Southern Europe from the N.


CIMERIANS, an ancient people N. of the shores of the Black Sea,
fabled to inhabit a region unvisited by a single ray of the sun.


CIMON, an Athenian general, son of Miltiades; distinguished himself
in the struggle of Athens against Persia in 466 B.C.; gained two
victories over the Persians in one day, one by land and another by sea,
was banished by the democratic party, and after four years recalled to
continue his victories over his old foes, and died at Cyprus
(510-449 B.C.).


CINCINNATI (326), the metropolis of Ohio, stands on the Ohio River,
opposite Covington and Newport, by rail 270 m. SE. of Chicago; the city
stands on hilly ground, and is broken and irregular; there are many fine
buildings, among them a Roman Catholic cathedral, and large parks; there
is a university, the Lane Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), schools of
medicine, law, music, and art, an observatory, zoological garden, and
large libraries; it is a centre of culture in the arts; manufactures
include clothing, tobacco, leather, moulding and machine shops; there is
some boat-building and printing; but the most noted trade is in pork and
grain; is the greatest pork market in the world; a third of the
population is of German origin.


CINCINNATUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS, an old hero of the Roman republic,
distinguished for the simplicity and austerity of his manners; was consul
in 460 B.C., and on the defeat of a Roman army by the AEqui, called to
the dictatorship from the plough, to which he returned on the defeat of
the AEqui; he was summoned to fill the same post a second time, when he
was 80, on the occasion of the conspiracy of Maelius, with the like
success.


CINCINNATUS, THE ORDER OF, an American order founded by officers of
the revolutionary army at its dissolution in 1753; was denounced by
Franklin as anti-republican in its spirit and tendency; it still survives
in a feeble way; the order is hereditary.


CINCINNATUS OF THE AMERICANS, George Washington.


CINDERELLA (the little cinder-girl), the youngest member of a family
who must drudge at home while her elder sisters go to balls, till one day
a fairy befriends her and conveys her to a ball, where she shines as the
centre of attraction, and wins the regard of a prince. On quitting the
hall she leaves a slipper behind her, by means of which she is identified
by the prince, who finds that hers is the only foot that the slipper will
fit, and marries her. The story in one version or another is a very
ancient and wide-spread one.


CINEAS, the minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; was the ablest
orator of his time, and his master was in the habit of saying of him,
that his eloquence had gained him more cities than his own arms; sent on
a mission to Rome, the senate refused to hear him, lest his eloquence
should prove too fascinating.


CINGALESE, a native of Ceylon.


CINNA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS, a Roman patrician, a friend and supporter
of Marius; drove Sulla from Rome and recalled Marius from exile;
participated in the murders which followed his recall, and after the
death of Marius was assassinated when organising an expedition against
Sulla, 84 B.C.


CINNABAR, a sulphide of mercury from which the mercury of commerce
is obtained.


CINQ-MARS, HENRI, MARQUIS DE, a French courtier, a favourite of
Louis XIII.; a man of handsome figure and fascinating manners; died on
the scaffold for conspiring with his friend De Thou against Richelieu
(1620-1642).


CINQUE CENTO (lit. five hundred), the Renaissance in literature
and art in the 16th century, the expression 5 hundred standing for 15
hundred.


CINQUE PORTS, the five ports of Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and
Sandwich, to which were added Winchelsea and Rye, which possessed certain
privileges in return for supplying the royal power with a navy; the Lord
Warden of the Cinque Ports is only an honorary dignity.


CINTRA, a Portuguese town, 17 m. NW. of Lisbon, where a much
reprobated convention between the French under Marshal Junot and the
English under Sir Hew Dalrymple was signed in 1808, whereby the former
were let off with all their arms and baggage on condition of evacuating
Portugal.


CIPANGO, an island on the Eastern Ocean, described by Marco Polo as
a sort of El Dorado, an object of search to subsequent navigators, and an
attraction among the number to Columbus, it is said.


CIPRIANI, an Italian painter and etcher, born in Florence; settled
in London; was an original member of the Royal Academy, and designed the
diploma (1727-1785).


CIRCARS, THE, a territory in India along the coast of the Bay of
Bengal, from 18 to 100 m. wide; ceded first to the French and in 1766 to
the East India Company, now of course under the Crown, and forming part
of the Madras Presidency.


CIRCASSIA, a territory on the Western Caucasus, now subject to
Russia; celebrated for the sturdy spirit of the men and the beauty of the
women; the nobles professing Mohammedanism and the lower classes a
certain impure form of Christianity; they are of the Semite race, and
resemble the Arabs in their manners.


CIRCE, a sorceress who figures in the "Odyssey." Ulysses having
landed on her isle, she administered a potion to him and his companions,
which turned them into swine, while the effect of it on himself was
counteracted by the use of the herb moly, provided for him by Hermes
against sorcery; she detained him with her for years, and disenchanted
his companions on his departure.


CIRCEAN POISON, a draught of any kind that is magically and fatally
infatuating, such as the effect often of popular applause.


CIRCUITS, districts outside of London into which England is divided
for judicial purposes, for the trial of civil as well as criminal cases
connected with them; are seven in number--the Midland, the Oxford, the
North-Eastern, the South-Eastern, the Northern, the Western, and North
Wales and South Wales; the courts are presided over by a judge sent from
London, or by two, and are held twice a year, or oftener if the number of
cases require it.


CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, the course of the blood from the heart
through the arteries to the minute vessels of the body, and from these
last through the veins back to the heart again.


CIRCUMCISION, the practice of cutting away the foreskin, chiefly of
males, as observed by the Jews and the Mohammedans, as well as other
nations of remote antiquity; regarded by some as a mark of belonging to
the tribe, and by others as a sacrifice in propitiation by blood.


CIRCUMLOCUTION OFFICE, a name employed by Dickens in "Little Dorrit"
to designate the wearisome routine of public business.


CISALPINE GAUL, territory occupied by Gauls on the Italian or south
side of the Alps.


CISALPINE REPUBLIC, a republic so called on both sides of the Po,
formed out of his conquests by Napoleon, 1797; became the Italian
Republic in 1802, with Milan for capital, and ceased to exist after the
fall of Napoleon.


CISLEITHANIA, Austria proper as distinguished from Hungary, which is
called Transleithania, on account of the boundary between them being
formed by the river Leitha.


CISTERCIANS, a monastic order founded by Abbot Robert in 1098 at
Citeaux, near Dijon; they followed the rule of St. Benedict, who reformed
the Order after it had lapsed; became an ecclesiastical republic, and
were exempt from ecclesiastical control; contributed considerably to the
progress of the arts, if little to the sciences.


CITHAERON, a wood-covered mountain on the borders of Boeotia and
Attica; famous in Greek legend.


CITIES OF REFUGE, among the Jews; three on the E. and three on the
W. of the Jordan, in which the manslayer might find refuge from the
avenger of blood.


CITIES OF THE PLAIN, Sodom and Gomorrah, with adjoining cities under
the like doom.


CITIZEN KING, Louis Philippe of France, so called as elected by the
citizens of Paris.


CITY OF BELLS, Strasburg.


CITY OF CHURCHES, Brooklyn, now incorporated with New York.


CITY OF DESTRUCTION, Bunyan's name for the world as under divine
judgment.


CITY OF GOD, Augustine's name for the Church as distinct from the
cities of the world, and the title of a book of his defining it.


CITY OF PALACES, Calcutta and Rome.


CITY OF THE PROPHET, Medina, where Mahomet found refuge when driven
out of Mecca by the Koreish and their adherents.


CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, Rome, as built on seven hills--viz., the
Aventine, Coelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal, and
Viminal.


CITY OF THE SUN, BAALBEK (q. v.); and a work by Campanella,
describing an ideal republic, after the manner of Plato and Sir Thomas
More.


CITY OF THE VIOLET CROWN, Athens.


CIUDAD REAL (royal city) (13), a Spanish town in a province of the
same name, 105 m. S. of Madrid, where Sebastian defeated the Spaniards in
1809.


CIUDAD RODRIGO (8), a Spanish town near the Portuguese frontier, 50
m. SW. of Salamanca; stormed by Wellington, after a siege of 11 days, in
1812, for which brilliant achievement he earned the title of Earl in
England, and Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo in Spain.


CIVA, or SIVA, the third member of the Hindu Trinity, the
destroyer of what Vishnu is the preserver and Brahma is the creator, is
properly Brahma undoing what he has made with a view to reincarnation.


CIVIL LAW, a system of laws for the regulation of civilised
communities formed on Roman laws, digested in the pandects of Justinian.


CIVIL LIST, the yearly sum granted by the Parliament of England at
the commencement of each reign for the support of the royal household,
and to maintain the dignity of the Crown: it amounts now to L385,000.


CIVIL SERVICE, the paid service done to the State, exclusive of that
of the army and navy.


CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, a Batavian chief who revolted against Vespasian,
but on defeat was able to conclude an honourable peace.


CIVITA VECCHIA (11), a fortified port on the W. coast of Italy, 40
m. NW. of Rome, with a good harbour, founded by Trajan; exports wheat,
alum, cheese, &c.


CLACKMANNANSHIRE (28), the smallest county in Scotland, lies between
the Ochils and the Forth; rich in minerals, especially coal.


CLAIR, ST., a lake 30 m. long by 12 broad, connecting Lake Erie with
Lake Huron.


CLAIRAUT, ALEXIS CLAUDE, a French mathematician and astronomer, born
at Paris, of so precocious a genius, that he was admitted to the Academy
of Sciences at the age of 18; published a theory of the figure of the
earth, and computed the orbit of Halley's comet (1713-1765).


CLAIRVAUX, a village of France, on the Aube, where St. Bernard
founded a Cistercian monastery in 1115, and where he lived and was
buried; now used as a prison or reformatory.


CLAIRVOYANCE, the power ascribed to certain persons in a mesmeric
state of seeing and describing events at a distance or otherwise
invisible.


CLAN, a tribe of blood relations descended from a common ancestor,
ranged under a chief in direct descent from him, and having a common
surname, as in the Highlands of Scotland; at bottom a military
organisation for defensive and predatory purposes.


CLAN-NA-GAEL, a Fenian organisation founded at Philadelphia in 1870,
to secure by violence the complete emancipation of Ireland from British
control.


CLAPHAM, a SW. suburb of London, in the county of Surrey, 4 m. from
St. Paul's, and inhabited by a well-to-do middle-class community,
originally of evangelical principles, and characterised as the _Clapham
Set_.


CLAPPERTON, CAPTAIN HUGH, an African explorer, born at Annan; bred
in the navy, joined two expeditions into Central Africa to ascertain the
length and course of the Niger, but got no farther than Sokoto, where he
was attacked with dysentery and died (1788-1827).


CLAeRCHEN, a female character in Goethe's "Egmont."


CLARE (124), a county in Munster, Ireland; also an island at the
mouth of Clew Bay, county Mayo.


CLARE, JOHN, the peasant poet of Northamptonshire, born near
Peterborough; wrote "Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery," which
attracted attention, and even admiration, and at length with others
brought him a small annuity, which he wasted in speculation; fell into
despondency, and died in a lunatic asylum (1793-1864).


CLARE, ST., a virgin and abbess, born at Assisi; the founder of the
Order of Poor Clares (1193-1253). Festival, Aug. 12.


CLAREMONT, a mansion in Surrey, 14 m. SW. of London, built by Lord
Clive, where Princess Charlotte lived and died, as also Louis Philippe
after his flight from France; is now the property of the Queen, and the
residence of the Duchess of Albany.


CLARENCE, DUKE OF, brother of Edward IV.; convicted of treason, he
was condemned to death, and being allowed to choose the manner of his
death, is said to have elected to die by drowning in a butt of Malmsey
wine (1459-1478).


CLARENCEUX, or CLARENCIEUX, the provincial king-at-arms, whose
jurisdiction extends from and includes all England S. of the Trent.


CLARENDON, a place 2 m. SE. of Salisbury, where the magnates of
England, both lay and clerical, met in 1164 under Henry II. and issued a
set of ordinances, called the _Constitutions of Clarendon_, 16 in number,
to limit the power of the Church and assert the rights of the crown in
ecclesiastical affairs.


CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, Earl of, sat in the Short Parliament and the
Long on the popular side, but during the Civil War became a devoted
Royalist; was from 1641 one of the chief advisers of the king; on the
failure of the royal cause, took refuge first in Jersey, and then in
Holland with the Prince of Wales; contributed to the Restoration; came
back with Charles, and became Lord Chancellor; fell into disfavour, and
quitted England in 1667; died at Rouen; wrote, among other works, a
"History of the Great Rebellion," dignifiedly written, though often
carelessly, but full of graphic touches and characterisations especially
of contemporaries; it has been called an "epical composition," as showing
a sense of the central story and its unfolding. "Few historians," adds
Prof. Saintsbury, "can describe a given event with more vividness. Not
one in all the long list of the great practitioners of the art has such
skill in the personal character" (1608-1674).


CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS, EARL OF, a Whig statesman; served as a
cabinet minister under Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell twice, Lord
Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston, and Mr. Gladstone; held the office of Foreign
Secretary under the three preceding; was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland at
the time of the potato failure, and represented Britain at the Congress
of Paris; died in harness, deeply lamented both at home and abroad
(1800-1870).


CLARETIE, JULES, a French journalist, novelist, dramatic author, and
critic, born at Limoges; has published some 40 volumes of _causeries_,
history, and fiction; appointed Director of the Theatre Francais in 1893;
_b_. 1840.


CLARISSA HARLOWE, the heroine of one of Richardson's novels,
exhibiting a female character which, as described by him, is pronounced
to be "one of the brightest triumphs in the whole range of imaginative
literature," is described by Stopford Brooke "as the pure and ideal star
of womanhood."


CLARK, SIR ANDREW, an eminent London physician, born near Cargill,
in Perthshire, much beloved, and skilful in the treatment of diseases
affecting the respiratory and digestive organs (1826-1893).


CLARK, SIR JAMES, physician to the Queen, born in Cullen; an
authority on the influence of climate on chronic and pulmonary disease
(1788-1870).


CLARK, THOMAS, chemist, born in Ayr; discovered the phosphate of
soda, and the process of softening hard water (1801-1867).


CLARKE, ADAM, a Wesleyan divine, of Irish birth; a man of
considerable scholarship, best known by his "Commentary" on the Bible;
author also of a "Bibliographical Dictionary" (1762-1832).


CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN, a friend of Lamb, Keats, and Leigh Hunt;
celebrated for his Shakespearian learning; brought out an annotated
Shakespeare, assisted by his wife; lectured on Shakespeare characters
(1787-1877).


CLARKE, DR. SAMUEL, an English divine, scholar and disciple of
Newton, born at Norwich; author, as Boyle lecturer, of a famous
"Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God," as also independently
of "The Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion"; as a theologian he
inclined to Arianism, and his doctrine of morality was that it was
congruity with the "eternal fitness of things" (1675-1729).


CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL, a celebrated English traveller, born in
Sussex; visited Scandinavia, Russia, Circassia, Asia Minor, Syria,
Palestine, Egypt, and Greece; brought home 100 MSS. to enrich the library
of Cambridge, the colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, and the
sarcophagus of Alexander, now in the British Museum; his "Travels" were
published in six volumes (1769-1822).


CLARKE, HENRI, Duc de Feltre, of Irish origin, French marshal, and
minister of war under Napoleon; instituted the prevotal court, a _pro re
nata_ court without appeal (1767-1818).


CLARKE, MARY COWDEN, _nee_ Novello, of Italian descent, wife of
Charles Cowden, assisted her husband in his Shakespeare studies, and
produced amid other works "Concordance to Shakespeare," a work which
occupied her 16 years (1809-1898).


CLARKE, WILLIAM GEORGE, English man of letters; Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge; edited the "Cambridge Shakespeare," along with Mr.
Aldis Wright (1821-1867).


CLARKSON, THOMAS, philanthropist, born in Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire;
the great English anti-slavery advocate, and who lived to see in 1833 the
final abolition in the British empire of the slavery he denounced, in
which achievement he was assisted by the powerful advocacy in Parliament
of Wilberforce (1760-1846).


CLASSIC RACES, the English horse-races at Newmarket--Derby, the
Oaks, and the St. Leger.


CLASSICS, originally, and often still, the standard authors in the
literature of Greece or Rome, now authors in any literature that
represent it at its best, when, as Goethe has it, it is "vigorous, fresh,
joyous, and healthy," as in the "Nibelungen," no less than in the
"Iliad."


CLAUDE, JEAN, a French Protestant controversial divine, a powerful
antagonist of Bossuet and other Catholic writers, allowed only 24 hours
to escape on the eve of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, though
other Protestant ministers were allowed 15 days (1619-1687).


CLAUDE LORRAINE, a great landscape painter, born in Lorraine, of
poor parents, and apprenticed to a pastry-cook; went as such to Rome;
became servant and colour-grinder to Tassi, who instructed him in his
art; by assiduous study of nature in all her aspects attained to fame;
was eminent in his treatment of aerial perspective, and an artist whom it
was Turner's ambition to rival; he was eminent as an etcher as well as a
painter; Turner left one of his finest works to the English nation on
condition that it should hang side by side of a masterpiece of Claude,
which it now does; his pictures are found in every gallery in Europe, and
a goodly number of them are to be met with in England; there are in the
St. Petersburg gallery four pieces of exquisite workmanship, entitled
"Morning," "Noon," "Evening," and "Twilight" (1600-1682).


CLAUDIAN, a Latin epic poet of the 4th century, born in Alexandria,
panegyrist of Stilicho on his victory over Alaric; a not unworthy
successor of Catullus and Propertius, though his native tongue was Greek.


CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, a Roman decemvir and patrician in 451 B.C.;
outraged Virginia, a beautiful plebeian damsel, whom her father, on
discovering of the crime, killed with a knife snatched from a butcher's
stall, rousing thereby the popular rage against the decemvir, who was
cast into prison, where he put an end to himself, 449 B.C.


CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, censor in 312-307 B.C.; wrought important changes
in the Roman constitution; set on foot the construction of the Appian Way
and the Appian Aqueduct, named after him.


CLAUDIUS I, TIBERIUS DRUSUS, surnamed GERMANICUS, brother of
Tiberius, emperor of Rome from 41 to 54, born at Lyons; after spending 50
years of his life in private, occupying himself in literary study, was,
on the death of Caligula, raised very much against his wish by the
soldiers to the imperial throne, a post which he filled with honour to
himself and benefit to the State; but he was too much controlled by his
wives, of whom he had in succession four, till the last of them,
Agrippina, had him poisoned to make way for her son Nero.


CLAUDIUS II., surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor from 268 to 270;
an excellent prince and a good general; distinguished himself by his
ability and courage against the Goths and other hordes of barbarians.


CLAUSEL, BERTRAND, marshal of France, born at Mirepoix; served under
Napoleon in Holland, Italy, Austria, and Spain; was defeated at
Salamanca, executing thereafter a masterly retreat; left France for
America in 1815 on the fall of Napoleon, to whom he was devoted; returned
in 1830, became commander-in-chief in Algeria, and ultimately governor
(1772-1842).


CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON, a Prussian general, born at Burg;
distinguished himself against Napoleon in Russia in 1812; an authority on
the art of war, on which he wrote a treatise in three volumes, entitled
"Vom Krieg" (1780-1831).


CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF, an eminent German physicist, born at Koeslin, in
Pomerania; professor of Natural Philosophy at Bonn; specially
distinguished for his contributions to the science of thermo-dynamics,
and the application of mathematical methods to the study, as also to
electricity and the expansion of gases (1822-1888).


CLAVERHOUSE, JOHN GRAHAM OF, VISCOUNT DUNDEE, commenced life as a
soldier in France and Holland; on his return to Scotland in 1677 was
appointed by Charles II. to the command of a troop to suppress the
Covenanters; was defeated at Drumclog 1679, but by the help of Monmouth
had his revenge at Bothwell Brig; affected to support the Revolution, but
intrigued in favour of the Stuarts; raised in Scotland a force in their
behalf; was met at Killiecrankie by General Mackay, where he fell
(1643-1689).


CLAVIERE, Minister of Finance in France after Necker, born at
Geneva; projector of the _Moniteur_; friend of Mirabeau; committed
suicide in prison (1735-1793).


CLAVIJE`RO, a Jesuit missionary, born in Vera Cruz; laboured for 40
years as missionary in Mexico; on the suppression of his Order went to
Italy, and wrote a valuable work on Mexico (1718-1793).


CLAVIGO, a drama by Goethe in five acts, the first work to which he
put his name; was received with disfavour.


CLAVILENO, Don Quixote's wooden horse.


CLAY, HENRY, an American statesman, born in Virginia; bred for the
bar, and distinguished for his oratory; was for many years Speaker of the
House of Representatives; was a supporter of war with Britain in 1812-15,
and party to the treaty which ended it; was an advocate of protection;
aspired three times unsuccessfully to the Presidency; his public career
was a long one, and an honourable (1777-1852).


CLEAR THE CAUSEWAY RIOTS, bickerings in the streets of Edinburgh in
1515 between the rival factions of Angus and Arran, to the utter rout of
the former, or the Douglas party.


CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, born at Assos, in Troas, of the 3rd
century B.C.; wrought as a drawer of water by night that he might earn
his fee as pupil of Zeno's by day; became Zeno's successor and the head
of his school; regarded "pleasure as a remission of that moral energy of
the soul, which alone is happiness, as an interruption to life, and as an
evil, which was not in accordance with nature, and no end of nature."


CLEAR, CAPE, a headland S. of Clear Island, most southerly point of
Ireland, and the first land sighted coming from America.


CLEARCHUS, a Spartan general who accompanied Cyrus on his expedition
against Artaxerxes; commanded the retreat of the Ten Thousand; was put to
death by Tissaphernes in 401 B.C., and replaced by Xenophon.


CLEARING-HOUSE, a house for interchanging the respective claims of
banks and of railway companies.


CLEISHBOTHAM, JEDEDIAH, an imaginary editor in Scott's "Tales of My
Landlord."


CLELIA, a Roman heroine, who swam the Tiber to escape from Porsenna,
whose hostage she was; sent back by the Romans, she was set at liberty,
and other hostages along with her, out of admiration on Porsenna's part
of both her and her people.


CLEMENCEAUX, GEORGES BENJAMIN, French politician, born in La Vendee;
bred to medicine; political adversary of Gambetta; proprietor of _La
Justice_, a Paris journal; an expert swordsman; _b_. 1841.


CLEMENCET, CHARLES, a French Benedictine, born near Autun; one of
the authors of the great chronological work, "Art de Verifier les Dates,"
and wrote the history of the Port Royal (1703-1778).


CLEMENCIN, DIEGO, a Spanish statesman and litterateur; his most
important work a commentary on "Don Quixote."


CLEMENS, SAMUEL LANGHORNE, an American humorist with the pseudonym
of "Mark Twain," born at Florida, Missouri, U.S.; began his literary
career as a newspaper reporter and a lecturer; his first book "The
Jumping Frog"; visited Europe, described in the "Innocents Abroad";
married a lady of fortune; wrote largely in his peculiar humorous vein,
such as the "Tramp Abroad"; produced a drama entitled the "Gilded Age,"
and compiled the "Memoirs of General Grant"; _b_. 1835.


CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS, one of the Greek Fathers of the Church, of the
2nd and 3rd centuries; had Origen for pupil; brought up in Greek
philosophy; converted in manhood to Christianity from finding in his
appreciation of knowledge over faith confirmations of it in his
philosophy, which he still adhered to; his "Stromata" or "Miscellanies"
contain facts and quotations found nowhere else.


CLEMENT, the name of 14 popes: C. I., Pope from 91 to 100; one
of the Apostolic Fathers; wrote an Epistle to the Church of Corinth, with
references to the Canonical books. C. II., Pope from 1046 to 1047.
C. III., pope from 1187 to 1191. C. IV., Pope from 1265 to
1268. C. V., Bertrand de Goth, Pope from 1305 to 1314; transferred
the seat of the Papacy to Avignon, and abolished the Order of the Knights
Templars. C. VI. Pope from 1342 to 1352; resided at Avignon. C.
VII., Giulio de Medici, Pope from 1523 to 1534; celebrated for his
quarrels with Charles V. and Henry VIII., was made prisoner in Rome by
the Constable of Bourbon; refused to sanction the divorce of Henry VIII.,
and brought about the schism of England from the Holy See. C. VIII., Pope
from 1592 to 1605; a patron of Tasso's; readmitted Henry IV. to the
Church and the Jesuits to France. C. IX., Pope from 1667 to 1669. C. X.,
pope from 1670 to 1676. C. XI., Pope from 1700 to 1721; as Francesco
Albani opposed the Jansenists; issued the bull _Unigenitus_ against them;
supported the Pretender and the claims of the Stuarts. C. XII., Pope from
1738 to 1740. C. XIII., Pope from 1758 to 1769. C. XIV., Pope from 1769
to 1774, Ganganelli, an able, liberal-minded, kind-hearted, and upright
man; abolished the Order of the Jesuits out of regard to the peace of the
Church; his death occurred not without suspicions of foul-play.


CLEMENT, French critic, born at Dijon, surnamed by Voltaire from his
severity the "Inclement" (1742-1812).


CLEMENT, a French manufacturer and savant, born near Dijon; author
of a memoir on the specific heat of the gases (1779-1841).


CLEMENT, JACQUES, a Dominican monk; assassinated Henry III. of
France in 1589.


CLEMENT, ST., St. Paul's coadjutor, the patron saint of tanners; his
symbol an anchor.


CLEMENTI, MUZIO, a musical composer, especially of pieces for the
pianoforte, born in Rome; was the father of pianoforte music; one of the
foremost pianists of his day; was buried in Westminster (1752-1832).


CLEMENTINE, THE LADY, a lady, accomplished and beautiful, in
Richardson's novel, "Sir Charles Grandison," in love with Sir Charles,
who marries another he has no partiality for.


CLEOBULUS, one of the seven sages of Greece; friend of Plato; wrote
lyrics and riddles in verse, 530 B.C.


CLEOM`BROTUS, a philosopher of Epirus, so fascinated with Plato's
"Phaedon" that he leapt into the sea in the expectation that he would
thereby exchange this life for a better.


CLEOME`DES, a Greek astronomer of the 1st or 2nd century; author of
a treatise which regards the sun as the centre of the solar system and
the earth as a globe.


CLEOMENES, the name of three Spartan kings.


CLEOMENES, an Athenian sculptor, who, as appears from an inscription
on the pedestal, executed the statue of the Venus de Medici towards 220
B.C.


CLEON, an Athenian demagogue, surnamed the Tanner, from his
profession, which he forsook that he might champion the rights of the
people; rose in popular esteem by his victory over the Spartans, but
being sent against Brasidas, the Spartan general, was defeated and fell
in the battle, 422 B.C.; is regarded by Thucydides with disfavour, and
by Aristophanes with contempt, but both these writers were of the
aristocracy, and possibly prejudiced, though the object of their
disfavour had many of the marks of the vulgar agitator, and stands for
the type of one.


CLEOPA`TRA, Queen of Egypt, a woman distinguished for her beauty,
her charms, and her amours; first fascinated Caesar, to whom she bore a
son, and whom she accompanied to Rome, and after Caesar's death took Mark
Antony captive, on whose fall and suicide at Actium she killed herself by
applying an asp to her arm, to escape the shame of being taken to Rome to
grace the triumph of the victor (69-30 B.C.).


CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE, an obelisk of 186 tons weight and 681/2 ft. high,
brought from Alexandria to London in 1878, and erected on the Thames
Embankment, London.


CLERC, or LECLERC, JEAN, a French theologian of the Arminian
school, born at Geneva; a prolific author; wrote commentaries on all the
books of the Old Testament, on lines since followed by the Rationalist
school or Neologians of Germany (1657-1736).


CLERFAYT, COMTE DE, an Austrian general, distinguished in the Seven
Years' War; commanded with less success the Austrian army against the
French armies of the Revolution (1733-1798).


CLERK, JOHN, OF ELDIN, of the Penicuik family, an Edinburgh
merchant, first suggested the naval manoeuvre of "breaking the enemy's
lines," which was first successfully adopted against the French in 1782
(1728-1812).


CLERK, JOHN, son of preceding, a Scottish judge, under the title of
Lord Eldin, long remembered in Edinburgh for his wit (1757-1832).


CLERKENWELL (66), a parish in Finsbury, London, originally an
aristocratic quarter, now the centre of the manufacture of jewellery and
watches.


CLERMONT, ROBERT, COMTE DE, sixth son of St. Louis, head of the
house of Bourbon.


CLERMONT FERRAND (45), the ancient capital of Auvergne and chief
town of the dep. Puy-de-Dome; the birthplace of Pascal, Gregory of Tours,
and Dessaix, and where, in 1095, Pope Urban II. convoked a council and
decided on the first Crusade; it has been the scene of seven Church
Councils.


CLERMONT-TONNERRE, Marquis, minister of France under the Restoration
of the Bourbons (1779-1865).


CLERY, Louis XVI.'s valet, who waited on him in his last hours, and
has left an account of what he saw of his touching farewell with his
family.


CLEVELAND, a hilly district in the North Riding of Yorkshire, rich
in iron-stone.


CLEVELAND (381), the second city of Ohio, on the shores of Lake
Erie, 230 m. NE. of Cincinnati; is built on a plain considerably above
the level of the lake; the winding Cuyahoga River divides it into two
parts, and the industrial quarters are on the lower level of its banks;
the city is noted for its wealth of trees in the streets and parks, hence
called "The Forest City," and for the absence of tenement houses; it has
a university, several colleges, and two libraries; it is the terminus of
the Ohio Canal and of seven railways, and the iron ore of Lake Superior
shores, the limestone of Lake Erie Islands, and the Ohio coal are brought
together here, and every variety of iron manufacture carried on; there is
a great lumber market, and an extensive general trade.


CLEVELAND, GROVER, President of the United States, born in New
Jersey, son of a Presbyterian minister; bred for the bar; became
President in the Democratic interest in 1885; unseated for his free-trade
leaning by Senator Harrison, 1889; became the President a second time in
1893; retired in 1897.


CLEVELAND, JOHN, partisan of Charles I.; imprisoned for abetting the
Royalist cause against the Parliament, but after some time set at liberty
in consequence of a letter he wrote to Cromwell pleading that he was a
poor man, and that in his poverty he suffered enough; he was a poet, and
used his satirical faculty in a political interest, one of his satires
being an onslaught on the Scots for betraying Charles I.; _d_. 1650.


CLEVES (10), a Prussian town 46 m. NW. of Duesseldorf, once the
capital of a duchy connected by a canal with the Rhine; manufactures
textile fabrics and tobacco.


CLICHY (30), a manufacturing suburb of Paris, on the NW. and right
bank of the Seine.


CLIFFORD, GEORGE, Earl of Cumberland, a distinguished naval
commander under Queen Elizabeth, and one of her favourites (1558-1605).


CLIFFORD, JOHN, D.D., Baptist minister in London, author of "Is
Life Worth Living?" _b_. 1836.


CLIFFORD, PAUL, a highwayman, the subject of a novel by Bulwer
Lytton, who was subdued and reformed by the power of love.


CLIFTON (13), a fashionable suburb of Bristol, resorted to as a
watering-place; romantically situated on the sides and crest of high
cliffs, whence it name.


CLIMACTERIC, THE GRAND, the 63rd year of a man's life, and the
average limit of it; a climacteric being every seven years of one's life,
and reckoned critical.


CLINKER, HUMPHRY, the hero of Smollett's novel, a poor waif, reduced
to want, who attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble, marries Mrs. Bramble's
maid, and proves a natural son of Mr. Bramble.


CLINTON, GEORGE, American general and statesman; was governor of New
York; became Vice-President in 1804 (1739-1812).


CLINTON, SIR HENRY, an English general; commanded in the American
war; censured for failure in the war; wrote an exculpation, which was
accepted (1738-1795).


CLINTON, HENRY FYNES, a distinguished chronologist, author of "Fasti
Hellenici" and "Fasti Romani" (1781-1852).


CLIO, the muse of history and epic poetry, represented as seated
with a half-opened scroll in her hand.


CLISSON, OLIVIER DE, constable of France under Charles VI.;
companion in arms of Du Gueselin, and victor at Roosebeke (1326-1407).


CLISTHENES, an Athenian, uncle of Pericles, procured the expulsion
of Hippias the tyrant, 510 B.C., and the establishment of
OSTRACISM (q. v.).


CLITUS, a general of Alexander, and his friend, who saved his life
at the battle of Granicus, but whom, at a banquet, he killed when heated
with wine, to his inconsolable grief ever afterwards.


CLIVE, ROBERT, LORD CLIVE AND BARON PLASSEY, the founder of the
dominion of Britain in India, born in Shropshire; at 19 went out a clerk
in the East India Company's service, but quitted his employment in that
capacity for the army; distinguishing himself against the rajah of
Tanjore, was appointed commissary; advised an attack on Arcot, in the
Carnatic, in 1751; took it from and held it against the French, after
which, and other brilliant successes, he returned to England, and was
made lieutenant-colonel in the king's service; went out again, and
marched against the nabob Surajah Dowlah, and overthrew him at the battle
of Plassey, 1757; established the British power in Calcutta, and was
raised to the peerage; finally returned to England possessed of great
wealth, which exposed him to the accusation of having abused his power;
the accusation failed; in his grief he took to opium, and committed
suicide (1725-1774).


CLODIUS, a profligate Roman patrician; notorious as the enemy of
Cicero, whose banishment he procured; was killed by the tribune Milo, 52
B.C.


CLODOMIR, the second son of Clovis, king of Orleans from 511 to 524;
fell fighting with his rivals; his children, all but one, were put to
death by their uncles, Clotaire and Childebert.


CLOOTZ, ANACHARSIS, Baron Jean Baptiste de Clootz, a French
Revolutionary, born at Cleves; "world-citizen"; his faith that "a world
federation is possible, under all manner of customs, provided they hold
men"; his pronomen Anacharsis suggested by his resemblance to an ancient
Scythian prince who had like him a cosmopolitan spirit; was one of the
founders of the worship of Reason, and styled himself the "orator of the
human race"; distinguished himself at the great Federation, celebrated
on the Champ de Mars, by entering the hall on the great Federation Day,
June 19, 1790, "with the human species at his heels"; was guillotined
under protest in the name of the human race (1755-1794).


CLORINDA, a female Saracen knight sent against the Crusaders, whom
Tancred fell in love with, but slew on an encounter at night; before
expiring she received Christian baptism at his hands.


CLOTAIRE I., son and successor of Clovis, king of the Franks from
558; cruel and sanguinary; along with Childebert murdered the sons of his
brother Clodomir. C. II., son of Chilperic and Fredigonda, king of
the Franks from 613 to 628; caused Brunhilda to be torn in pieces. C.
III., son of Clovis II., King of Neustria and Burgundy from 656 to
670. C. IV., king of ditto from 717 to 720.


CLOTHES, Carlyle's name in "Sartor Resartus" for the guises which
the spirit, especially of man, weaves for itself and wears, and by which
it both conceals itself in shame and reveals itself in grace.


CLOTHO, that one of the three Fates which spins the thread of human
destiny.


CLOTILDA, ST., the wife of Clovis I.; persuaded her husband to
profess Christianity; retired into a monastery at Tours when he died
(475-545). Festival, June 3.


CLOUD, ST., the patron saint of smiths.


CLOUD, ST., or CLODOALD, third son of Clodomir, who escaped the
fate of his brothers, and retired from the world to a spot on the left
bank of the Seine, 6 m. SW. of Paris, named St. Cloud after him.


CLOUDS, THE, the play in which Aristophanes exposes Socrates to
ridicule.


CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH, a lyric poet, born at Liverpool; son of a
cotton merchant; educated at Rugby under Dr. Arnold, whom he held in the
highest regard; was at Oxford, as a Fellow of Oriel, at the time of the
Tractarian movement, which he arrayed himself against, and at length
turned his back upon and tore himself away from by foreign travel; on his
return he was appointed examiner in the Education Office; falling ill
from overwork he went abroad again, and died at Florence; he was all
alive to the tendencies of the time, and his lyrics show his sense of
these, and how he fronted them; in the speculative scepticism of the time
his only refuge and safety-anchor was duty; Matthew Arnold has written in
his "Thyrsis" a tribute to his memory such as has been written over few;
his best-known poem is "The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich" (1819-1861).


CLOVIS I., king of the Franks, son of Childeric I.; conquered
the Romans at Soissons 486, which he made his centre; married
CLOTILDA (q. v.) 493; beat the Germans near Cologne 496, by
assistance, as he believed, of the God of Clotilda, after which he was
baptized by St. Remi at Rheims; and overthrew the Visigoths under Alaric
II. near Poitiers in 507, after which victories he made Paris his
capital. C. II., son of Dagobert; was king of Neustria and Burgundy
from 638 to 656. C. ILL, son of Thierry III., and king of ditto from
691 to 695, and had Pepin d'Heristal for mayor of the palace.


CLUNY (3), a town in the dep. of Saone-et-Loire, on an affluent of
the Saone; renowned in the Middle Ages for its Benedictine abbey, founded
in 910, and the most celebrated in Europe, having been the mother
establishment of 2000 others of the like elsewhere; in ecclesiastical
importance it stood second to Rome, and its abbey church second to none
prior to the erection of St. Peter's; a great normal school was
established here in 1865.


CLUSIUM, the ancient capital of Etruria and Porsenna's.


CLUTHA, the largest river in New Zealand, in Otago, very deep and
rapid, and 200 m. long.


CLUTTERBUCK, the imaginary author of the "Fortunes of Nigel," and
the patron to whom the "Abbot" is dedicated.


CLYDE, a river in the W. of Scotland which falls into a large inlet
or firth, as it is called, the commerce on which extends over the world,
and on the banks of which are shipbuilding yards second to none in any
other country; it is deepened as far as Glasgow for ships of a heavy
tonnage.


CLYDE, LORD. See CAMPBELL, COLIN.


CLYTEMNESTRA, the wife of Agamemnon, and the mother of Iphigenia,
Electra, and Orestes; killed her husband, and was killed by her son,
Orestes, seven years after.


CLYTIE, a nymph in love with Apollo, god of the sun, who did not
respond to her; but, with all the passion he durst show to her, turned
her into a sunflower.


COANZA, a W. African river, which rises in the Mossamba Mountains,
falling into the sea after a course of 600 m.; owing to falls is
navigable for only 140 m. from its mouth.


COAST RANGE, a range in the U.S., W. of the Sierra Nevada, parallel
to it, with the Sacramento Valley between.


COBBETT, WILLIAM, a political and miscellaneous writer, born at
Farnham, Sussex; commenced life as a farm labourer, and then as copying
clerk; enlisted, and saw seven years' service in Nova Scotia; being
discharged, travelled in France and America; on his return started the
_Weekly Register_, at first Tory, then Radical; published a libel against
the Government, for which he was imprisoned; on his release issued his
_Register_ at a low price, to the immense increase of its circulation;
vain attempts were made to crush him, against which he never ceased to
protest; after the passing of the Reform Bill he got into Parliament, but
made no mark; his writings were numerous, and include his "Grammar," his
"Cottage Economy," his "Rural Rides," and his "Advice to Young Men"; his
political opinions were extreme, but his English was admirable
(1762-1835).


COBBLER POET, HANS SACHS (q. v.).


COBDEN, RICHARD, a great political economist and the Apostle of Free
Trade, born near Midhurst, Sussex; became partner in a cotton-trading
firm in Manchester; made a tour on the Continent and America in the
interest of political economy; on the formation of the Corn-Law League in
1838, gave himself heart and soul to the abolition of the Corn Laws;
became Member of Parliament for Stockport in 1841; on the conversion of
Sir Robert Peel to Free-Trade principles saw these laws abolished in
1846; for his services in this cause he received the homage of his
country as well as of Continental nations, but refused all civic honours,
and finished his political career by negotiating a commercial treaty with
France (1804-1865).


COBENTZELL, COMTE DE, an Austrian diplomatist, born at Brussels;
negotiated the treaties of Campo Formio and Luneville; founded the
Academy of Sciences at Brussels (1753-1808).


COBLENZ (32), a fortified city, manufacturing and trading town, in
Prussia, at the junction of the Rhine and the Moselle, so called as at
the confluence of the two; opposite it is Ehrenbreitstein.


COBURG (18), capital of the duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on the Itz,
the old castle on a height 500 ft. above the town; gave shelter to
Luther in 1530, and was besieged by Wallenstein.


COBURG, field-marshal of Austria; vanquished Dumouriez at
Neerwinden; was conquered by Moreau and Jourdan (1737-1815).


COCAINE, an alkaloid from the leaf of the coca plant, used as an
anaesthetic.


COCCEIUS, or KOCH, JOHANN, a Dutch divine, professor at Leyden;
held that the Old Testament was a type or foreshadow of the New, and was
the founder of the federal theology, or the doctrine that God entered
into a threefold compact with man, first prior to the law, second under
the law, and third under grace (1603-1669).


COCCEJI, HENRY, learned German jurist, born at Bremen; an authority
on civil law; was professor of law at Frankfurt (1644-1719).


COCCEJI, SAMUEL, son of the preceding; Minister of Justice and
Chancellor of Prussia under Frederick the Great; a prince of lawyers, and
"a very Hercules in cleansing law stables" as law-reformer (1679-1755).


COCHABAMBA (14), a high-lying city of Bolivia, capital of a
department of the name; has a trade in grain and fruits.


COCHIN (722), a native state in India N. of Travancore, cooped up
between W. Ghats and the Arabian Sea, with a capital of the same name,
where Vasco da Gama died; the first Christian church in India was built
here, and there is here a colony of black Jews.


COCHIN-CHINA (2,034), the region E. of the Mekong, or Annam proper,
called HIGH COCHIN-CHINA (capital Hue), and LOW COCHIN-CHINA, a
State S. of Indo-China, and S. of Cambodia and Annam; belonging to
France, with an unhealthy climate; rice the chief crop; grows also teak,
cotton, &c.; capital Saigon.


COCHLAEUS, JOHANN, an able and bitter antagonist of Luther's; _d_.
1592.


COCHRANE, the name of several English naval officers of the
Dundonald family; SIR ALEXANDER FORRESTER INGLIS (1758-1832); SIR
THOMAS JOHN, his son (1798-1872); and THOMAS, LORD. See
DUNDONALD.


COCK LANE GHOST, a ghost which was reported in a lane of the name in
Smithfield, London, in 1762, to the excitement of the public, due to a
girl rapping on a board in bed.


COCKAIGNE, an imaginary land of idleness and luxury, from a
satirical poem of that name (_coquina_, a kitchen), where the monks live
in an abbey built of pasties, the rivers run with wine, and the geese fly
through the air ready roasted. The name has been applied to London and
Paris.


COCKATRICE, a monster with the wings of a fowl, the tail of a
dragon, and the head of a cock; alleged to have been hatched by a serpent
from a cock's egg; its breath and its fatal look are in mediaeval art the
emblem of sin.


COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER, Lord Chief-Justice of England from 1859;
called to the bar in 1829; became Liberal member for Southampton in 1847,
and Solicitor-General in 1850; was prosecutor in the Palmer case, judge
in the Tichborne, and an arbitrator in the _Alabama_ (1802-1880).


COCKBURN, ALISON, author of "Flowers of the Forest"; in her day the
leader of Edinburgh society; was acquainted with Burns, and recognised in
his boyhood the genius of Scott (1713-1795).


COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, an English admiral, born in London; rose by
rapid stages to be captain of a frigate; took an active part in the
expedition to the Scheldt, in the defence of Cadiz, and of the coast of
Spain; was second in command of the expedition against the United States;
returned to England in 1815, and was selected to convey Napoleon to St.
Helena (1771-1853).


COCKBURN, HENRY, LORD, an eminent Scotch judge, born in Edinburgh;
called to the bar in 1800; one of the first contributors to the
_Edinburgh Review_; was Solicitor-General for Scotland in 1830, and
appointed a judge four years after; was a friend and colleague of Lord
Jeffrey; wrote Jeffrey's Life, and left "Memorials of His Own Time" and
"Journals"; he was a man of refined tastes, shrewd common-sense, quiet
humour, and a great lover of his native city and its memories; described
by Carlyle as "a bright, cheery-voiced, hazel-eyed man; a Scotch dialect
with plenty of good logic in it, and of practical sagacity; a gentleman,
and perfectly in the Scotch type, perhaps the very last of that peculiar
species" (1779-1854).


COCKER, EDWARD, an arithmetician, and a schoolmaster by profession;
wrote an arithmetic, published after his death, long the text-book on the
subject, and a model of its kind; gave rise to the phrase "according to
Cocker" (1631-1672).


COCKNEY, a word of uncertain derivation, but meaning one born and
bred in London, and knowing little or nothing beyond it, and betraying
his limits by his ideas, manners, and accent.


COCKNEY SCHOOL, a literary school, so called by Lockhart, as
inspired with the idea that London is the centre of civilisation, and
including Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, and others.


COCKPIT OF EUROPE, Belgium, as the scene of so many battles between
the Powers of Europe.


COCKTON, HENRY, a novelist, born in London, author of "Valentine
Vox" (1807-1853).


COCLES, HORATIUS, a Roman who defended a bridge against the army of
Porsenna till the bridge was cut down behind him, when he leapt into the
river and swam across scatheless amid the darts of the enemy.


COCOS ISLANDS, a group of 20 small coral islands about 700 m. SW. of
Sumatra.


COCYTUS, a dark river which environed Tartarus with bitter and muddy
waters.


CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD, a British admiral; entered the navy at 13;
served under Howe at Brest, in the capacity of captain of the _Orion_ at
Trafalgar, in the Walcheren expedition, in North America, and at Navarino
in 1827, when the Turkish fleet was destroyed; served also in Parliament
from 1832 to 1839, when he was appointed Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth
(1770-1851).


CODRINGTON, SIR WILLIAM JOHN, a British general; served in the
Crimean war, and Commander-in-Chief after the death of General Simpson
(1800-1884).


CODRUS, the last king of Athens; sacrificed his life to fulfil an
oracle, which promised victory to the side whose king fell in an
engagement between the Athenians and Dorians in 1132 B.C.


COEHOORN, BARON VAN, a Dutch military engineer; fortified Namur, and
defended it against Vauban; was successful in besieging many towns during
the war of the Spanish Succession; author of a treatise on fortification
(1641-1704).


COELEBS (a bachelor), the title of a novel by Hannah More.


COELE-SYRIA (the Howe of Syria), or EL BUKA'A, a valley between
the Lebanons, about 100 m. long by 10 m. broad.


COELIAN, one of the seven hills of Rome, S. of the Capitoline.


COELLO, the name of two Spanish painters in the 16th and 17th
centuries, whose works are in the Escurial.


COEUR, JACQUES, a rich merchant of Bourges, financier to Charles
VII., for whom he provided the sinews of war against the English, but who
banished him at the instigation of detractors; he was reinstated under
Louis XI. (1400-1456).


COEUR DE LION (lion-hearted), a surname on account of their courage
given to Richard I. of England (1151), Louis VIII. of France (1181), and
Boselas I. of Poland (960).


COGITO, ERGO SUM, "I think, therefore I am." Descartes' principle of
certainty, and on which, as on a stable basis, he reared his whole
philosophy. See DESCARTES. "Alas, poor cogitator," Carlyle
exclaims, "this takes us but a little way. Sure enough, I am; and lately
was not; but Whence? How? Whereto?"


COGNAC (17), a French town in the dep. of Charente, birthplace of
Francis I.; famous for its vines and the manufacture of brandy.


COGNIET, a French painter, author of "Tintoret painting his Dead
Daughter" (1794-1880).


COILA, a poetic name for Kyle, the central district of Ayrshire.


COIMBATORE (46), a town of strategic importance in the Madras
Presidency, 30 m. SW. of Madras, situated in a gorge of the Ghats, 1437
ft. above the sea-level, in a district (2,004) of the same name.


COIMBRA (14), a rainy town in Portugal, of historical interest, 110
m. NNE. of Lisbon, with a celebrated university, in which George Buchanan
was a professor, where he was accused of heresy and thrown into prison,
and where he translated the Psalms into Latin.


COKE, coal with a residue of carbon and earthy matter after the
volatile constituents are driven off by heat in closed spaces.


COKE, SIR EDWARD, Lord Chief-Justice of England, born at Milcham,
Norfolk; being a learned lawyer, rose rapidly at the bar and in offices
connected therewith; became Lord Chief-Justice in 1613; was deposed in
1617 for opposing the king's wishes; sat in his first and third
Parliaments, and took a leading part in drawing up the Petition of
Rights; spent the last three years of his life in revising his works, his
"Institutes," known as "Coke upon Littleton," and his valuable "Reports"
(1549-1634).


COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French statesman, of Scotch descent, born
in Rheims, the son of a clothier; introduced to Louis XIV. by Mazarin,
then first minister; he was appointed Controller-General of the Finances
after the fall of Fouquet, and by degrees made his influence felt in all
the departments of State affairs; he favoured, by protectionist
measures--free trade not yet being heard of--French industry and
commerce; was to the French marine what Louvois was to the army, and
encouraged both arts and letters; from 1671 his influence began to
decline; he was held responsible for increased taxation due to Louis
XIV.'s wars, while the jealousy of Louvois weakened his credit at Court;
he became so unpopular that on his death his body was buried at night,
but a grateful posterity has recognised his services, and done homage to
his memory as one of the greatest ministers France ever had (1619-1683).


COLBURN, ZERAH, an American youth, with an astonishing power of
calculation, born in Vermont, and exhibited as such, a faculty which he
lost when he grew up to manhood (1804-1840).


COLCHESTER (35), the largest town in Essex, 51 m. from London, on
the right bank of the Colne, of great antiquity, and with Roman remains;
has been long famous for its oyster fishery; has silk manufactures; is
the port of outlet of a large corn-growing district.


COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, LORD, English statesman; sometime Chief
Secretary of Ireland, and Speaker of the House of Commons; raised to the
peerage in response to an address of the House of Commons (1757-1829).


COLCHIS, a district on the E. of the Black Sea, and S. of Caucasus,
where the Argonauts, according to Greek tradition, found and conquered
the Golden Fleece; the natives had a reputation for witchcraft and
sorcery.


COLDSTREAM GUARDS, one of the three regiments of Foot Guards; was
raised by General Monk in Scotland in 1660, and marched under him from
Coldstream to place Charles II. on the throne; originally called Monk's
regiment.


COLE, HENRY an English ecclesiastical zealot, who held handsome
preferments under Henry VIII. and Mary, but was stripped of them under
Edward VI. and Elizabeth.


COLE, KING, a legendary jovial British king, celebrated in song.


COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS, a celebrated Indianist, born in London;
served under the East India Company, and devoted his spare time to Indian
literature; studied the Sanskrit language, wrote on the Vedas, translated
the "Digest of Hindu Law" compiled by Sir William Jones, compiled a
Sanskrit Dictionary, and wrote various treatises on the law and
philosophy of the Hindus; he was one of the first scholars in Europe to
reveal the treasures that lay hid in the literature of the East
(1765-1837).


COLENSO, DR., an English clergyman and mathematician; was appointed
bishop of Natal in 1845; applied himself to the study of the Zulu
language, and translated parts of the Bible and Prayer-book into it;
calling in question the accuracy and Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch,
was deposed by his metropolitan, which deposition was declared null and
void by the Privy Council; besides his theological work, produced
text-books on arithmetic and algebra; died at Durban, Natal; he favoured
the cause of the Zulus against the Boers, and did his utmost to avert the
Zulu war (1814-1883).


COLERIDGE, HARTLEY, an English man of letters, eldest son of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, born at Clevedon, Somerset; lived with his father in
the Lake District, and grew up in the society of Wordsworth, De Quincey,
and others; gained a Fellowship at Oxford, but forfeited it through
intemperance; tried school-mastering at Ambleside, but failed, and took
to literature, in which he did some excellent work, both in prose and
poetry, though he led all along a very irregular life; had his father's
weaknesses, and not a little of his ability; his best memorials as a poet
are his sonnets, of which two have been especially admired, "The Soul of
Man is Larger than the Sky," and "When I Survey the Course I have Run"
(1796-1849).


COLERIDGE, HENRY NELSON, nephew of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and a
great admirer; editor of many of his works, his "Table Talk" in especial
(1800-1843).


COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE, LORD, an English lawyer, cousin of Hartley
Coleridge; after serving in inferior appointments, appointed Lord
Chief-Justice of England in 1880; when at the bar he was prominent in
connection with Tichborne case.


COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR, an English judge, nephew of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge; was editor of the _Quarterly_, edited "Blackstone,"
&c.; wrote a "Memoir of the Rev. John Keble" (1790-1876).


COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR, poet, philosopher, and critic, born in
Devonshire; passionately devoted to classical and metaphysical studies;
educated at Christ's Hospital; had Charles Lamb for schoolmate; at
Cambridge devoted himself to classics; falling into debt enlisted as a
soldier, and was, after four months, bought off by his friends; gave
himself up to a literary life; married, and took up house near
Wordsworth, in Somersetshire, where he produced the "Ancient Mariner,"
"Christabel," and "Remorse"; preached occasionally in Unitarian pulpits;
visited Germany and other parts of the Continent; lectured in London in
1808; when there took to opium, broke off the habit in 1816, and went to
stay with the Gillmans at Highgate as their guest, under whose roof,
after four years' confinement to a sick-room, he died; among his works
were "The Friend," his "Biographia Literaria," "Aids to Reflection," &c.,
published in his lifetime, and "Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit,"
"Literary Remains," and "Table Talk" after his death; he was a man of
subtle and large intellect, and exercised a great influence on the
thinkers of his time, though in no case was the influence a decisive one,
as it had the most opposite effects on different minds; his philosophy
was hazy, and his life was without aim, "once more the tragic story of a
high endowment with an insufficient will" (1772-1834). See Carlyle's
estimate of him in the "Life of Sterling."


COLERIDGE, SARAH, poetess, only daughter of preceding; her sole
poem, "Phantasmion"; left "Letters" of interest (1803-1852).


COLES, COWPER PHIPPS, an English naval captain and architect;
entered the navy at 11; distinguished himself at Sebastopol; designer of
the turret-ship the _Captain_, which capsized off Finisterre, himself on
board, and drowned with a crew of 500 men (1819-1870).


COLET, JOHN, dean of St. Paul's, a patron of learning, a friend and
scholar of Erasmus, a liberal and much persecuted man; far in advance of
his time; founded and endowed St. Paul's School; wrote a number of works,
chiefly theological, and "Letters to Erasmus"' (1466-1519).


COLET, LOUISE, a French literary lady, born at Aix; wrote numerous
works for the young (1808-1876).


COLIGNY, GASPARD DE, French admiral, born at Chatillon; a leader of
the Huguenots; began his life and distinguished himself as a soldier;
when the Guises came into power he busied himself in procuring toleration
for the Huguenots, and succeeded in securing in their behalf what is
known as the Pacification of Amboise, but on St. Bartholomew's Eve he
fell the first victim to the conspiracy in his bed; was thrown out of the
window, and exposed to every manner of indignity in the streets, though
it is hard to believe that the Duke of Guise, as is said, demeaned
himself to kick the still living body (1517-1572).


COLIMA (25), capital of a State of the same name in Mexico.


COLIN CLOUT, the name Spenser assumes in the "Shepherd's Calendar."


COLIN TAMPON, the nickname of a Swiss, as John Bull of an
Englishman.


COLISE`UM, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, begun under Vespasian
and finished under Titus; it rose from the area by 80 tiers of seats, and
could contain 80,000 spectators; it was here the gladiators fought with
wild beasts, and also the early Christians.


COLLATINUS, the nephew of Tarquinius Priscus, the husband of
Lucretia, and with Brutus, her avenger, the first consul of Rome.


COLLECTIVISM, the Socialistic doctrine that industry should be
carried on by capital as the joint property of the community.


COLLEGE DE FRANCE, an institution founded at Paris by Francis I. in
1530, where instruction is given to advanced students in several
departments of knowledge.


COLLIER, ARTHUR, an English metaphysician, born in Wilts; studied
Descartes and Malebranche, and who, anticipating Berkeley, published a
"Demonstration of the Non-Existence and the Impossibility of an External
World" (1680-1732). See BERKELEY.


COLLIER, JEREMY, an English non-juring divine, refused to take oath
at the Revolution; was imprisoned for advocating the rights of the
Stuarts; had to flee the country at length, and was outlawed; wrote with
effect against "The Profaneness and Immorality of the Stage," as well as
an "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," and a translation of the
"Meditations of Marcus Aurelius" (1650-1726).


COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE, a Shakespearian commentator and critic; wrote a
great deal on various subjects, but got into trouble by his emendations
of Shakespeare (1789-1883).


COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT, LORD, a celebrated English admiral, entered
the navy at 13; his career was intimately connected all along with that
of Nelson; succeeded in command when Nelson fell at Trafalgar, and when
he died himself, which happened at sea, his body was brought home and
buried beside Nelson's in St. Paul's Cathedral (1740-1810).


COLLINS, ANTHONY, an English deist, an intimate friend of Locke; his
principal works were "Discourse on Freethinking," "Philosophical Inquiry
into Liberty and Necessity," and "Grounds and Reasons of the Christian
Religion," which gave rise to much controversy; he was a necessitarian,
and argued against revelation (1676-1729).


COLLINS, MORTIMER, a versatile genius, born at Plymouth; wrote
poems, novels, and essays; was the author of "Who was the Heir?" and
"Sweet Anne Page"; was a tall, handsome man, fond of athletics, a
delightful companion, and dear to his friends (1827-1876).


COLLINS, WILKIE, English novelist, son of the succeeding, born in
London; tried business, then law, and finally settled to literature; his
novel "The Woman in White" was the first to take with the public, and was
preceded and succeeded by others which have ensured for him a high place
among the writers of fiction (1824-1889).


COLLINS, WILLIAM, a gifted and ill-fated English poet, born at
Chichester; settled in London; fell into dissipated habits and straitened
circumstances; had L2000 left him by an uncle, but both health and
spirits were broken, and he died in mental imbecility; his "Odes" have
not been surpassed, among which the most celebrated are the "Odes to the
Passions," to "Simplicity," and to "Evening" (1720-1756).


COLLINS, WILLIAM, R.A., a distinguished English painter, born in
London; he made his reputation by his treatment of coast and cottage
scenes, and though he tried his skill in other subjects, it was in the
subjects he started with that he achieved his greatest triumphs; among
his best-known works are "The Blackberry Gatherers," "As Happy as a
King," "The Fisherman's Daughter," and "The Bird-Catchers" (1788-1847).


COLLINSON, PETER, an English horticulturist, to whom we are indebted
for the introduction into the country of many ornamental shrubs
(1694-1768).


COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE, a violent French Revolutionary,
originally a tragic actor, once hissed off the Lyons stage, "tearing a
passion to rags"; had his revenge by a wholesale butchery there; marched
209 men across the Rhone to be shot; by-and-by was banished beyond seas
to Cayenne, and soon died there (1750-1790).


COLLYER, JOSEPH, an eminent stipple engraver, born in London
(1768-1827).


COLMAN, GEORGE, an English dramatist, born at Florence; bred for and
called to the bar; author of a comedy entitled "The Jealous Wife," also
of "The Clandestine Marriage"; became manager of Drury Lane, then of the
Haymarket (1733-1794).


COLMAN, GEORGE, son of the preceding, and his successor in the
Haymarket; author of "The Iron Chest," "John Bull," "The Heir at Law,"
&c. (1762-1836).


COLMAR (30), the chief town of Upper Alsace, on the Lauch, on a
plain near the Vosges, 42 m. SW. of Strasburg; passed into the hands of
the French by treaty of Ryswick in 1697, was ceded to Germany in 1871.


COLOCETRONIS, a Greek patriot, born in Messina, distinguished
himself in the War of Independence, which he chiefly contributed to carry
through to a successful issue (1770-1843).


COLOGNE (282), in German KOeLN, capital of Rhenish Prussia, and
a fortress of first rank, on the left bank of the Rhine, 175 m. SE. of
Rotterdam; is a busy commercial city, and is engaged in eau-de-Cologne,
sugar, tobacco, and other manufactures. It has some fine old buildings,
and a picture gallery; but its glory is its great cathedral, founded in
the 9th century, burnt in 1248, since which time the rebuilding was
carried on at intervals, and only completed in 1880; it is one of the
masterpieces of Gothic architecture.


COLOGNE, THE THREE KINGS OF, the three Magi who paid homage to the
infant Christ, and whose bones were consigned to the archbishop in 1164;
they were called Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.


COLOMBIA (4,000), a federal republic of nine States, occupying the
isthmus of Panama and the NW. corner of S. America, between Venezuela and
Ecuador. The country, nearly three times the size of France, though it
has only a ninth of the population, comprises in the W. three chains of
the Andes and the plateaus between them, in the E. plains well watered by
tributaries of the Orinoco. The upper valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca
are the centres of population, where the climate is delightful, and grain
grows. Every climate is found in Colombia, from the tropical heats of the
plains to the Arctic cold of the mountains. Natural productions are as
various: the exports include valuable timbers and dye-woods, cinchona
bark, coffee, cacao, cotton, and silver ore. Most of the trade is with
Britain and the United States. Manufactures are inconsiderable. The
mineral wealth is very great, but little wrought. The Panama Railway,
from Colon to Panama, connects the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans, and
is a most important highway of commerce. The people are descendants of
Spaniards and Indians; education is meagre, but compulsory; the State
Church is Roman Catholic. The capital is Bogota. Panama and Cartagena the
chief ports.


COLOMBO (126), the capital of Ceylon, and the chief port on the W.
coast; it is surrounded on three sides by the sea, and on the other by a
lake and moat; is supplied with water and gas; has many fine buildings;
has a very mixed population, and has belonged to Britain since 1796;
communicates with Kandy by railway.


COLON, a town at the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Railway. See
ASPINWALL.


COLONNA, an illustrious Italian family, to which belonged popes,
cardinals, and generals.


COLONNA, VICTORIA, a poetess, married to a member of the above
family, who consoled h