The Grammar of English Grammars / Brown, Goold, 1791-1857
Author: Brown, Goold, 1791-1857
Title: The Grammar of English Grammars
Publisher: Project Gutenberg
Tag(s): gram; verb; noun; murray's gram; nouns; pronoun; participle; obs; grammar; verbs; plural; murray; priestley's gram; english grammar
Contributor(s): Bernstein, Herman, 1876-1935 [Translator]
Versions: original; local mirror; HTML (this file); printable
Services: find in a library; evaluate using concordance
Rights: GNU General Public License
Size: 879,117 words Grade range: 7-10 Readability (Flesch) score: 65
Identifier: etext11615
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Title: The Grammar of English Grammars
Author: Goold Brown
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*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS ***
Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
Transcriber's Notes: Despite the severity with which the author of this
work treats those who depart from his standard of correctness, the source
text does contain a small number of typographical errors. Missing
punctuation has been supplied silently, but all other errors have been left
uncorrected. To let the reader distinguish such problems from any
inadvertent transcription errors that remain, I have inserted notes to flag
items that appear errors by Brown's own standard. Spellings that are simply
different from current practice, e.g., 'Shakspeare' are not noted. Special
characters: vowels with macrons are rendered with an equals sign (=) before
the vowel. Vowels with breve marks are rendered with tildes (~) before the
vowels.--KTH.
THE
GRAMMAR
OF
ENGLISH GRAMMARS,
WITH
AN INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL;
THE WHOLE
METHODICALLY ARRANGED AND AMPLY ILLUSTRATED;
WITH
FORMS OF CORRECTING AND OF PARSING, IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, EXAMPLES
FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS
FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, DECISIONS AND PROOFS FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF
DISPUTED POINTS, OCCASIONAL STRICTURES AND DEFENCES, AN EXHIBITION OF THE
SEVERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS,
AND
A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES:
TO WHICH ARE ADDED
FOUR APPENDIXES,
PERTAINING SEPARATELY TO THE FOUR PARTS OF GRAMMAR.
BY GOOLD BROWN,
AUTHOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH
GRAMMAR, ETC.
"So let great authors have their due, that Time, who is the author of
authors, be not deprived of his due, which is, farther and farther to
discover truth."--LORD BACON.
SIXTH EDITION--REVISED AND IMPROVED.
ENLARGED BY THE ADDITION OF A COPIOUS INDEX OF MATTERS.
BY SAMUEL U. BERRIAN, A. M.
PREFACE
The present performance is, so far as the end could be reached, the
fulfillment of a design, formed about twenty-seven years ago, of one day
presenting to the world, if I might, something like a complete grammar of
the English language;--not a mere work of criticism, nor yet a work too
tame, indecisive, and uncritical; for, in books of either of these sorts,
our libraries already abound;--not a mere philosophical investigation of
what is general or universal in grammar, nor yet a minute detail of what
forms only a part of our own philology; for either of these plans falls
very far short of such a purpose;--not a mere grammatical compend,
abstract, or compilation, sorting with other works already before the
public; for, in the production of school grammars, the author had early
performed his part; and, of small treatises on this subject, we have long
had a superabundance rather than a lack.
After about fifteen years devoted chiefly to grammatical studies and
exercises, during most of which time I had been alternately instructing
youth in four different languages, thinking it practicable to effect some
improvement upon the manuals which explain our own, I prepared and
published, for the use of schools, a duodecimo volume of about three
hundred pages; which, upon the presumption that its principles were
conformable to the best usage, and well established thereby, I entitled,
"The Institutes of English Grammar." Of this work, which, it is believed,
has been gradually gaining in reputation and demand ever since its first
publication, there is no occasion to say more here, than that it was the
result of diligent study, and that it is, essentially, the nucleus, or the
groundwork, of the present volume.
With much additional labour, the principles contained in the Institutes of
English Grammar, have here been not only reaffirmed and rewritten, but
occasionally improved in expression, or amplified in their details. New
topics, new definitions, new rules, have also been added; and all parts of
the subject have been illustrated by a multiplicity of new examples and
exercises, which it has required a long time to amass and arrange. To the
main doctrines, also, are here subjoined many new observations and
criticisms, which are the results of no inconsiderable reading and
reflection.
Regarding it as my business and calling, to work out the above-mentioned
purpose as circumstances might permit, I have laid no claim to genius, none
to infallibility; but I have endeavoured to be accurate, and aspired to be
useful; and it is a part of my plan, that the reader of this volume shall
never, through my fault, be left in doubt as to the origin of any thing it
contains. It is but the duty of an author, to give every needful facility
for a fair estimate of his work; and, whatever authority there may be for
anonymous copying in works on grammar, the precedent is always bad.
The success of other labours, answerable to moderate wishes, has enabled me
to pursue this task under favourable circumstances, and with an unselfish,
independent aim. Not with vainglorious pride, but with reverent gratitude
to God, I acknowledge this advantage, giving thanks for the signal mercy
which has upborne me to the long-continued effort. Had the case been
otherwise,--had the labours of the school-room been still demanded for my
support,--the present large volume would never have appeared. I had desired
some leisure for the completing of this design, and to it I scrupled not to
sacrifice the profits of my main employment, as soon as it could be done
without hazard of adding another chapter to "the Calamities of Authors."
The nature and design of this treatise are perhaps sufficiently developed
in connexion with the various topics which are successively treated of in
the Introduction. That method of teaching, which I conceive to be the best,
is also there described. And, in the Grammar itself, there will be found
occasional directions concerning the manner of its use. I have hoped to
facilitate the study of the English language, not by abridging our
grammatical code, or by rejecting the common phraseolgy [sic--KTH] of its
doctrines, but by extending the former, improving the latter, and
establishing both;--but still more, by furnishing new illustrations of the
subject, and arranging its vast number of particulars in such order that
every item may be readily found.
An other important purpose, which, in the preparation of this work, has
been borne constantly in mind, and judged worthy of very particular
attention, was the attempt to settle, so far as the most patient
investigation and the fullest exhibition of proofs could do it, the
multitudinous and vexatious disputes which have hitherto divided the
sentiments of teachers, and made the study of English grammar so
uninviting, unsatisfactory, and unprofitable, to the student whose taste
demands a reasonable degree of certainty.
"Whenever labour implies the exertion of thought, it does good, at least to
the strong: when the saving of labour is a saving of thought, it enfeebles.
The mind, like the body, is strengthened by hard exercise: but, to give
this exercise all its salutary effect, it should be of a reasonable kind;
it should lead us to the perception of regularity, of order, of principle,
of a law. When, after all the trouble we have taken, we merely find
anomalies and confusion, we are disgusted with what is so uncongenial: and,
as our higher faculties have not been called into action, they are not
unlikely to be outgrown by the lower, and overborne as it were by the
underwood of our minds. Hence, no doubt, one of the reasons why our
language has been so much neglected, and why such scandalous ignorance
prevails concerning its nature and history, is its unattractive,
disheartening irregularity: none but Satan is fond of plunging into
chaos."--_Philological Museum_, (Cambridge, Eng., 1832,) Vol. i, p. 666.
If there be any remedy for the neglect and ignorance here spoken of, it
must be found in the more effectual teaching of English grammar. But the
principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influence over any
person's manner of speaking or writing, till by some process they are made
so perfectly familiar, that he can apply them with all the readiness of a
native power; that is, till he can apply them not only to what has been
said or written, but to whatever he is about to utter. They must present
themselves to the mind as by intuition, and with the quickness of thought;
so as to regulate his language before it proceeds from the lips or the pen.
If they come only by tardy recollection, or are called to mind but as
contingent afterthoughts, they are altogether too late; and serve merely to
mortify the speaker or writer, by reminding him of some deficiency or
inaccuracy which there may then be no chance to amend.
But how shall, or can, this readiness be acquired? I answer, By a careful
attention to such _exercises_ as are fitted to bring the learner's
knowledge into practice. The student will therefore find, that I have given
him something to _do_, as well as something to _learn_. But, by the
formules and directions in this work, he is very carefully shown how to
proceed; and, if he be a tolerable reader, it will be his own fault, if he
does not, by such aid, become a tolerable grammarian. The chief of these
exercises are the _parsing_ of what is right, and the _correcting_ of what
is wrong; both, perhaps, equally important; and I have intended to make
them equally easy. To any real proficient in grammar, nothing can be more
free from embarrassment, than the performance of these exercises, in all
ordinary cases. For grammar, rightly learned, institutes in the mind a
certain knowledge, or process of thought, concerning the sorts, properties,
and relations, of all the words which can be presented in any intelligible
sentence; and, with the initiated, a perception of the construction will
always instantly follow or accompany a discovery of the sense: and
instantly, too, should there be a perception of the error, if any of the
words are misspelled, misjoined, misapplied,--or are, in any way,
unfaithful to the sense intended.
Thus it is the great end of grammar, to secure the power of apt expression,
by causing the principles on which language is constructed, if not to be
constantly present to the mind, at least to pass through it more rapidly
than either pen or voice can utter words. And where this power resides,
there cannot but be a proportionate degree of critical skill, or of ability
to judge of the language of others. Present what you will, grammar directs
the mind immediately to a consideration of the sense; and, if properly
taught, always creates a discriminating taste which is not less offended by
specious absurdities, than by the common blunders of clownishness. Every
one who has any pretensions to this art, knows that, to _parse_ a sentence,
is but to resolve it according to one's understanding of its import; and it
is equally clear, that the power to _correct_ an erroneous passage, usually
demands or implies a knowledge of the author's thought.
But, if parsing and correcting are of so great practical importance as our
first mention of them suggests, it may be well to be more explicit here
concerning them. The pupil who cannot perform these exercises both
accurately and fluently, is not truly prepared to perform them at all, and
has no right to expect from any body a patient hearing. A slow and
faltering rehearsal of words clearly prescribed, yet neither fairly
remembered nor understandingly applied, is as foreign from parsing or
correcting, as it is from elegance of diction. Divide and conquer, is the
rule here, as in many other cases. Begin with what is simple; practise it
till it becomes familiar; and then proceed. No child ever learned to speak
by any other process. Hard things become easy by use; and skill is gained
by little and little. Of the whole method of parsing, it should be
understood, that it is to be a critical exercise in utterance, as well as
an evidence of previous study,--an exhibition of the learner's attainments
in the practice, as well as in the theory, of grammar; and that, in any
tolerable performance of this exercise, there must be an exact adherence to
the truth of facts, as they occur in the example, and to the forms of
expression, which are prescribed as models, in the book. For parsing is, in
no degree, a work of invention; but wholly an exercise, an exertion of
skill. It is, indeed, an exercise for all the powers of the mind, except
the inventive faculty. Perception, judgement, reasoning, memory, and
method, are indispensable to the performance. Nothing is to be guessed at,
or devised, or uttered at random. If the learner can but rehearse the
necessary definitions and rules, and perform the simplest exercise of
judgement in their application, he cannot but perceive what he _must say_
in order to speak the truth in parsing. His principal difficulty is in
determining the parts of speech. To lessen this, the trial should commence
with easy sentences, also with few of the definitions, and with definitions
that have been perfectly learned. This difficulty being surmounted, let him
follow the forms prescribed for the several praxes of this work, and he
shall not err. The directions and examples given at the head of each
exercise, will show him exactly the number, the order, and the proper
phraseology, of the particulars to be stated; so that he may go through the
explanation with every advantage which a book can afford. There is no hope
of him whom these aids will not save from "plunging into chaos."
"Of all the works of man, language is the most enduring, and partakes the
most of eternity. And, as our own language, so far as thought can project
itself into the future, seems likely to be coeval with the world, and to
spread vastly beyond even its present immeasurable limits, there cannot
easily be a nobler object of ambition than to purify and better
it."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 665.
It was some ambition of the kind here meant, awakened by a discovery of the
scandalous errors and defects which abound in all our common English
grammars, that prompted me to undertake the present work. Now, by the
bettering of a language, I understand little else than the extensive
teaching of its just forms, according to analogy and the general custom of
the most accurate writers. This teaching, however, may well embrace also,
or be combined with, an exposition of the various forms of false grammar by
which inaccurate writers have corrupted, if not the language itself, at
least their own style in it.
With respect to our present English, I know not whether any other
improvement of it ought to be attempted, than the avoiding and correcting
of those improprieties and unwarrantable anomalies by which carelessness,
ignorance, and affectation, are ever tending to debase it, and the careful
teaching of its true grammar, according to its real importance in
education. What further amendment is feasible, or is worthy to engage
attention, I will not pretend to say; nor do I claim to have been competent
to so much as was manifestly desirable within these limits. But what I
lacked in ability, I have endeavored to supply by diligence; and what I
could conveniently strengthen by better authority than my own, I have not
failed to support with all that was due, of names, guillemets, and
references.
Like every other grammarian, I stake my reputation as an author, upon "a
certain set of opinions," and a certain manner of exhibiting them,
appealing to the good sense of my readers for the correctness of both. All
contrary doctrines are unavoidably censured by him who attempts to sustain
his own; but, to grammatical censures, no more importance ought to be
attached than what belongs to grammar itself. He who cares not to be
accurate in the use of language, is inconsistent with himself, if he be
offended at verbal criticism; and he who is displeased at finding his
opinions rejected, is equally so, if he cannot prove them to be well
founded. It is only in cases susceptible of a rule, that any writer can be
judged deficient. I can censure no man for differing from me, till I can
show him a principle which he ought to follow. According to Lord Kames, the
standard of taste, both in arts and in manners, is "the common sense of
mankind," a principle founded in the universal conviction of a common
nature in our species. (See _Elements of Criticism_, Chap, xxv, Vol. ii, p.
364.) If this is so, the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any
thing about which criticism may concern itself.
But, to the discerning student or teacher, I owe an apology for the
abundant condescension with which I have noticed in this volume the works
of unskillful grammarians. For men of sense have no natural inclination to
dwell upon palpable offences against taste and scholarship; nor can they be
easily persuaded to approve the course of an author who makes it his
business to criticise petty productions. And is it not a fact, that
grammatical authorship has sunk so low, that no man who is capable of
perceiving its multitudinous errors, dares now stoop to notice the most
flagrant of its abuses, or the most successful of its abuses? And, of the
quackery which is now so prevalent, what can be a more natural effect, than
a very general contempt for the study of grammar? My apology to the reader
therefore is, that, as the honour of our language demands correctness in
all the manuals prepared for schools, a just exposition of any that are
lacking in this point, is a service due to the study of English grammar, if
not to the authors in question.
The exposition, however, that I have made of the errors and defects of
other writers, is only an incident, or underpart, of the scheme of this
treatise. Nor have I anywhere exhibited blunders as one that takes delight
in their discovery. My main design has been, to prepare a work which, by
its own completeness and excellence, should deserve the title here chosen.
But, a comprehensive code of false grammar being confessedly the most
effectual means of teaching what is true, I have thought fit to supply this
portion of my book, not from anonymous or uncertain sources, but from the
actual text of other authors, and chiefly from the works of professed
grammarians.
"In what regards the laws of grammatical purity," says Dr. Campbell, "the
violation is much more conspicuous than the observance."--See _Philosophy
of Rhetoric_, p. 190. It therefore falls in with my main purpose, to
present to the public, in the following ample work, a condensed mass of
special criticism, such as is not elsewhere to be found in any language.
And, if the littleness of the particulars to which the learner's attention
is called, be reckoned an objection, the author last quoted has furnished
for me, as well as for himself, a good apology. "The elements which enter
into the composition of the hugest bodies, are subtile and inconsiderable.
The rudiments of every art and science exhibit at first, to the learner,
the appearance of littleness and insignificancy. And it is by attending to
such reflections, as to a superficial observer would appear minute and
hypercritical, that language must be improved, and eloquence
perfected."--_Ib._, p. 244.
GOOLD BROWN.
LYNN, MASS., 1851.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PRELIMINARY MATTERS.
Preface to the Grammar of English Grammars
This Table of Contents
Catalogue of English Grammars and Grammarians
INTRODUCTION.
Chapter I. Of the Science of Grammar
Chapter II. Of Grammatical Authorship
Chapter III. Of Grammatical Success and Fame
Chapter IV. Of the Origin of Language
Chapter V. Of the Power of Language
Chapter VI. Of the Origin and History of the English Language
Chapter VII. Changes and Specimens of the English Language
Chapter VIII. Of the Grammatical Study of the English Language
Chapter IX. Of the Best Method of Teaching Grammar
Chapter X. Of Grammatical Definitions
Chapter XI. Brief Notices of the Schemes of certain Grammars
THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
Introductory Definitions
General Division of the Subject
PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY.
Chapter I. Of Letters
I. Names of the Letters
II. Classes of the Letters
III. Powers of the Letters
IV. Forms of the Letters
Rules for the use of Capitals
Errors concerning Capitals
Promiscuous Errors of Capitals
Chapter II. Of Syllables
Diphthongs and Triphthongs
Rules for Syllabication
Observations on Syllabication
Errors concerning Syllables
Chapter III. Of Words
Rules for the Figure of Words
Observations on Figure of Words
On the Identity of Words
Errors concerning Figure
Promiscuous Errors in Figure
Chapter IV. Of Spelling
Rules for Spelling
Observations on Spelling
Errors in Spelling
Promiscuous Errors in Spelling
Chapter V. Questions on Orthography
Chapter VI Exercises for Writing
PART II. ETYMOLOGY.
Introductory Definitions
Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech
Observations on Parts of Speech
Examples for Parsing, Praxis I
Chapter II. Of the Articles
Observations on the Articles
Examples for Parsing, Praxis II
Errors concerning Articles
Chapter III. Of Nouns
Classes of Nouns
Modifications of Nouns
Persons
Numbers
Genders
Cases
The Declension of Nouns
Examples for Parsing, Praxis III
Errors concerning Nouns
Chapter IV. Of Adjectives
Classes of Adjectives
Modifications of Adjectives
Regular Comparison
Comparison by Adverbs
Irregular Comparison
Examples for Parsing, Praxis IV
Errors concerning Adjectives
Chapter V. Of Pronouns
Classes of the Pronouns
Modifications of the Pronouns
The Declension of Pronouns
Examples for Parsing, Praxis V
Errors concerning Pronouns
Chapter VI. Of Verbs
Classes of Verbs
Modifications of Verbs
Moods
Tenses
Persons and Numbers
The Conjugation of Verbs
I. Simple Form, Active or Neuter
First Example, the verb _LOVE_
Second Example, the verb _SEE_
Third Example, the verb _BE_
II. Compound or Progressive Form
Fourth Example, to _BE READING_
Observations on Compound Forms
III. Form of Passive Verbs
Fifth Example, to _BE LOVED_
IV. Form of Negation
V. Form of Question
VI. Form of Question with Negation
Irregular Verbs, with Obs. and List
Redundant Verbs, with Obs. and List
Defective Verbs, with Obs. and List
Examples for Parsing, Praxis VI
Errors concerning Verbs
Chapter VII. Of Participles
Classes of Participles
Examples for Parsing, Praxis VII
Errors concerning Participles
Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs
Classes of Adverbs
Modifications of Adverbs
Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII
Errors concerning Adverbs
Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions
Classes of Conjunctions
List of the Conjunctions
Examples for Parsing, Praxis IX
Errors concerning Conjunctions
Chapter X. Of Prepositions
List of the Prepositions
Examples for Parsing, Praxis X
Errors concerning Prepositions
Chapter XI. Of Interjections
List of the Interjections
Examples for Parsing, Praxis XI
Errors concerning Interjections
Chapter XII. Questions on Etymology
Chapter XIII. Exercises for Writing
PART III. SYNTAX.
Introductory Definitions
Chapter I. Of Sentences
The Rules of Syntax
General or Critical Obs. on Syntax
The Analyzing of Sentences
The several Methods of Analysis
Observations on Methods of Analysis
Examples for Parsing, Praxis XII
Chapter II. Of the Articles
Rule I. Syntax of Articles
Observations on Rule I
Notes to Rule I; 17 of them
False Syntax under Notes to Rule I
Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns
Rule II. Of Nominatives
Observations on Rule II
False Syntax under Rule II
Rule III. Of Apposition
Observations on Rule III
False Syntax under Rule III
Rule IV. Of Possessives
Observations on Rule IV
Notes to Rule IV; 5 of them
False Syntax under Notes to Rule IV
Rule V. Of Objectives after Verbs
Observations on Rule V
Notes to Rule V; 8 of them
False Syntax under Rule V
Rule VI. Of Same Cases
Observations on Rule VI
Notes to Rule VI; 2 of them
False Syntax under Rule VI
Rule VII. Of Objectives after Prepositions
Observations on Rule VII
Note to Rule VII; 1 only
False Syntax under Rule VII
Rule VIII. Of Nominatives Absolute
Observations on Rule VIII
False Syntax under Rule VIII
Chapter IV. Of Adjectives
Rule IX. Of Adjectives
Observations on Rule IX
Notes to Rule IX; 16 of them
False Syntax under Rule IX
Chapter V. Of Pronouns
Rule X. Pronoun and Antecedent
Observations on Rule X
Notes to Rule X; 16 of them
False Syntax under Rule X
Rule XI. Pronoun and Collective Noun
Observations on Rule XI
Notes to Rule XI; 2 of them
False Syntax under Rule XI
Rule XII. Pronoun after AND
Observations on Rule XII
False Syntax under Rule XII
Rule XIII. Pronoun after OR or NOR
Observations on Rule XIII
False Syntax under Rule XIII
Chapter VI. Of Verbs
Rule XIV. Verb and Nominative
Observations on Rule XIV
Notes to Rule XIV; 10 of them
False Syntax under Rule XIV
Rule XV. Verb and Collective Noun
Observations on Rule XV
Note to Rule XV; 1 only
False Syntax under Rule XV
Rule XVI. The Verb after AND
Observations on Rule XVI
Notes to Rule XVI; 7 of them
False Syntax under Rule XVI
Rule XVII. The Verb with OR or NOR
Observations on Rule XVII
Notes to Rule XVII; 15 of them
False Syntax under Rule XVII
Rule XVIII. Of Infinitives with TO
Observations on Rule XVIII
False Syntax under Rule XVIII
Rule XIX. Of Infinitives without TO
Observations on Rule XIX
False Syntax under Rule XIX
Chapter VII. Of Participles
Rule XX. Syntax of Participles
Observations on Rule XX
Notes to Rule XX; 13 of them
False Syntax under Rule XX
Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs
Rule XXI. Relation of Adverbs
Observations on Rule XXI
Notes to Rule XXI; 10 of them
False Syntax under Rule XXI
Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions
Rule XXII. Use of Conjunctions
Observations on Rule XXII
Notes to Rule XXII; 8 of them
False Syntax under Rule XXII
Chapter X. Of Prepositions
Rule XXIII. Use of Prepositions
Observations on Rule XXIII
Notes to Rule XXIII; 5 of them
False Syntax under Rule XXIII
Chapter XI. Of Interjections
Rule XXIV. For Interjections
Observations on Rule XXIV
False Syntax Promiscuous
Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIII
Chapter XII. General Review
False Syntax for a General Review
Chapter XIII. General Rule of Syntax
Critical Notes to the General Rule
General Observations on the Syntax
False Syntax under the General Rule
False Syntax under the Critical Notes
Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax
Chapter XIV. Questions on Syntax
Chapter XV. Exercises for Writing
PART IV. PROSODY.
Introductory Definitions and Observations
Chapter I. Punctuation
Obs. on Pauses, Points, Names, &c.
Section I. The Comma; its 17 Rules
Errors concerning the Comma
Section II. The Semicolon; its 3 Rules
Errors concerning the Semicolon
Mixed Examples of Error
Section III. The Colon; its 3 Rules
Errors concerning the Colon
Mixed Examples of Error
Section IV. The Period; its 8 Rules
Observations on the Period
Errors concerning the Period
Mixed Examples of Error
Section V. The Dash; its 3 Rules
Observations on the Dash
Errors concerning the Dash
Mixed Examples of Error
Section VI. The Eroteme; its 3 Rules
Observations on the Eroteme
Errors concerning the Eroteme
Mixed Examples of Error
Section VII. The Ecphoneme; its 3 Rules
Errors concerning the Ecphoneme
Mixed Examples of Error
Section VIII. The Curves; and their 2 Rules
Errors concerning the Curves
Mixed Examples of Error
Section IX. The Other Marks
Mixed Examples of Error
Bad English Badly Pointed
Chapter II. Of Utterance
Section I. Of Articulation
Article I. Of the Definition
Article II. Of Good Articulation
Section II. Of Pronunciation
Article I. Powers of Letters
Article II. Of Quantity
Article III. Of Accent
Section III. Of Elocution
Article I. Of Emphasis
Article II. Of Pauses
Article III. Of Inflections
Article IV. Of Tones
Chapter III. Of Figures
Section I. Figures of Orthography
Section II. Figures of Etymology
Section III. Figures of Syntax
Section IV. Figures of Rhetoric
Section V. Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIV
Chapter IV. Of Versification
Section I. Of Verse
Definitions and Principles
Observations on Verse
Section II. Of Accent and Quantity
Section III. Of Poetic Feet
Critical Observations on Theories
Section IV. Of the Kinds of Verse
Order I. Iambic Verse; its 8 Measures
Order II. Trochaic Verse; its Nature
Observations on Trochaic Metre
Trochaics shown in their 8 Measures
Order III. Anapestic Verse; its 4 Measures
Observations on the Short Anapestics
Order IV. Dactylic Verse; its 8 Measures
Observations on Dactylics
Order V. Composite Verse
Observations on Composites
Section V. Improprieties for Correction
Chapter V. Questions on Prosody
Chapter VI. Exercises for Writing
KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES.
THE KEY.--PART I.--ORTHOGRAPHY.
Chapter I. Of Letters; Capitals
Corrections under each of the 16 Rules
Promiscuous corrections of Capitals
Chapter II. Of Syllables
Corrections of False Syllabication
Chapter III. Of the Figure of Words
Corrections under each of the 6 Rules
Promiscuous corrections of Figure
Chapter IV. Of Spelling
Corrections under each of the 15 Rules
Promiscuous corrections of Spelling
THE KEY.--PART II--ETYMOLOGY.
Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech
Remark concerning False Etymology
Chapter II. Of Articles; 5 Lessons
Chapter III. Of Nouns; 3 Lessons
Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; 3 Lessons
Chapter V. Of Pronouns; 3 Lessons
Chapter VI. Of Verbs; 3 Lessons
Chapter VII. Of Participles; 3 Lessons
Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs; 1 Lesson
Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions; 1 Lesson
Chapter X. Of Prepositions; 1 Lesson
Chapter XI. Of Interjections; 1 Lesson
THE KEY.--PART III.--SYNTAX.
Chapter I. Of Sentences; Remark
Chapter II. Of Articles. Corrections under the 17 Notes to Rule 1
Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns
Cor. under Rule II; of Nominatives
Cor. under Rule III; of Apposition
Cor. under Rule IV; of Possessives
Cor. under Rule V; of Objectives
Cor. under Rule VI; of Same Cases
Cor. under Rule VII; of Objectives
Cor. under Rule VIII; of Nom. Absolute
Chapter IV. Of Adjectives. Corrections under the 16 Notes to Rule IX
Chapter V. Of Pronouns. Corrections under Rule X and its 16 Notes
Corrections under Rule XI; of Pronouns
Cor. under Rule XII; of Pronouns
Cor. under Rule XIII; of Pronouns
Chapter VI. Of Verbs. Corrections under Rule XIV and its 10 Notes
Cor. under Rule XV and its Note
Cor. under Rule XVI and its 7 Notes
Cor. under Rule XVII and its 15 Notes
Cor. under Rule XVIII; of Infinitives
Cor. under Rule XIX; of Infinitives
Chapter VII. Of Participles. Corrections under the 13 Notes to Rule XX
Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs. Corrections under the 10 Notes to Rule XXI
Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions. Corrections under the 8 Notes to Rule XXII
Chapter X. Of Prepositions. Corrections under the 5 Notes to Rule XXIII
Chapter XI. Promiscuous Exercises. Corrections of the 8 Lessons
Chapter XII. General Review. Corrections under all the preceding Rules
and Notes; 18 Lessons
Chapter XIII. General Rule. Corrections under the General Rule; 16
Lessons
Corrections under the Critical Notes
Promiscuous Corrections of False Syntax; 5 Lessons, under Various Rules
THE KEY.--PART IV.--PROSODY.
Chapter I. Punctuation
Section I. The Comma; Corrections under its 17 Rules
Section II. The Semicolon; Corrections under its 8 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section III. The Colon; Corrections under its 8 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section IV. The Period; Corrections under its 8 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section V. The Dash; Corrections under its 8 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section VI. The Eroteme; Corrections under its 3 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section VII. The Ecphoneme; Corrections under its 3 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section VIII. The Curves; Corrections under their 2 Rules
Mixed Examples Corrected
Section IX. All Points; Corrections
Good English Rightly Pointed
Chapter II. Utterance; no Corrections
Chapter III. Figures; no Corrections
Chapter IV. Versification. False Prosody, or Errors of Metre, Corrected
THE FOUR APPENDIXES.
Appendix I. (To Orthography.) Of the Sounds of the Letters
Appendix II. (To Etymology.) Of the Derivation of Words
Appendix III. (To Syntax.) Of the Qualities of Style
Appendix IV. (To Prosody.) Of Poetic Diction; its Peculiarities
INDEX OF MATTERS.
A DIGESTED CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS AND GRAMMARIANS,
WITH SOME COLLATERAL WORKS AND AUTHORITIES, ESPECIALLY SUCH AS ARE CITED IN
THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL. D.; "Latin and English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 302:
Edinburgh, 1772; Boston, 1803.
ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, LL. D.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory;" 2 vols.,
8vo: Cambridge, N. E., 1810.
ADAMS, Rev. CHARLES, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 172: 1st Edition,
Boston, 1838. ADAMS, DANIEL, M. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 103: 3d
Edition, Montpelier, Vt., 1814.
ADAMS, E.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 143. Leicester, Mass., 1st Ed., 1806;
5th Ed., 1821.
AICKIN, JOSEPH; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1693.
AINSWORTH, ROBERT; Latin and English Dictionary, 4to: 1st Ed., 1736;
revised Ed., Lond., 1823.
AINSWORTH, LUTHER; "A Practical System of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144:
1st Ed., Providence, R. I., 1837.
ALDEN, ABNER, A. M.; "Grammar Made Easy;" 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Boston,
1811.
ALDEN, Rev. TIMOTHY, Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston,
1811.
ALDRICH, W.; "Lectures on English Grammar and Rhetoric, for Common Schools,
Academies," &c.; 18mo, pp. 68: 11th Ed., Boston, 1847.
ALEXANDER, CALEB, A. M.; (1.) "Grammatical Elements," published before
1794. (2.) "A Grammatical Institute of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 132:
Worcester, Mass., 1794. (3.) "A Grammatical System of the English
Language;" 12mo, pp. 96; written at Mendon, Mass., 1795: 10th Ed., Keene,
N. H., 1814. Also, (4.) "An Introduction to Latin," 1795; and, (5.) "An
Introduction to the Speaking and Writing of English."
ALEXANDER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 216: 4th Edition, London,
1832.
ALGER, ISRAEL, Jun., A. M.; "Abridgement of Murray's E. Gram.," &c.; 18mo,
pp. 126: Boston, 1824 and 1842.
ALLEN, Rev. WILLIAM, M. A.; "Grammar of the English Language," &c.; 18mo:
London. Also, "The Elements of English Grammar." &c.; 12mo, pp. 457:
London, 1813; 2d Ed.,
ALLEN and CORNWELL:; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: 3d Edition, London,
1841.
ALLEN, D. CAVERNO; "Grammatic Guide, or Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
94: Syracuse, N. Y., 1847.
ANDREW, JAMES, LL. D.; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 129: London, 1817.
ANDREWS & STODDARD; "A Grammar of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 328:
Boston, 1836; 11th Ed., 1845.
ANGELL, OLIVER, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition,
Providence, R. I., 1830.
ANGUS, WILLIAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 255: 2d Edition, Glasgow,
Scotland, 1807.
ANON.; "The British Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: London, 1760, or near that
date. Boston, Mass., 1784.
ANON.; "A Comprehensive Grammar," &c.; 18mo, pp. 174: 3d Ed., Philadelphia,
T. Dobson, 1789.
ANON.; "The Comic Grammar," &c,: London, 1840.
ANON.; "The Decoy," an English Grammar with Cuts; 12mo, pp. 33: New York,
S. Wood & Sons, 1820.
ANON.: E. Gram., "By T. C.;" 18mo, pp. 104: London, 1843.
ANON.; Grammar and Rhetoric; 12mo, pp. 221: London, 1776.
ANON.; "The English Tutor;" 8vo: London, 1747.
ANON.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, Boosey, 1795.
ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 161: London, 1838.
ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 85: London, 1838.
ANON.; An English Grammar, with Engravings; 18mo, pp. 16: London, 1820.
ANON.; English Grammar, pp. 84: 1st Ed., Huddersfield, 1817.
ANON.: "The Essentials of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 3d Edition,
London, 1821.
ANON.; "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar," in "The Complete
Letter-Writer;" 12mo, pp. 31;--pages of the whole book, 215: London, 1811.
ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 131: Albany, N. Y., 1819.
ANON.; (A. H. Maltby & Co. pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Additions;"
18mo, pp. 120: Newhaven, Ct., 1822.
ANON.; (James Loring, pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Alterations and
Improvements; by a Teacher of Youth;" (Lawson Lyon;) 18mo, pp. 72: 14th
Ed., Boston, 1821.
ANON.; "The Infant School Grammar;" (said to have been written by Mrs.
Bethune;) 18mo, pp. 182: New York, 1830. Jonathan Seymour, proprietor.
ANON.; Pestalozzian Grammar; 12mo, pp. 60: Boston, 1830.
ANON.; Interrogative Grammar; 12mo, pp. 70: Boston, 1832.
ANON.; Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 108: Boston, 1830. ANON.; "The
Juvenile English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 89: Boston, 1829. B. Perkins & Co.,
publishers and proprietors.
ANON.; "The Little Grammarian;" 18mo, pp. 108: 2d Edition, Boston, 1829.
ANON.; An Inductive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 185: Windsor, Vt., 1829.
ANON.; "A Concise Grammar of the English Language, attempted in Verse;"
18mo, pp. 63: 1st Edition, New York, 1825. ANON.; "Edward's First Lessons
in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, T. H. Webb & Co., 1843.
ANON.; "The First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition,
Boston, 1842.
ANON.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 124: New York,
1831; 2d Ed., Boston, 1834.
ANON.; "Enclytica, or the Principles of Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 133:
London, J. Booth, 1814.
ANON.; "The General Principles of Grammar, edited by a few Well-Wishers to
Knowledge;" 18mo, pp. 76: Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, 1847.
ANON.; "English School Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 32: London, 1850. A meagre
sketch, published by "the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge."
ANON.; "An English Grammar, together with a First Lesson in Reading;" 18mo,
pp. 16: James Burns, London; 2d Ed., 1844. Not worth a pin.
ARISTOTLE; his Poetics;--the Greek text, with Goulston's Latin Version, and
Winstanley's Notes;--8vo, pp. 320: Oxford, England, 1780.
ARNOLD, T. K., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 76: 2d Edition, London,
1841.
ASH, JOHN, LL. D.; "Grammatical Institutes;" 18mo, pp. 142: London, first
published about 1763; New York, "A New Edition, Revised and Corrected,"
1799.
BACON, CALEB, Teacher; "Murray's English Grammar Put into Questions and
Answers;" 18mo, pp. 108: New York, 1st Edition, 1818; 5th Edition, 1823,
1827, and 1830.
BADGLEY, JONATHAN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 200: 1st Edition, Utica, N.
Y., 1845. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown.
BALCH, WILLIAM S.; (1.) "Lectures on Language;" 12mo, pp. 252: Providence,
1838. (2.) "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp, 140: 1st Edition,
Boston, 1839.
BALDWIN, EDWARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 148: London, 1810; 2d Ed.,
1824.
BARBER, Dr. JONATHAN; "A Grammar of Elocution;" 12mo; Newhaven, 1830.
BARNARD, FREDERICK A. P., A. M.; "Analytic Grammar; with Symbolic
Illustration;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York, 1836. This is a curious work, and
remarkably well-written.
BARNES, DANIEL H., of N. Y.; "The Red Book," or Bearcroft's "Practical
Orthography," Revised and Enlarged; 12mo, pp. 347: New York, 1828.
BARNES, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: London, 1842.
(2.) "A Philological Grammar, grounded upon English, and formed from a
Comparison of more than Sixty Languages;" 8vo, pp. 312: London, 1854.
BARRETT, JOHN; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 214: 2d Ed.,
Boston, 1819.
BARRETT, SOLOMON, Jun.; (1.) "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 120:
Albany, 1837. (2.) "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 96;
"Tenth Edition, Revised:" Utica, 1845. (3.) "The Principles of Grammar;"
12mo, pp. 407: "Revised Edition;" Cambridge, 1854.
BARRIE, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 54: Edinburgh, 9th Ed., 1800.
BARTLETT, MONTGOMERY R.; "The Common School Manual;" called in the Third or
Philadelphia Edition, "The _National_ School Manual;"--"in Four Parts," or
Separate Volumes, 12mo: I, pp. 108; II, 302; III, 379; IV, promised "to
consist of 450 or 500 pages." First three parts, "Second Edition," New
York, 1830. A miserable jumble, in the successive pages of which, Grammar
is mixed up with Spelling-columns, Reading-lessons, Arithmetic, Geometry,
and the other supposed daily tasks of a school-boy!
BAILEY, N., Schoolmaster; "English and Latin Exercises;" 12mo, pp. 183:
London. 18th Ed., 1798.
BAILEY, Rev. R. W., A. M.; "English Grammar," or "Manual of the English
Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: 2d Ed., Philadelphia, 1854.
BAYLEY, ANSELM, LL. D.; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1772.
BEALE, SOLON; English Grammar, 18mo, pp. 27: Bangor, Maine, 1833.
BEALL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, 12mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1841.
BEATTIE, JAMES, LL. D.; "Theory of Language:" London, 1783; Philadelphia,
1809. "Elements of Moral Science;" 12mo, pp. 572; Baltimore, 1813. See, in
Part 1, the sections which treat of "The Faculty of Speech," and the
"Essentials of Language;" and, in Part IV, those which treat of "Rhetorick,
Figures, Sentences, Style, and Poetry."
BECK, WILLIAM; "Outline of English Grammar;" very small, pp. 34: 3d Ed.,
London, 1829.
BEECHER, CATHARINE E.; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 74. 1st Ed., Hartford,
Ct., 1829.
BELL, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 446: (2 vols.:) 1st Ed., Glasgow,
1769.
BELLAMY, ELIZABETH; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1802.
BENEDICT,--------; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed., Nicholasville,
Ky., 1832.
BETTESWORTH, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1778.
BICKNELL, ALEXANDER, Esq.; "The Grammatical Wreath; or, a Complete System
of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 804: London, 1790.
BINGHAM, CALEB, A. M.; "The Young Lady's Accidence;" 18mo, pp. 60: Boston,
1804; 20th Ed., 1815.
BLAIR, HUGH, D. D., F. B. S.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres;"
8vo, pp. 500: London, 1783; New York, 1819.
BLAIR, JOHN, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 145: 1st Ed., Philadelphia,
1831.
BLAIR, DAVID, Rev.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo,
pp. 167: 7th Ed., London, 1815.
BLAISDALE, SILAS; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., Boston, 1831.
BLISS, LEONARD Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 73: 1st Ed., Louisville,
Ky., 1839.
BOBBITT, A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 136: 1st Ed., London, 1833.
BOLLES, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 180: Ster. Ed., N.
London, 1831. (2.) "An Explanatory and Phonographic Pronouncing Dictionary
of the English Language;" royal octavo, pp. 944; Ster. Ed., New London,
1845.
BOOTH, DAVID; Introd. to Analytical Dict.; 8vo, pp. 168: London, 1814.
Analytical Dictionary of the English Language: London, 1835. E. Grammar,
12mo: London, 1837.
BRACE, JOAB; "The Principles of English Grammar;" (vile theft from Lennie;)
18mo, pp. 144: 1st Edition, Philadelphia, 1839.
BRADLEY, JOSHUA, A. M.; "Youth's Literary Guide;" 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed.,
Windsor, Vt., 1815.
BRADLEY, Rev. C.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: York, Eng., 1810; 3d Ed.,
1813.
BRIDIL, EDMUND, LL. D.; E. Gram., 4to: London, 1799.
BRIGHTLAND, JOHN, _Pub._; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 800:
7th Ed., London, 1748.
BRITTAIN, Rev. LEWIS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 156: 2d Edition, London,
1790.
BROMLEY, WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., Halifax, N. S.,
1822.
BROWN, GOOLD; (1.) "The Institutes of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220-312:
New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1832, and again in 1846. (2.) "The
First Lines of English Grammar;" early copies 18mo, late copies 12mo, pp.
108: New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1827, and in 1844. (3.) "A Key
to the Exercises for Writing, contained in the Institutes of English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 51: New York, 1825. (4.) "A Catechism of English
Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 72: New York, 1827. (5.) "A Compendious English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 22: (in Part I of the Treasury of Knowledge:) New York,
1831. (6.) "The Grammar of English Grammars;" 8vo, pp. 1028; first printed
in Boston in 1850 and 1851.
BROWN, JAMES; (1.) An Explanation of E. Grammar as taught by an Expensive
Machine; 8vo, pp. 40: 1st Ed., Boston, 1815. (2.) "The American Grammar;" a
Pamphlet; 12mo, pp. 48: Salem, N. Y., 1821. (3.) "An American Grammar;"
18mo, pp. 162: New York, 1821. (4.) "An Appeal from the British System of
English Grammar to Common Sense;" 12mo, pp. 336: Philadelphia, 1837. (5.)
"The American System of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 216: Philad., 1838. (6.)
"An Exegesis of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 147: Philad., 1840. (7.) "The
First Part of the American System of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 195:
Boston, 1841. (8.) "An English Syntascope," a "Chart," and other
fantastical works.
BROWN, J. H., A. M.; (with Gengemhre;) "Elements of English Grammar, on a
Progressive System;" 12mo, pp. 213: Philad., 1855.
BROWN, RICHARD; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1692.
BUCHANAN, JAMES; "A Regular English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 196: 5th American
Ed., Philad., 1792.
BUCKE, CHARLES; "A Classical Grammar of the E. Language;" 18mo, pp. 152:
London, 1829.
BULLEN, Rev. H. ST. JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 140: 1st Edition,
London, 1797.
BULLIONS, Rev. PETER, D. D.; (1.) "Elements of the Greek Language;" (now
called, "The Principles of Greek Grammar;") mostly a version of Dr. Moor's
"Elementa Linguae Graecae:" 1st Ed., 1831. (2.) "The Principles of English
Grammar;" (mostly copied from Lennie;) 12mo, pp. 187; 2d Ed., New York,
1837; 5th Ed., Revised, pp. 216, 1843, (3.) "The Principles of Latin
Grammar;" (professedly, "upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar;")
12mo, pp. 312: Albany, 1841: 12th Ed., New York, 1846. (4.) "Practical
Lessons in English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 132: New York, 1844. (5.) "An
Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240:
1st Ed., New York, 1849.
BULLOKAR, WILLIAM; (1.) "Booke at Large for the Amendment of Orthographie
for English Speech." (2.) "A Bref Grammar for English:" London, 1586.
BURHANS, HEZEKIAH; "The Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 204:
1st Ed., Philad., 1823.
BURLES, EDWARD; E. Gram., 12mo: Lond., 1652.
BURN, JOHN; "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp. 275: Glasgow,
1766; 10th Ed., 1810.
BURR, JONATHAN, A. M.; "A Compendium of Eng. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 72: Boston,
1797,--1804,--1818.
BUTLER, CHARLES; E. Gram., 4to: Oxford, Eng., 1633.
BUTLER, NOBLE, A. M.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp.
216: 1st Ed., Louisville, Ky., 1845. (2.) "Introductory Lessons in E.
Grammar," 1845.
CAMPBELL, GEORGE, D. D., F. R. S.; "The Philosophy of Rhetoric;" 8vo, pp.
445: London, 1776: Philad., 1818.
CARDELL, WM. S.; (1.) An "Analytical Spelling-Book;" (with Part of the
"Story of Jack Halyard;") 12mo, pp. 192: (published at first under the
fictitious name of "John Franklin Jones:") New York, 1823; 2d Ed., 1824.
(2.) An "Essay on Language;" 12mo, pp. 203: New York, 1825. (3.) "Elements
of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 141: New York, 1826; 3d Ed., Hartford, 1827.
(4.) "Philosophic Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 236:
Philadelphia, 1827.
CAREY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed., London, 1809.
CARTER, JOHN; E. Gram., 8vo: Leeds, 1773.
CHANDLER, JOSEPH R.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 180:
Philad., 1821. Rev. Ed., pp. 208, stereotyped, 1847.
CHAPIN, JOEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 252: 1st Edition, Springfield,
Mass., 1842.
CHAUVIER, J. H., M. A.; "A Treatise on Punctuation;" translated from the
French, by J. B. Huntington; large 18mo, pp. 112: London, 1849.
CHESSMAN, DANIEL, A. M.; Murray Abridged; 18mo, pp. 24: 3d Ed., Hullowell,
Me., 1821.
CHILD, PROF. F. J.; "Revised Edition" of Dr. Latham's "Elementary English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 236: Cambridge, N. E., 1852.
CHURCHILL, T. O.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 454:
1st Ed., London, 1823.
CLAPHAM, Rev. SAMUEL; E. Grammar: London, 1810.
CLARK, HENRY; E. Grammar; 4to: London, 1656.
CLARK, SCHUYLER; "The American Linguist, or Natural Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
240: Providence, 1830.
CLARK, S. W., A. M.; "A Practical Grammar," with "a System of Diagrams;"
12mo, pp. 218; 2d Ed., New York, 1848.
CLARK, WILLIAM; E. Gram.; 18mo: London, 1810.
CLARKE, R.; "Poetical Grammar of the English Language, and an Epitome of
Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 172; price, 2s. 6d.: London, 1855.
COAR, THOMAS; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 276: 1st Ed.,
London, 1796.
COBB, ENOS; "Elements of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1820.
COBB, LYMAN, A. M.; (1.) A Spelling-Book according to J. Walker; "Revised
Ed.:" Ithaca, N. Y., 1825. (2.) "Abridgment of Walker's Crit. Pron. Dict.:"
Hartford, Ct., 1829. (3.) "Juvenile Reader, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and Sequel:" New
York, 1831. (4.) "The North American Reader;" 12mo, pp. 498: New York,
1835. (5.) "New Spelling-Book, in Six Parts;" 12mo, pp. 168: N. Y., 1843.
(6.) An "Expositor," a "Miniature Lexicon," books of "Arithmetic, &c., &c."
COBBETT, WILLIAM; "A Grammar of the E. Language;" 12mo, New York and Lond.,
1818; 18mo, N. Y., 1832.
COBBIN, Rev. INGRAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 20th Edition,
London, 1844.
COCHRAN, PETER, A. B.: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston,
1802.
COLET, Dr. John, Dean of St. Paul's; the "English Introduction" to Lily's
Grammar; dedicated to Lily in 1510. See _Gram. of E. Gram., Introd._, Chap.
XI, 3, 4, and 5.
COMLY, JOHN; "English Grammar Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 192: 6th Ed., Philad.,
1815; 15th Ed., 1826.
COMSTOCK, ANDREW, M. D.; "A System of Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 364:
Philadelphia, 1844. "A Treatise on Phonology;" 12mo, 1846: &c.
CONNEL, ROBERT; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: Glasgow, 1831; 2d Ed.,
1834.
CONNON, C. W., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Edinburgh, 1845.
COOPER, Rev. JOAB GOLDSMITH, A. M.; (1.) "An Abridgment of Murray's English
Grammar;" (largely stolen from G. Brown;) 12mo, pp. 200: Philadelphia,
1828. (2.) "A Plain and Practical English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 210: Philad.,
1831.
COOTE, C., LL. D.; on the English Language; 8vo, pp. 281: 1st Edition,
London, 1788.
CORBET, JAMES; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 153: 1st Edition, Glasgow, 1743.
CORBET, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo: Shrewsbury, England, 1784.
CORNELL, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 12: 1st Edition, Boston,
1840.
COVELL, L. T.; "A Digest of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 219: 3d Ed., New
York, 1853. Much indebted to S. S. Greene, H. Mandeville, and G. Brown.
CRANE, GEORGE; "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 264: 1st Ed.,
London, 1843.
CROCKER, ABRAHAM; English Grammar, 12mo: Lond., 1772.
CROMBIE, ALEXANDER, LL. D., F. R. S.; "A Treatise on the Etymology and
Syntax of the English Language;" 8vo, pp. 425: London, 2d Ed., 1809; 4th
Ed., 1836.
CUTLER, ANDREW, A. M.; "English Grammar and Parser;" 12mo, pp. 168: 1st
Ed., Plainfield, Ct., 1841.
DALE, W. A. T.; a small "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Albany,
N. Y., 1820.
DALTON, JOHN; "Elements of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: London, 1st
Ed., 1801.
DAVENPORT, BISHOP; "English Grammar Simplified;" 18mo, pp. 139: 1st Ed.,
Wilmington, Del., 1830.
DAVIDSON, DAVID; a Syntactical Treatise, or Grammar; 12mo: London, 1823.
DAVIS, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., Belfast,
Ireland, 1832.
DAVIS, PARDON; (1.) An Epitome of E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Philad.,
1818. (2.) "Modern Practical E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Philad.,
1845.
DAY, PARSONS E.; "District School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 120: 2d Ed., Ithaca,
N. Y., 1844.
DAY, WILLIAM; "Punctuation Reduced to a System;" 18mo, pp. 147: 3d Ed.,
London, 1847.
DEARBORN, BENJAMIN; "Columbian Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 140: 1st Ed., Boston,
1795.
DEL MAR, E.; Treatise on English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 115: 1st Ed., London,
1842.
D'ORSEY, ALEXANDER J. D.; (1.) A Duodecimo Grammar, in Two Parts; Part I,
pp. 153; Part II, pp. 142: 1st Ed., Edinburgh, 1842. (2.) An Introduction
to E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 104: Edin., 1845.
DE SACY, A. J. SYLVESTRE, Baron; "Principles of General Grammar;"
translated from the French, by D. Fosdick, Jun.; 12mo, pp. 156: 1st
American, from the 5th French Edition; Andover and New York, 1834.
"DESPAUTER, JOHN, a Flemish grammarian, whose books were, at one time, in
great repute; he died in 1520."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ Despauter's Latin
Grammar, in Three Parts,--Etymology, Syntax, and Versification,--comprises
858 octavo pages. Dr. Adam says, in the "Preface to the Fourth Edition" of
his Grammar, "The first complete edition of Despauter's Grammar was printed
at Cologne, anno 1522; his _Syntax_ had been published anno 1509." G.
Brown's copy is a "complete edition," printed partly in 1517, and partly in
1518.
DEVIS, ELLEN; E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 130: London and Dublin; 1st Ed., 1777;
17th Ed., 1825. [Fist] Devis's Grammar, spoken of in D. Blair's Preface, as
being too "comprehensive and minute," is doubtless an other and much
larger work.
DILWORTH, THOMAS; "A New Guide to the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 148:
London; 1st Ed., 1740: 26th Ed., 1764; 40th Ed., (used by G. B.,) undated.
DOHERTY, HUGH; a Treatise on English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 240; 1st Ed.,
London, 1841.
DRUMMOND, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1767. DYCHE, THOMAS; English
Grammar; 8vo, pp. 10: London, 1st Ed., 1710; 12th Ed., 1765.
EARL, MARY; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1816.
EDWARDS, Mrs. M. C.; English Grammar; 8vo: Brentford. England, 1796.
EGELSHEM, WELLS; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1781.
ELMORE, D. W., A. M.; "English Grammar, or Natural Analysis;" 18mo, pp. 18:
1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1830. A mere trifle.
ELPHINSTON, JAMES; on the English Language; 12mo, pp. 298: 1st Ed., London,
1796.
EMERSON, BENJAMIN D.; "National Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 168: Boston,
1828.
EMERY, J., A. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 39: 1st Ed., Wellsborough,
Pa., 1829.
EMMONS, S. B.; "The Grammatical Instructer;" 12mo, pp. 160: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1832. Worthless.
ENSELL, G.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" in English and Dutch; 8vo,
pp. 612: Rotterdam, 1797.
EVEREST, Rev. CORNELIUS B.; "An English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 270: 1st Ed.,
Norwich, Ct., 1835. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown.
EVERETT, ERASTUS, A. M.; "A System of English Versification;" 12mo, pp.
198: 1st Ed., New York, 1848.
FARNUM, CALEB, Jun., A. M.; "Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 124: 1st
Edition, (suppressed for petty larcenies from G. Brown,) Providence, R. I.,
1842; 2d Edition, (altered to evade the charge of plagiarism,) Boston,
1843.
FARBO, DANIEL; "The Royal British Grammar and Vocabulary;" 12mo, pp. 344:
1st Ed., London. 1754.
FELCH, W.; "A Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: 1st Edition, Boston,
1837. This author can see others' faults better than his own.
FELTON, OLIVER C.; "A Concise Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 145:
Salem, Mass., 1843.
FENNING, DANIEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 224: 1st Ed., London, 1771.
FENWICK, JOHN; an English Grammar, 12mo.: London, 1811.
FISHER, A.; "A Practical New Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 176: London: 1st Ed.,
1753; 28th Ed., 1795; "A New Ed., Enlarged, Improved, and Corrected," (used
by G. B.,) 1800.
FISK, ALLEN; (1.) Epitome of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 124: Hallowell, Me., 1821;
2d Ed., 1828. (2.) "Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified;" 8vo, pp. 190: New
York, 1822; 2d Ed., 1824. (3.) "Murray's English Grammar Simplified;" 8vo,
pp. 178: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1822.
FLEMING, Rev. CALEB; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765.
FLETCHER, LEVI; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 83: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1834.
FLETCHER, Rev. W.; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 175: London; 1st Ed., 1828; 2d
Ed., 1833.
FLINT, ABEL, A. M., and D. D.; "Murray's English Grammar Abridged;" 12mo,
pp. 204: Hartford, Ct.; 1st Ed., 1807; 6th Ed., pp. 214, 1826.
FLINT, JOHN; "First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed.,
New York, 1834.
FLOWER, M. and W. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 170: 1st Ed., London,
1844.
FOLKER, JOSEPH; "An Introduction to E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 34: Savannah, Ga.,
1821.
FORMEY, M., M. D., S. E., &c., &c.; "Elementary Principles of the
Belles-Lettres;"--"Translated from the French, by the late Mr. Sloper
Forman;" 12mo, pp. 224: Glasgow, 1767.
FOWLE, WILLIAM BENTLEY; (1.) "The True English Grammar," (Part I;) 18mo,
pp. 180: Boston, 1827. (2.) "The True English Grammar, Part II;" 18mo, pp.
97: Boston, 1829. (3.) "The Common School Grammar, Part I;" 12mo, pp. 46:
Boston, 1842. (4.) "The Common School Grammar, Part II;" 12mo, pp. 108:
Boston, 1842.
FOWLER, WILLIAM C.; "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 675: 1st Ed., New York,
1850.
FRAZEE, Rev. BRADFORD; "An Improved Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: Philad., 1844;
Ster. Ed., 1845.
FRENCH, D'ARCY A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Baltimore, 1st Ed.,
1831.
FROST, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Elements of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st
Ed., Boston, 1829. (2.) "A Practical English Grammar;" (with 89 cuts;)
12mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1842.
FULLER, ALLEN; "Grammatical Exercises, being a plain and concise Method of
teaching English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Plymouth, Mass., 1822. A
book of no value.
GARTLEY, G.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 225: 1st Edition, London, 1830.
GAY, ANTHELME; "A French Prosodical Grammar;" for English or American
Students; 12mo, pp. 215: New York, 1795.
GENGEMBRE, P. W.; "Brown and Gengembre's English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 213:
Philad., 1855. (See J. H. Brown.)
GIBBS, Prof. J. W., of Yale C.; on Dialects, Sounds, and Derivations. See
about 126 pages, credited to this gentleman, in Prof. Fowler's large
Grammar, of 1850.
GILBERT, ELI; a "Catechetical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., 1834; 2d
Ed., New York, 1835.
GILCHRIST, JAMES; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 269: 1st Ed., London, 1815.
GILES, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: London, 1804; 2d Ed., 1810.
GILES, Rev. T. A., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, London, 2d Ed., 1838.
GILL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, treated in Latin; 4to: London, 1621.
GILLEADE, G.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 206: London; 1st Ed., 1816.
GIRAULT Du VIVIER, Ch. P.; (1.) "La Grammaire des Grammaires;" two thick
volumes, 8vo: Paris; 2d Ed., 1814. (2.) "Traite des Participes;" 8vo, pp.
84: 2d Ed., Paris, 1816.
GOLDSBURY, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "The Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 94: 1st
Ed., Boston, 1842. (2.) "Sequel to the Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
110: 1st Ed., Boston, 1842.
GOODENOW, SMITH B.; "A Systematic Text-Book of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
144: 1st Edition, Portland, 1839; 2d Edition, Boston, 1843.
GOUGH, JOHN and JAMES; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 212: 2d Ed., Dublin,
1760.
GOULD, BENJAMIN A.; "Adam's Lat. Gram., with Improvements;" 12mo, pp. 300:
Boston, 1829.
GRAHAM, G. F.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 134: 1st Ed., London, 1843.
GRANT, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Institutes of Latin Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 453:
London, 1808. (2.) A Comprehensive English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 410: 1st Ed.,
London, 1813.
GRANVILLE, GEO.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1827.
GRAY, JAMES, D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 144: 1st Ed., Baltimore,
1818.
GREEN, MATTHIAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: 1st Ed., London, 1837.
GREEN, RICHARD W.; "Inductive Exercises in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108:
1st Ed., New York, 1829; 5th Ed., Phila., 1834.
GEEENE, ROSCOE G.; (1.) E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 132: Hallowell, Me.; 1st Ed.,
1828; Ster. Ed., 1835. (2.) "A Practical Grammar for the English Language;"
(with Diagrams of Moods;) 12mo: Portland, 1829. (3.) "A Grammatical
Text-Book, being an Abstract of a Practical Gram., &c.;" 12mo, pp. 69:
Boston, 1833.
GREENE, SAMUEL S.; (1.) "Analysis of Sentences;" 12mo, pp. 258: 1st Ed.,
Philadelphia, 1848. (2.) "First Lessons in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 171: 1st
Ed., Philad., 1848.
GREENLEAF, JEREMIAH; "Grammar Simplified;" 4to, pp. 48: New York; 3d Ed.,
1821; 20th Ed., 1837.
GREENWOOD, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 315: London, 1711; 2d Ed.,
1722.
GEENVILLE, A. S.; "Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1822.
GRISCOM, JOHN, LL. D.; "Questions in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 42: 1st
Ed., New York, 1821.
GURNEY, DAVID. A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Boston, 1801; 2d Ed.,
1808.
GUY, JOSEPH, Jun.; "English School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 143: 4th Ed., London
1816.
HALL, Rev. S. R.; "The Grammatical Assistant;" 12mo, pp. 131: 1st Ed.,
Springfield, Mass., 1832.
HALL, WILLIAM; "Encyclopedia of English Grammar;" (by report;) Ohio, 1850.
HALLOCK, EDWARD J., A. M.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp.
251: 1st Ed., New York, 1842. A very inaccurate book, with sundry small
plagiarisms from G. Brown.
HAMLIN, LORENZO F.; "English Grammar in Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 108: New York,
1831; Ster. Ed., 1832.
HAMMOND, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo: Lond., 1744.
HARRIS, JAMES, Esq.; "Hermes; or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning
Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 468; London, 1751: 6th Ed., 1806.
HARRISON, Mr.; "Rudiments of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 9th American
Ed., Philad., 1812.
HARRISON, Rev. MATTHEW, A. M.; "The Rise, Progress, and Present Structure
of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 393: Preface dated Basingstoke, Eng.,
1848; 1st American Ed., Philad., 1850.
HART, JOHN S., A. M.; "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192; 1st Ed.,
Philadelphia, 1845.
HARVEY, J.; English Grammar: London, 1841.
HAZEN, EDWARD, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo,
pp. 240: New York, 1842.
HAZLITT, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 205: London, 1810.
HENDRICK, J. L., A. M.; "A Grammatical Manual;" 18mo, pp. 105: 1st Ed.,
Syracuse, N. Y., 1844.
HEWES, JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 4to: London, 1624.
HEWETT, D.; English Grammar; folio, pp. 16: 1st Edition, New York, 1838.
HIGGINSON, Rev. T. E.; E. Gram.; 12mo; Dublin, 1803.
HILEY, RICHARD; "A Treatise on English Grammar," &c.; 12mo, pp. 269: 3d
Ed., London, 1840. Hiley's Grammar Abridged; 18mo, pp. 196: London, 1843:
4th Ed., 1851.
HILL, J. H.; "On the Subjunctive Mood;" 8vo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1834.
HODGSON, Rev. ISAAC; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 1st Ed., London, 1770.
HOME, HENRY, Lord Kames; "Elements of Criticism;" 2 volumes 8vo, pp. 836:
(3d American, from the 8th London Ed.:) New York, 1819. Also, "The Art of
Thinking;" 12mo, pp. 284: (from the last London Ed.:) New York, 1818.
HORNSEY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 144; York, England, 1798: 6th
Ed., 1816.
HORT, W. JILLARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 219: 1st Ed., London, 1822.
HOUGHTON, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1766.
HOUSTON, SAMUEL, A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed.,
Harrisburgh, Pa., 1818.
HOWE, S. L.; English Grammar; 18mo; 1st Ed., Lancaster, Ohio, 1838.
HOWELL, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1662.
HULL, JOSEPH HERVEY; "E. Gram., by Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 72: 4th Ed.,
Boston, 1828.
HUMPHREY, ASA; (1.) "The English Prosody;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Boston,
1847. (2.) "The Rules of Punctuation;" with "Rules for the Use of
Capitals;" 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston, 1847.
HURD, S. T.; E. Gram.: 2d Ed., Boston, 1827.
HUTHERSAL, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo: England, 1814.
INGERSOLL, CHARLES M.; "Conversations on English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 296:
New York, 1821.
JAMIESON, ALEXANDER; "A Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Literature;" 12mo,
pp. 345: "The first American, from the last London Edition;" Newhaven,
1820.
JAUDON, DANIEL; "The Union Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 216: Philadelphia; 1st Ed.,
1812; 4th, 1828.
JENKINS, AZARIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 256; 1st Ed., Rochester, N.
Y., 1835.
JOEL, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 78: 1st Ed., London, 1775.
JOHNSON, RICHARD; "Grammatical Commentaries;" (chiefly on Lily;) 8vo, pp.
436: London, 1706.
JOHNSON, SAMUEL, LL. D.; "A Dictionary of the English Language;" in two
thick volumes, 4to: 1st American, from the 11th London Edition;
Philadelphia, 1818. To this work, are prefixed Johnson's "History of the
English Language," pp. 29; and his "Grammar of the English Tongue," pp. 14.
JONES, JOSHUA; E. Gram.; 18mo: Phila., 1841.
JONSON, BEN;--see, in his Works, "The English Grammar, made by Ben Jonson,
for the Benefit of all Strangers, out of his Observation of the English
Language, now spoken and in use:" London, 1634: 8vo, pp. 94; Lond., 1816.
JUDSON, ADONIRAM, Jun., A. B.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Boston,
1808.
KENNION, CHARLOTTE; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 157: 1st Ed., London, 1842.
KILSON, ROGER; English Grammar; 12mo: England, 1807.
KING, WALTER W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 76: 1st Ed., London, 1841.
KIRKHAM, SAMUEL; "English Grammar in familiar Lectures;" 12mo, pp.
141--228: 2d Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1825; 12th Ed., New York, 1829.
KNOWLES, JOHN; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 12mo: 3d Ed., London,
1794.
KNOWLTON, JOSEPH; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 84: Salem, Mass., 1818; 2d
Ed., 1832.
LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, A. M., M. D., F. R. S. (1.) "The English Language;"
8vo, pp. 418: 1st Ed., London, 1841. (2.) "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 214:
1st Ed., London, 1843. (3.) "A Hand-Book of the English Language;" large
12mo, pp. 898: New York, 1852.
LEAVITT, DUDLEY; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 60: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H.,
1826.
LENNIE, WILLIAM; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142: 5th
Ed., Edinburgh, 1819; 13th Ed., 1831.
LEWIS, ALONZO; "Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 50: 1st Ed., Boston,
1822.
LEWIS, JOHN; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., New York, 1828.
(2.) "Tables of Comparative Etymology; or, The Student's Manual of
Languages;" 4to, pp. 108: Philad., 1828.
LEWIS, WILLIAM GREATHEAD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., London,
1821.
LILY, WILLIAM; "Brevissima Institutio, seu Ratio Grammatices cognoscendae;"
large 18mo, pp. 140: London, 1793.
LINDSAY, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., London.
1842.
LOCKE, JOHN, M. D.; small English Grammar; 18mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio,
1827.
LOUGHTON, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 194: 3d Ed., London, 1739.
LOVECHILD, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 40th Ed., London, 1842.
LOWTH, ROBERT, D. D.; "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;" 18mo, pp.
132: London, 1763;--Philadelphia, 1799;--Cambridge, Mass., 1838.
LYNDE, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 10: 1st Ed., Woodstock, Vt., 1821.
MACK, EVERED J.; "The Self-Instructor, and Practical English Grammar;"
12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Springfield, Mass., 1835. An egregious plagiarism
from G. Brown.
MACGOWAN, Rev. JAMES; "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 248: London, 1825.
MACKINTOSH, DUNCAN; "An Essay on English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 239: Boston,
1797.
MACKILQUHEM, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo: Glasgow, 1799.
MAITTAIRE, MICHAEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 272: London, 1712.
MANDEVILLE, HENRY, D. D.; (1.) "Elements of Reading and Oratory;" large
12mo: Utica, N. Y., 1845. (2.) "A Course of Reading for Schools;" 12mo, pp.
377: Improved Ed.; New York, 1851.
MARCET, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 331: 7th Ed., London, 1843.
MARTIN, BENJ.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1754.
MATHESON, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 138: 2d Ed., London, 1821.
MAUNDER, SAMUEL; Grammar prefixed to Dict.; 12mo, pp. 20: 1st Ed., London,
1830.
MAVOR, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 70: 1st Ed., London, 1820.
M'CREADY, F.; 12mo Grammar: Philad., 1820.
M'CULLOCH, J. M., D. D.; "A Manual of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 188: 7th
Ed., Edinburgh, 1841.
M'ELLIGOTT, JAMES N.; "Manual, Analytical and Synthetical, of Orthography
and Definition;" 8vo, pp. 223: 1st Ed., New York, 1846. Also, "The Young
Analyzer:" 12mo, pp. 54: New York, 1846.
MEILAN, MARK A.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1803.
MENDENHALL, WILLIAM; "The Classification of Words;" 12mo, pp. 36: Philad.,
1814.
MENNYE, J.: "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., New York, 1785.
MERCEY, BLANCHE; English Grammar; 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 248: 1st Ed., London,
1799.
MERCHANT, AARON M.; Murray's Small Grammar, Enlarged; 18mo, pp. 216: N. Y.,
1824. This "Enlarged Abridgement" became "The American School Grammar" in
1828.
MILLER, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 119: 1st Ed., New York, 1795.
MILLER, The Misses; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1830.
MILLER, FERDINAND H.; "The Ready Grammarian;" square 12mo, pp. 24: Ithaca,
New York, 1843.
MILLER, TOBIAS HAM; Murray's Abridgement, with Questions; 12mo, pp. 76:
Portsmouth, N. H., 1823.
MILLIGAN, Rev. GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Edin., 1831; 2d Ed.,
1839.
MOORE, THOMAS; "Orthography and Pronunciation;" 12mo, pp. 176: London,
1810.
MORGAN, JONATHAN, Jun., A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 405: 1st Ed.,
Hallowell, Me., 1814.
MORLEY, CHARLES, A. B.; "School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 86: (with Cuts:) 1st
Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1836.
MOREY, AMOS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: Albany, N. Y., 1829.
MULKEY, WILLIAM; "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the
Letters;" 18mo, pp. 124: Boston. 1834. Fudge!
MULLIGAN, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the
English Language;" small 8vo, pp. 574: New York, 1852. (2.) Same Abridged
for Schools; 12mo, pp. 301: N. Y., 1854.
MURRAY, ALEXANDER, D. D.; "The History of European Languages;" in two
vols., 8vo.; pp. 800.
MURRAY, ALEXANDER, Schoolmaster; "Easy English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 194: 3d
Ed., London, 1793.
MURRAY, LINDLEY; (1.) "English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of
Learners;" 12mo, pp. 284: York, Eng., 1795; 2d Ed., 1796; 23d Ed., 1816.
(2.) "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 105: "From the
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1819. (4.) A Spelling-Book; 18mo, pp. 180: New York, 1819.
MYLINS, WM. F.; Gram., 12mo: England, 1809.
MYLNE, Rev. A., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 180: 11th Ed., Edinburgh,
1832.
NESBIT, A.; "An Introd. to English Parsing;" 18mo, pp. 213: 2d Ed., York,
England, 1823.
NEWBURY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: 5th Ed., London, 1787.
NIGHTINGALE, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 96: 1st Ed., London, 1822.
NIXON, H.; (1.) "The English Parser;" 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., London, 1826.
(2.) "New and Comprehensive English Grammar;" 12mo: 1st Ed., London, 1833.
NUTTING, RUFUS, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 3d Ed.,
Montpelier, Vt., 1826.
ODELL, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 205: 1st Ed., London, 1806.
OLIVER, EDWARD, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 178: 1st Ed., London,
1807.
OLIVER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 377: 1st Ed., London, 1825.
PALMER, MARY; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: New York, 1803.
PARKER, RICHARD GREEN; (1.) "Exercises in Composition;" 12mo, pp. 106: 3d
Ed., Boston, 1833. (2.) "Aids to English Composition;" 12mo, pp. 418: 1st
Ed., Boston, 1844.
PARKER and FOX; "Progressive Exercises in English Grammar;" in three
separate parts, 12mo:--Part I, pp. 96; Boston, 1834: Part II, pp. 60;
Boston, 1835: Part III, pp. 122; Boston, 1840.
PARKHURST, JOHN L.; (1.) "A Systematic Introduction to English Grammar;"
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for Beginners;" 18mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1838.
PARSONS, SAMUEL H.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed., Philadelphia,
1836.
PEIRCE, JOHN; "The New American Spelling-Book," with "A Plain and Easy
Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 200: 6th Ed., Philadelphia,
1804. This Grammar is mostly copied from Harrison's.
PEIRCE, OLIVER B.; "The Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 384:
1st Ed., New York, 1839. Also, Abridgement of the same; 18mo, pp. 144:
Boston, 1840.
PENGELLEY, EDWARD; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., London, 1840.
PERLEY, DANIEL, M. D.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 79:
1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1834.
PERRY, WILLIAM; Grammar in Dict.; 12mo: Edinburgh, 1801.
PICKBOURN, JAMES; "Dissertation on the English Verb:" London, 1789.
PICKET, ALBERT; "Analytical School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 252: New York, 1823;
2d Ed., 1824.
PINNEO, T. S., M. A., M. D.; (1.) "A Primary Grammar, for Beginners:"
Cincinnati. (2.) "Analytical Grammar of the E. Language:" 12mo, pp. 216:
Cincinnati, 1850; New York, 1853. (3.) "Pinneo's English Teacher; in which
is taught the Structure of Sentences by Analysis and Synthesis;" 12mo, pp.
240: Cincinnati, 1854.
PINNOCK, W.; (1.) A Catechism of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 70: 18th Ed., London,
1825. (2.) A Comprehensive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 318: 1st Ed., London, 1829.
POND, ENOCH, D. D.; "Murray's System of Eng. Grammar, Improved;" 12mo, pp.
228: 5th Ed., Worcester, Mass., 1835. Also, under the same title, a petty
Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 71: New Ed., Worcester, 1835.
POWERS, DANIEL, A. M.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., West Brookfleld,
Mass., 1845.
PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, LL. D.; "The Rudiments of E. Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 202: 3d
Ed., London, 1772.
PUE, HUGH A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 149: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1841.
PULLEN, P. H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 321: London, 1820; 2d Ed., 1822.
PUTNAM, J. M.; "English Grammar;" (Murray's, Modified;) 18mo, pp. 162:
Concord, N. H., 1825; Ster., 1831.
PUTNAM, SAMUEL; "Putnam's Murray;" 18mo, pp. 108: Improved Ster. Ed.;
Dover, N. H., 1828.
PUTSEY, Rev. W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 211: London, 1821; 2d Ed.,
1829.
QUACKENBOS, GEO. PAYN; (1.) "First Lessons in Composition." (2.) "Advanced
Course of Composition and Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 455: New York, 1854.
RAND, ASA; "Teacher's Manual," &c.; 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Ed., Boston, 1832.
REED, CALEB, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 30: 1st Ed., Boston, 1821.
REID, A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 46: 2d Ed., London, 1839.
REID, JOHN, M. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 68: 1st Ed., Glasgow, 1830.
RICORD, F. W., A. M.; "The Youth's Grammar; or, Easy Lessons in Etymology;"
12mo, pp. 118: 1st Ed., N. Y., 1855.
RIGAN, JOHN; Grammar, 12mo: Dublin, 1823.
ROBBINS, MANASSEH; "Rudimental Lessons in Etym. and Synt.;" 12mo, pp. 70:
Prov., R. I., 1826.
ROBINSON, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 95: 1st Ed., Maysville, 1830.
ROOME, Rev. T.; Gram.; 12mo: England, 1813.
ROSS, ROBERT; an American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 199: 7th Ed., Hartford, Ct.,
1782.
ROTHWELL, J.; English Grammar; 12mo: 2d Ed., London, 1797.
ROZZELL, WM.; English Grammar in Verse; 8vo: London, 1795.
RUSH, JAMES, M. D.; "Philosophy of the Human Voice;" 8vo: Philadelphia,
1833.
RUSSELL, Rev. J., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 168: London, 1835; 10th
Ed., 1842.
RUSSELL, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Grammar of Composition;" 12mo, pp. 150: Newhaven,
1823. (2.) "Lessons in Enunciation:" Boston, 1841. (3.) "Orthophony; or the
Cultivation of the Voice;" 12mo, pp. 300: improved Ed., Boston, 1847.
RUSSELL, WILLIAM E.: "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142:
Hartford, 1819.
RYLAND, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Northampton, Eng.,
1767.
SABINE, H., A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: 1st Ed., London, 1702.
SANBOBN, DYER H.; "An Analytical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo,
pp. 299: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1836.
SANDERS, CHARLES W. and J. C.; "The Young Grammarian;" 12mo, pp. 120:
Rochester, N. Y., 1847.
SARGENT, EPES; "The Standard Speaker; a Treatise on Oratory and Elocution;"
small 8vo, pp. 558: Philadelphia, 1852.
SCOTT, WILLIAM; Grammar, 12mo: Edinb., 1797. Dictionary, with Grammar
prefixed; square, pp. 492: Cork, 1810.
SEARLE, Rev. THOMAS; Grammar in Verse; 18mo, pp. 114: 1st Ed., London,
1822.
SHATFORD, W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., London, 1834.
SHAW, Rev. JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 259: 4th Ed., London, 1793.
SHERIDAN, THOMAS, A. M.; (1.) "Lectures on Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 185:
London, 1762; Troy, N. Y., 1803. (2.) "Lectures on the Art of Reading."
(3.) "A Rhetorical Grammar;" square 12mo, pp. 73: 3d Ed., Philadelphia,
1789. (4.) "Elements of English;" 12mo, pp. 69: Dublin, 1789. (5.) "A
Complete Dictionary of the English Language;" 1st Ed., 1780.
SHERMAN, JOHN; American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 323: 1st Ed., Trenton Falls, N.
Y., 1836.
SIMMONITE, W. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 228: 1st Ed., London, 1841.
SKILLERN, R. S., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 184: 2d Ed., Gloucester,
England, 1808. SMART, B. H.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of English
Pronunciation;" 8vo: London, 1810. (2.) "The Accidence of English Grammar;"
12mo, pp. 52: London, 1841. (3.) "The Accidence and Principles of English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 280: London, 1841.
SMETHAM, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: 1st Ed., London, 1774.
SMITH, ELI; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1812.
SMITH, JOHN; Grammar, 8vo: Norwich, Eng., 1816.
SMITH, PETER, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 176: 1st Ed., Edinburgh,
1826.
SMITH, Rev. THOMAS; (1.) Alderson's "Orthographical Exercises," Copied;
18mo, pp. 108: 15th Ed., London, 1819. (2.) "Smith's Edition of L. Murray's
Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 128: London, 1832. Very petty authorship. SMITH,
ROSWELL C.; (1.) "English Grammar on the Inductive System;" 12mo, pp. 205:
Boston, 1830; 2d Ed., 1881. (2.) "English Grammar on the Productive
System;" 12mo, pp. 192: 2d Ed., New York, 1832. A sham.
SNYDER, W.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Winchester, Va., 1834.
SPALDING, CHARLES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Onondaga, N. Y.,
1825.
SPEAR, MATTHEW P.; "The Teacher's Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
116: 1st Ed., Boston, 1845.
SPENCER, GEORGE, A. M.; "An English Grammar on Synthetical Principles;"
12mo, pp. 178: New York, 1851.
STANIFORD, DANIEL, A. M.; "A Short but Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
96: Boston, 1807; 2d Ed., 1815.
STEARNS, GEORGE; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 17: 1st Ed., Boston, 1843.
STOCKWOOD, JOHN; Gram., 4to: London, 1590.
STORY, JOSHUA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Newcastle, Eng.,
1778; 3d, 1783.
ST. QUENTIN, D., M. A.; "The Rudiments of General Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 163:
Lond., 1812.
SUTCLIFFE, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 262; London, 1815; 2d
Ed., 1821.
SWETT, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 192: Claremont, N. H., 1843;
2d Ed., 1844.
TICKEN, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 147: 1st Ed., London, 1806.
TICKNOR, ELISHA, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 3d Ed., Boston,
1794.
TOBITT, R.; "Grammatical Institutes;" (in Verse;) 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed.,
London, 1825.
TODD, LEWIS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 126: Fredonia, N. Y., 1826; 2d
Ed., 1827.
TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, A. M.; "Epea Pteroenta; or, the Diversions of Purley;" 2
vols., 8vo; pp. 924: 1st American, from the 2d London Ed.; Philadelphia,
1806.
TOWER, DAVID B., A. M.; "Gradual Lessons in Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 180:
Boston, 1847.
TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX, B. D; "On the Study of Words;" 12mo, pp. 236:
London, 1st Ed., 1851; 2d Ed., 1852: reprinted, New York, 1852.
TRINDER, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 116: 1st Ed., London, 1781.
TUCKER, BENJAMIN; "A Short Introd. to E. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 36: 4th Ed.,
Phila., 1812.
TURNER, DANIEL, A. M.; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1739.
TURNER, Rev. BRANDON, A. M.; Grammar from G. Brown's Inst.; 12mo, pp. 238:
Lond., 1841.
TWITCHELL, MARK; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 1st Ed., Portland. Me.,
1825.
USSHER, G. NEVILLE; English Grammar: 12mo, pp. 132: London, 1787; 3d Amer.
Ed., Exeter, N. H., 1804.
WALDO, JOHN; "Rudiments," 12mo; Philad., 1813: "Abridg't," 18mo, pp. 124;
Philadelphia, 1814.
WALKER, JOHN; (1.) E. Gram., 12mo, pp. 118: London, 1806. (2.) "Elements of
Elocution;" 8vo, pp. 379: Boston, 1810. (3.) Rhyming Dict., 12mo; (4.)
Pronouncing Dict., 8vo; and other valuable works.
WALKER, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) "A Treatise of English Particles;" 12mo, pp.
488: London, 1653; 10th Ed., 1691. (2.) "The Art of Teaching Grammar;"
large 18mo, pp. 226: 8th Ed., London, 1717.
WALLIS, JOHN, D. D.; E. Gram. in Latin; 8vo, pp. 281:. Lond., 1653; 6th
Ed., 1765.
WARD, H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 151: Whitehaven, England, 1777.
WARD, JOHN, LL. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 238: London, 1768.
WARD, WILLIAM, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: York, England,
1765.
WARE, JONATHAN, Esq.; "A New Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
48: Windsor, Vt., 1814.
WASE, CHRISTOPHER, M. A.; "An Essay of a Practical Gram.," 12mo, pp. 79:
Lond., 1660.
WATT, THOMAS, A. M.; "Gram. Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 92: Edinburgh, 1708.; 5th
Ed., 1742.
WEBBER, SAMUEL, A. M., M. D.; "An Introd. to E. Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 116:
Cambridge, Mass., 1832.
WEBSTER, NOAH, LL. D.; (1.) "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
131: 8th Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1800. (2.) "A Philosophical and Practical
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 250: Newhaven, Ct., 1807. (3.) "Rudiments of English
Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 87: New York, 1811. (4.) "An Improved Grammar of the E.
L.;" 12mo, pp. 180: Newhaven, 1831. (5.) "An American Dictionary of the E.
L.," 4to; and an Abridgement, 8vo.
WELCH, A. S.; "Analysis of the English Sentence;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York,
1854. Of no value.
WELD, ALLEN H., A. M.; (1.) "English Grammar Illustrated;" 12mo, pp. 228:
Portland, Me., 1846; 2d Ed., 1847: "Abridged Edition," Boston, 1849.
"Improved Edition," much altered: Portland, 1852. (2.) "Parsing Book,
containing Rules of Syntax," &c.; 18mo, pp. 112: Portland, 1847.
WELLS, WILLIAM H., M. A.; "Wells's School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed.,
Andover, 1846; "113th Thousand," 1850.
WHITE, MR. JAMES; "The English Verb;" 8vo, pp. 302: 1st Ed., London, 1761.
WHITING, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo: Detroit, 1845.
WHITWORTH, T.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 216: 1st Ed., London, 1819.
WICKES, EDWARD WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 2d Ed., London,
1841.
WILBER & LIVINGSTON; "The Grammatical Alphabet;" (with a Chart;) 18mo, pp.
36: 2d Ed., Albany, 1815.
WILBUR, JOSIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 132: Bellows Falls, N. H., 1815;
2d Ed., 1822.
WILCOX, A. F.; "A Catechetical and Practical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 110: 1st
Ed., Newhaven, Ct., 1828.
WILLARD, SAMUEL: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 54: 1st Ed., Greenfield, Mass.,
1816.
WILLIAMS, MRS. HONORIA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 226: London, 1823; 3d
Ed., 1826.
WILSON, CHARLES, D. D.; "Elements of Hebrew Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 398: 3d Ed.,
London, 1802.
WILSON, GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo; London, 1777.
WILSON, JAMES P., D. D.: "An Essay on Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: Philadelphia,
1817.
WILSON, JOHN; "A Treatise on English Punctuation;" 12mo, pp. 204: Boston,
1850.
WILSON, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 3d Ed., Congleton,
England, 1803.
WINNING, Rev. W. B., M. A.; "A Manual of Comparative Philology;" 8vo, pp.
291: London, 1838.
WISEMAN, CHARLES; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765.
WOOD, HELEN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 207: London, 1st Ed., 1827; 6th
Ed., 1841.
WOOD, Rev. JAMES, D. D; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1778.
WOODWORTH, A.; "Grammar Demonstrated;" 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Auburn, N.
Y., 1823.
WORCESTER, JOSEPH, E.; "Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English
Language;" 1st Ed., Boston, 1846.
WORCESTER, SAMUEL; "A First Book of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 86; Boston,
1831.
WRIGHT, ALBERT D.; "Analytical Orthography;" 18mo, pp. 112: 2d Ed.,
Cazenovia, N. Y., 1842.
WRIGHT, JOSEPH W.; "A Philosophical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo,
pp. 252: New York and London, 1838.
[Asterism] The _Names_, or _Heads_, in the foregoing alphabetical
Catalogue, are 452; the _Works_ mentioned are 548; the _Grammars_ are 463;
the _other Books_ are 85.
END OF THE CATALOGUE.
INTRODUCTION
HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL
CHAPTER I.
OF THE SCIENCE OF GRAMMAR.
"Haec de Grammatica quam brevissime potui: non ut omnia dicerem sectatus,
(quod infinitum erat,) sed ut maxima necessaria."--QUINTILIAN. _De Inst.
Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. x.
1. Language, in the proper sense of the term, is peculiar to man; so that,
without a miraculous assumption of human powers, none but human beings can
make words the vehicle of thought. An imitation of some of the articulate
sounds employed in speech, may be exhibited by parrots, and sometimes by
domesticated ravens, and we know that almost all brute animals have their
peculiar natural voices, by which they indicate their feelings, whether
pleasing or painful. But _language_ is an attribute of reason, and differs
essentially not only from all brute voices, but even from all the
chattering, jabbering, and babbling of our own species, in which there is
not an intelligible meaning, with division of thought, and distinction of
words.
2. Speech results from the joint exercise of the best and noblest faculties
of human nature, from our rational understanding and our social affection;
and is, in the proper use of it, the peculiar ornament and distinction of
man, whether we compare him with other orders in the creation, or view him
as an individual preeminent among his fellows. Hence that science which
makes known the nature and structure of speech, and immediately concerns
the correct and elegant use of language, while it surpasses all the
conceptions of the stupid or unlearned, and presents nothing that can seem
desirable to the sensual and grovelling, has an intrinsic dignity which
highly commends it to all persons of sense and taste, and makes it most a
favourite with the most gifted minds. That science is Grammar. And though
there be some geniuses who affect to despise the trammels of grammar rules,
to whom it must be conceded that many things which have been unskillfully
taught as such, deserve to be despised; yet it is true, as Dr. Adam
remarks, that, "The study of Grammar has been considered an object of great
importance by the wisest men in all ages."--_Preface to Latin and English
Gram._, p. iii.
3. Grammar bears to language several different relations, and acquires from
each a nature leading to a different definition. _First_, It is to
language, as knowledge is to the thing known; and as doctrine, to the
truths it inculcates. In these relations, grammar is a science. It is the
first of what have been called the seven sciences, or liberal branches of
knowledge; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, and music. _Secondly_, It is as skill, to the thing to be done;
and as power, to the instruments it employs. In these relations, grammar is
an art; and as such, has long been defined, "_ars recte scribendi, recteque
loquendi_" the art of writing and speaking correctly. _Thirdly_, It is as
navigation, to the ocean, which nautic skill alone enables men to traverse.
In this relation, theory and practice combine, and grammar becomes, like
navigation, a practical science. _Fourthly_, It is as a chart, to a coast
which we would visit. In this relation, our grammar is a text-book, which
we take as a guide, or use as a help to our own observation. _Fifthly_, It
is as a single voyage, to the open sea, the highway of nations. Such is our
meaning, when we speak of the grammar of a particular text or passage.
4. Again: Grammar is to language a sort of self-examination. It turns the
faculty of speech or writing upon itself for its own elucidation; and makes
the tongue or the pen explain the uses and abuses to which both are liable,
as well as the nature and excellency of that power, of which, these are the
two grand instruments. From this account, some may begin to think that in
treating of grammar we are dealing with something too various and
changeable for the understanding to grasp; a dodging Proteus of the
imagination, who is ever ready to assume some new shape, and elude the
vigilance of the inquirer. But let the reader or student do his part; and,
if he please, follow us with attention. We will endeavour, with welded
links, to bind this Proteus, in such a manner that he shall neither escape
from our hold, nor fail to give to the consulter an intelligible and
satisfactory response. Be not discouraged, generous youth. Hark to that
sweet far-reaching note:
"Sed, quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes,
Tanto, nate, magis contende tenacia vincla."
VIRGIL. Geor. IV, 411.
"But thou, the more he varies forms, beware
To strain his fetters with a stricter care."
DRYDEN'S VIRGIL.
5. If for a moment we consider the good and the evil that are done in the
world through the medium of speech, we shall with one voice acknowledge,
that not only the faculty itself, but also the manner in which it is used,
is of incalculable importance to the welfare of man. But this reflection
does not directly enhance our respect for grammar, because it is not to
language as the vehicle of moral or of immoral sentiment, of good or of
evil to mankind, that the attention of the grammarian is particularly
directed. A consideration of the subject in these relations, pertains
rather to the moral philosopher. Nor are the arts of logic and rhetoric now
considered to be properly within the grammarian's province. Modern science
assigns to these their separate places, and restricts grammar, which at one
period embraced all learning, to the knowledge of language, as respects its
fitness to be the vehicle of any particular thought or sentiment which the
speaker or writer may wish to convey by it. Accordingly grammar is commonly
defined, by writers upon the subject, in the special sense of an art--"the
_art_ of speaking or writing a language with propriety or
correctness."--_Webster's Dict._
6. Lily says, "Grammatica est recte scribendi atque loquendi ars;" that is,
"Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly." Despauter, too, in
his definition, which is quoted in a preceding paragraph, not improperly
placed writing first, as being that with which grammar is primarily
concerned. For it ought to be remembered, that over any fugitive colloquial
dialect, which has never been fixed by visible signs, grammar has no
control; and that the speaking which the art or science of grammar teaches,
is exclusively that which has reference to a knowledge of letters. It is
the certain tendency of writing, to improve speech. And in proportion as
books are multiplied, and the knowledge of written language is diffused,
local dialects, which are beneath the dignity of grammar, will always be
found to grow fewer, and their differences less. There are, in the various
parts of the world, many languages to which the art of grammar has never
yet been applied; and to which, therefore, the definition or true idea of
grammar, however general, does not properly extend. And even where it has
been applied, and is now honoured as a popular branch of study, there is
yet great room for improvement: barbarisms and solecisms have not been
rebuked away as they deserve to be.
7. Melancthon says, "Grammatica est certa loquendi ac scribendi ratio,
Latinis Latine." Vossius, "Ars bene loquendi eoque et scribendi, atque id
Latinis Latine." Dr. Prat, "_Grammatica est recte loquendi atque scribendi
ars._" Ruddiman also, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, reversed the
terms _writing_ and _speaking_, and defined grammar, "_ars rece loquendi
scribendique_;" and, either from mere imitation, or from the general
observation that speech precedes writing, this arrangement of the words has
been followed by most modern grammarians. Dr. Lowth embraces both terms in
a more general one, and says, "Grammar is the art of _rightly expressing_
our thoughts by words." It is, however, the province of grammar, to guide
us not merely in the expression of our own thoughts, but also in our
apprehension of the thoughts, and our interpretation of the words, of
others. Hence, Perizonius, in commenting upon Sanctius's imperfect
definition, "_Grammatica est ars recte loquendi_," not improperly asks,
"_et quidni intelligendi et explicandi_?" "and why not also of
understanding and explaining?" Hence, too, the art of _reading_ is
virtually a part of grammar; for it is but the art of understanding and
speaking correctly that which we have before us on paper. And Nugent has
accordingly given us the following definition: "Grammar is the art of
reading, speaking, and writing a language by rules."--_Introduction to
Dict._, p. xii.[1]
8. The word _recte_, rightly, truly, correctly, which occurs in most of the
foregoing Latin definitions, is censured by the learned Richard Johnson, in
his Grammatical Commentaries, on account of the vagueness of its meaning.
He says, it is not only ambiguous by reason of its different uses in the
Latin classics, but destitute of any signification proper to grammar. But
even if this be true as regards its earlier application, it may well be
questioned, whether by frequency of use it has not acquired a signification
which makes it proper at the present time. The English word _correctly_
seems to be less liable to such an objection; and either this brief term,
or some other of like import, (as, "with correctness"--"with propriety,")
is still usually employed to tell what grammar is. But can a boy learn by
such means what it is, _to speak and write grammatically_? In one sense, he
can; and in an other, he cannot. He may derive, from any of these terms,
some idea of grammar as distinguished from other arts; but no simple
definition of this, or of any other art, can communicate to him that learns
it, the skill of an artist.
9. R. Johnson speaks at large of _the relation_ of words to each other in
sentences, as constituting in his view the most essential part of grammar;
and as being a point very much overlooked, or very badly explained, by
grammarians in general. His censure is just. And it seems to be as
applicable to nearly all the grammars now in use, as to those which he
criticised a hundred and thirty years ago. But perhaps he gives to the
relation of words, (which is merely their dependence on other words
according to the sense,) an earlier introduction and a more prominent
place, than it ought to have in a general system of grammar. To the right
use of language, he makes four things to be necessary. In citing these, I
vary the language, but not the substance or the order of his positions.
_First_, That we should speak and write words according to the
significations which belong to them: the teaching of which now pertains to
lexicography, and not to grammar, except incidentally. "_Secondly_, That we
should observe _the relations_ that words have one to another in sentences,
and represent those relations by such variations, and particles, as are
usual with authors in that language." _Thirdly_, That we should acquire a
knowledge of the proper sounds of the letters, and pay a due regard to
accent in pronunciation. _Fourthly_, That we should learn to write words
with their proper letters, spelling them as literary men generally do.
10. From these positions, (though he sets aside the first, as pertaining to
lexicography, and not now to grammar, as it formerly did,) the learned
critic deduces first his four parts of the subject, and then his definition
of grammar. "Hence," says he, "there arise Four Parts of Grammar;
_Analogy_, which treats of the several parts of speech, their definitions,
accidents, and formations; _Syntax_, which treats of the use of those
things in construction, according to their relations; _Orthography_, which
treats of spelling; and _Prosody_, which treats of accenting in
pronunciation. So, then, the true definition of Grammar is this: Grammar is
the art of _expressing the relations_ of things in construction, with due
accent in speaking, and orthography in writing, according to the custom of
those whose language we learn." Again he adds: "The word _relation_ has
other senses, taken by itself; but yet the _relation of words one to
another in a sentence_, has no other signification than what I intend by
it, namely, of cause, effect, means, end, manner, instrument, object,
adjunct, and the like; which are names given by logicians to those
relations under which the mind comprehends things, and therefore the most
proper words to explain them to others. And if such things are too hard for
children, then grammar is too hard; for there neither is, nor can be, any
grammar without them. And a little experience will satisfy any man, that
the young will as easily apprehend them, as _gender, number, declension_,
and other grammar-terms." See _R. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries_, p.
4.
11. It is true, that the _relation of words_--by which I mean that
connexion between them, which the train of thought forms and suggests--or
that dependence which one word has on an other according to the sense--lies
at the foundation of all syntax. No rule or principle of construction can
ever have any applicability beyond the limits, or contrary to the order, of
this relation. To see what it is in any given case, is but to understand
the meaning of the phrase or sentence. And it is plain, that no word ever
necessarily agrees with an other, with which it is not thus connected in
the mind of him who uses it. No word ever governs an other, to which the
sense does not direct it. No word is ever required to stand immediately
before or after an other, to which it has not some relation according to
the meaning of the passage. Here then are the relation, agreement,
government, and arrangement, of words in sentences; and these make up the
whole of syntax--but not the whole of grammar. To this one part of grammar,
therefore, the relation of words is central and fundamental; and in the
other parts also, there are some things to which the consideration of it is
incidental; but there are many more, like spelling, pronunciation,
derivation, and whatsoever belongs merely to letters, syllables, and the
forms of words, with which it has, in fact, no connexion. The relation of
words, therefore, should be clearly and fully explained in its proper
place, under the head of syntax; but the general idea of grammar will not
be brought nearer to truth, by making it to be "the art of _expressing the
relations_ of things in construction," &c., according to the foregoing
definition.
12. The term _grammar_ is derived from the Greek word [Greek: gramma], a
letter. The art or science to which this term is applied, had its origin,
not in cursory speech, but in the practice of writing; and speech, which is
first in the order of nature, is last with reference to grammar. The matter
or common subject of grammar, is language in general; which, being of two
kinds, _spoken_ and _written_, consists of certain combinations either of
sounds or of visible signs, employed for the expression of thought. Letters
and sounds, though often heedlessly confounded in the definitions given of
vowels, consonants, &c., are, in their own nature, very different things.
They address themselves to different senses; the former, to the sight; the
latter, to the hearing. Yet, by a peculiar relation arbitrarily established
between them, and in consequence of an almost endless variety in the
combinations of either, they coincide in a most admirable manner, to effect
the great object for which language was bestowed or invented; namely, to
furnish a sure medium for the communication of thought, and the
preservation of knowledge.
13. All languages, however different, have many things in common. There are
points of a philosophical character, which result alike from the analysis
of any language, and are founded on the very nature of human thought, and
that of the sounds or other signs which are used to express it. When such
principles alone are taken as the subject of inquiry, and are treated, as
they sometimes have been, without regard to any of the idioms of particular
languages, they constitute what is called General, Philosophical, or
Universal Grammar. But to teach, with Lindley Murray and some others, that
"Grammar may be considered as _consisting of two species_, Universal and
Particular," and that the latter merely "applies those general principles
to a particular language," is to adopt a twofold absurdity at the
outset.[2] For every cultivated language has its particular grammar, in
which whatsoever is universal, is necessarily included; but of which,
universal or general principles form only a part, and that comparatively
small. We find therefore in grammar no "two species" of the same genus; nor
is the science or art, as commonly defined and understood, susceptible of
division into any proper and distinct sorts, except with reference to
different languages--as when we speak of Greek, Latin, French, or English
grammar.
14. There is, however, as I have suggested, a certain science or philosophy
of language, which has been denominated Universal Grammar; being made up of
those points only, in which many or all of the different languages
preserved in books, are found to coincide. All speculative minds are fond
of generalization; and, in the vastness of the views which may thus be
taken of grammar, such may find an entertainment which they never felt in
merely learning to speak and write grammatically. But the pleasure of such
contemplations is not the earliest or the most important fruit of the
study. The first thing is, to know and understand the grammatical
construction of our own language. Many may profit by this acquisition, who
extend not their inquiries to the analogies or the idioms of other tongues.
It is true, that every item of grammatical doctrine is the more worthy to
be known and regarded, in proportion as it approaches to universality. But
the principles of all practical grammar, whether universal or particular,
common or peculiar, must first be learned in their application to some one
language, before they can be distinguished into such classes; and it is
manifest, both from reason and from experience, that the youth of any
nation not destitute of a good book for the purpose, may best acquire a
knowledge of those principles, from the grammatical study of their native
tongue.
15. Universal or Philosophical Grammar is a large field for speculation and
inquiry, and embraces many things which, though true enough in themselves,
are unfit to be incorporated with any system of practical grammar, however
comprehensive its plan. Many authors have erred here. With what is merely
theoretical, such a system should have little to do. Philosophy, dealing in
generalities, resolves speech not only as a whole into its constituent
parts and separable elements, as anatomy shows the use and adaptation of
the parts and joints of the human body; but also as a composite into its
matter and form, as one may contemplate that same body in its entireness,
yet as consisting of materials, some solid and some fluid, and these
curiously modelled to a particular figure. Grammar, properly so called,
requires only the former of these analyses; and in conducting the same, it
descends to the thousand minute particulars which are necessary to be known
in practice. Nor are such things to be despised as trivial and low:
ignorance of what is common and elementary, is but the more disgraceful for
being ignorance of mere rudiments. "Wherefore," says Quintilian, "they are
little to be respected, who represent this art as mean and barren; in
which, unless you faithfully lay the foundation for the future orator,
whatever superstructure you raise will tumble into ruins. It is an art,
necessary to the young, pleasant to the old, the sweet companion of the
retired, and one which in reference to every kind of study has in itself
more of utility than of show. Let no one therefore despise as
inconsiderable the elements of grammar. Not because it is a great thing, to
distinguish consonants from vowels, and afterwards divide them into
semivowels and mutes; but because, to those who enter the interior parts of
this temple of science, there will appear in many things a great subtilty,
which is fit not only to sharpen the wits of youth, but also to exercise
the loftiest erudition and science."--_De Institutione Oratoria_, Lib. i,
Cap. iv.
16. Again, of the arts which spring from the composition of language. Here
the art of logic, aiming solely at conviction, addresses the understanding
with cool deductions of unvarnished truth; rhetoric, designing to move, in
some particular direction, both the judgement and the sympathies of men,
applies itself to the affections in order to persuade; and poetry, various
in its character and tendency, solicits the imagination, with a view to
delight, and in general also to instruct. But grammar, though intimately
connected with all these, and essential to them in practice, is still too
distinct from each to be identified with any of them. In regard to dignity
and interest, these higher studies seem to have greatly the advantage over
particular grammar; but who is willing to be an ungrammatical poet, orator,
or logician? For him I do not write. But I would persuade my readers, that
an acquaintance with that grammar which respects the genius of their
vernacular tongue, is of primary importance to all who would cultivate a
literary taste, and is a necessary introduction to the study of other
languages. And it may here be observed, for the encouragement of the
student, that as grammar is essentially the same thing in all languages, he
who has well mastered that of his own, has overcome more than half the
difficulty of learning another; and he whose knowledge of words is the most
extensive, has the fewest obstacles to encounter in proceeding further.
17. It was the "original design" of grammar, says Dr. Adam, to facilitate
"the acquisition of languages;" and, of all practical treatises on the
subject, this is still the main purpose. In those books which are to
prepare the learner to translate from one tongue into another, seldom is
any thing else attempted. In those also which profess to explain the right
use of vernacular speech, must the same purpose be ever paramount, and the
"original design" be kept in view. But the grammarian may teach many things
incidentally. One cannot learn a language, without learning at the same
time a great many opinions, facts, and principles, of some kind or other,
which are necessarily embodied in it. For all language proceeds from, and
is addressed to, the understanding; and he that perceives not the meaning
of what he reads, makes no acquisition even of the language itself. To the
science of grammar, the _nature of the ideas_ conveyed by casual examples,
is not very essential: to the learner, it is highly important. The best
thoughts in the best diction should furnish the models for youthful study
and imitation; because such language is not only the most worthy to be
remembered, but the most easy to be understood. A distinction is also to be
made between use and abuse. In nonsense, absurdity, or falsehood, there can
never be any grammatical authority; because, however language may be
abused, the usage which gives law to speech, is still that usage which is
founded upon the _common sense_ of mankind.
18. Grammar appeals to reason, as well as to authority, but to what extent
it should do so, has been matter of dispute. "The knowledge of useful
arts," says Sanctius, "is not an invention of human ingenuity, but an
emanation from the Deity, descending from above for the use of man, as
Minerva sprung from the brain of Jupiter. Wherefore, unless thou give
thyself wholly to laborious research into the nature of things, and
diligently examine the _causes and reasons_ of the art thou teachest,
believe me, thou shalt but see with other men's eyes, and hear with other
men's ears. But the minds of many are preoccupied with a certain perverse
opinion, or rather ignorant conceit, that in grammar, or the art of
speaking, there are no causes, and that reason is scarcely to be appealed
to for any thing;--than which idle notion, I know of nothing more
foolish;--nothing can be thought of which is more offensive. Shall man,
endowed with reason, do, say, or contrive any thing, without design, and
without understanding? Hear the philosophers; who positively declare that
nothing comes to pass without a cause. Hear Plato himself; who affirms that
names and words subsist by nature, and contends that language is derived
from nature, and not from art."
19. "I know," says he, "that the Aristotelians think otherwise; but no one
will doubt that names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of
things. But the instrument of any art is so adapted to that art, that for
any other purpose it must seem unfit; thus with an auger we bore, and with
a saw we cut wood; but we split stones with wedges, and wedges are driven
with heavy mauls. We cannot therefore but believe that those who first gave
names to things, did it with design; and this, I imagine, Aristotle himself
understood when he said, _ad placitum nomina significare._ For those who
contend that names were made by chance, are no less audacious than if they
would endeavour to persuade us, that the whole order of the universe was
framed together fortuitously."
20. "You will see," continues he, "that in the first language, whatever it
was, the names of things were taken from Nature herself; but, though I
cannot affirm this to have been the case in other tongues, yet I can easily
persuade myself that in every tongue a reason can be rendered for the
application of every name; and that this reason, though it is in many cases
obscure, is nevertheless worthy of investigation. Many things which were
not known to the earlier philosophers, were brought to light by Plato;
after the death of Plato, many were discovered by Aristotle; and Aristotle
was ignorant of many which are now everywhere known. For truth lies hid,
but nothing is more precious than truth. But you will say, 'How can there
be any certain origin to names, when one and the same thing is called by
different names, in the several parts of the world?' I answer, of the same
thing there may be different causes, of which some people may regard one,
and others, an other. * * * There is therefore no doubt, that of all
things, even of words, a reason is to be rendered: and if we know not what
that reason is, when we are asked; we ought rather to confess that we do
not know, than to affirm that none can be given. I know that Scaliger
thinks otherwise; but this is the true account of the matter."
21. "These several observations," he remarks further, "I have unwillingly
brought together against those stubborn critics who, while they explode
reason from grammar, insist so much on the testimonies of the learned. But
have they never read Quintilian, who says, (Lib. i, Cap. 6,) that,
'Language is established by reason, antiquity, authority, and custom?' He
therefore does not exclude reason, but makes it the principal thing. Nay,
in a manner, Laurentius, and other grammatists, even of their fooleries,
are forward to offer _reasons_, such as they are. Moreover, use does not
take place without reason; otherwise, it ought to be called abuse, and not
use. But from use authority derives all its force; for when it recedes from
use, authority becomes nothing: whence Cicero reproves Coelius and Marcus
Antonius for speaking according to their own fancy, and not according to
use. But, 'Nothing can be lasting,' says Curtius, (Lib. iv,) 'which is not
based upon reason.' It remains, therefore, that of all things the reason be
first assigned; and then, if it can be done, we may bring forward
testimonies; that the thing, having every advantage, may be made the more
clear."--_Sanctii Minerva_, Lib. i, Cap. 2.
22. Julius Caesar Scaliger, from whose opinion Sanctius dissents above,
seems to limit the science of grammar to bounds considerably too narrow,
though he found within them room for the exercise of much ingenuity and
learning. He says, "Grammatica est scientia loquendi ex usu; neque enim
constituit regulas scientibus usus modum, sed ex eorum statis
frequentibusque usurpatiombus colligit communem rationem loquendi, quam
discentibus traderet."--_De Causis L. Latinae_, Lib. iv, Cap. 76. "Grammar
is the science of speaking according to use; for it does not establish
rules for those who know the manner of use, but from the settled and
frequent usages of these, gathers the common fashion of speaking, which it
should deliver to learners." This limited view seems not only to exclude
from the science the use of the pen, but to exempt the learned from any
obligation to respect the rules prescribed for the initiation of the young.
But I have said, and with abundant authority, that the acquisition of a
good style of writing is the main purpose of the study; and, surely, the
proficients and adepts in the art can desire for themselves no such
exemption. Men of genius, indeed, sometimes affect to despise the pettiness
of all grammatical instructions; but this can be nothing else than
affectation, since the usage of the learned is confessedly the basis of all
such instructions, and several of the loftiest of their own rank appear on
the list of grammarians.
23. Quintilian, whose authority is appealed to above, belonged to that age
in which the exegesis of histories, poems, and other writings, was
considered an essential part of grammar. He therefore, as well as Diomedes,
and other ancient writers, divided the grammarian's duties into two parts;
the one including what is now called grammar, and the other the
explanation of authors, and the stigmatizing of the unworthy. Of the
opinion referred to by Sanctius, it seems proper to make here an ampler
citation. It shall be attempted in English, though the paragraph is not an
easy one to translate. I understand the author to say, "Speakers, too, have
their rules to observe; and writers, theirs. Language is established by
reason, antiquity, authority, and custom. Of reason the chief ground is
analogy, but sometimes etymology. Ancient things have a certain majesty,
and, as I might say, religion, to commend them. Authority is wont to be
sought from orators and historians; the necessity of metre mostly excuses
the poets. When the judgement of the chief masters of eloquence passes for
reason, even error seems right to those who follow great leaders. But, of
the art of speaking, custom is the surest mistress; for speech is evidently
to be used as money, which has upon it a public stamp. Yet all these things
require a penetrating judgement, especially analogy; the force of which is,
that one may refer what is doubtful, to something similar that is clearly
established, and thus prove uncertain things by those which are
sure."--QUINT, _de Inst. Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. 6, p. 48.
24. The science of grammar, whatever we may suppose to be its just limits,
does not appear to have been better cultivated in proportion as its scope
was narrowed. Nor has its application to our tongue, in particular, ever
been made in such a manner, as to do _great_ honour to the learning or the
talents of him that attempted it. What is new to a nation, may be old to
the world. The development of the intellectual powers of youth by
instruction in the classics, as well as the improvement of their taste by
the exhibition of what is elegant in literature, is continually engaging
the attention of new masters, some of whom may seem to effect great
improvements; but we must remember that the concern itself is of no recent
origin. Plato and Aristotle, who were great masters both of grammar and of
philosophy, taught these things ably at Athens, in the fourth century
_before_ Christ. Varro, the grammarian, usually styled the most learned of
the Romans, was _contemporary_ with the Saviour and his apostles.
Quintilian lived in the _first_ century of our era, and before he wrote his
most celebrated book, taught a school twenty years in Rome, and received
from the state a salary which made him rich. This "consummate guide of
wayward youth," as the poet Martial called him, being neither ignorant of
what had been done by others, nor disposed to think it a light task to
prescribe the right use of his own language, was at first slow to undertake
the work upon which his fame now reposes; and, after it was begun, diligent
to execute it worthily, that it might turn both to his own honour, and to
the real advancement of learning.
25. He says, at the commencement of his book: "After I had obtained a quiet
release from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as
an instructor of youth, certain persons familiarly demanded of me, that I
should compose something concerning the proper manner of speaking; but for
a long time I withstood their solicitations, because I knew there were
already illustrious authors in each language, by whom many things which
might pertain to such a work, had been very diligently written, and left to
posterity. But the reason which I thought would obtain for me an easier
excuse, did but excite more earnest entreaty; because, amidst the various
opinions of earlier writers, some of whom were not even consistent with
themselves, the choice had become difficult; so that my friends seemed to
have a right to enjoin upon me, if not the labour of producing new
instructions, at least that of judging concerning the old. But although I
was persuaded not so much by the hope of supplying what was required, as by
the shame of refusing, yet, as the matter opened itself before me, I
undertook of my own accord a much greater task than had been imposed; that
while I should thus oblige my very good friends by a fuller compliance, I
might not enter a common path and tread only in the footsteps of others.
For most other writers who have treated of the art of speaking, have
proceeded in such a manner as if upon adepts in every other kind of
doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence; either despising as
little things the studies which we first learn, or thinking them not to
fall to their share in the division which should be made of the
professions; or, what indeed is next to this, hoping no praise or thanks
for their ingenuity about things which, although necessary, lie far from
ostentation: the tops of buildings make a show, their foundations are
unseen."--_Quintiliani de Inst. Orat., Prooemium._
26. But the reader may ask, "What have all these things to do with English
Grammar?" I answer, they help to show us whence and what it is. Some
acquaintance with the history of grammar as a science, as well as some
knowledge of the structure of other languages than our own, is necessary to
him who professes to write for the advancement of this branch of
learning--and for him also who would be a competent judge of what is thus
professed. Grammar must not forget her origin. Criticism must not resign
the protection of letters. The national literature of a country is in the
keeping, not of the people at large, but of authors and teachers. But a
grammarian presumes to be a judge of authorship, and a teacher of teachers;
and is it to the honour of England or America, that in both countries so
many are countenanced in this assumption of place, who can read no language
but their mother tongue? English Grammar is not properly an indigenous
production, either of this country or of Britain; because it is but a
branch of the general science of philology--a new variety, or species,
sprung up from the old stock long ago transplanted from the soil of Greece
and Rome.
27. It is true, indeed, that neither any ancient system of grammatical
instruction nor any grammar of an other language, however contrived, can be
entirely applicable to the present state of our tongue; for languages must
needs differ greatly one from an other, and even that which is called the
same, may come in time to differ greatly from what it once was. But the
general analogies of speech, which are the central principles of grammar,
are but imperfectly seen by the man of one language. On the other hand, it
is possible to know much of those general principles, and yet be very
deficient in what is peculiar to our own tongue. Real improvement in the
grammar of our language, must result from a view that is neither partial
nor superficial. "Time, sorry artist," as was said of old, "makes all he
handles worse." And Lord Bacon, seeming to have this adage in view,
suggests: "If Time of course alter all things to the worse, and Wisdom and
Counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall be the
end?"--_Bacon's Essays_, p. 64.
28. Hence the need that an able and discreet grammarian should now and then
appear, who with skillful hand can effect those corrections which a change
of fashion or the ignorance of authors may have made necessary; but if he
is properly qualified for his task, he will do all this without a departure
from any of the great principles of Universal Grammar. He will surely be
very far from thinking, with a certain modern author, whom I shall notice
in an other chapter, that, "He is bound to take words and explain them as
he finds them in his day, _without any regard to their ancient construction
and application_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 28. The whole history of every
word, so far as he can ascertain it, will be the view under which he will
judge of what is right or wrong in the language which he teaches. Etymology
is neither the whole of this view, nor yet to be excluded from it. I concur
not therefore with Dr. Campbell, who, to make out a strong case,
extravagantly says, "It is _never from an attention to etymology_, which
would frequently mislead us, but from custom, the only infallible guide in
this matter, that the meanings of words in present use must be
learnt."--_Philosophy of Rhetoric_, p. 188. Jamieson too, with an
implicitness little to be commended, takes this passage from Campbell; and,
with no other change than that of "_learnt_" to "_learned_" publishes it as
a corollary of his own.--_Grammar of Rhetoric_, p. 42. It is folly to state
for truth what is so obviously wrong. Etymology and custom are seldom at
odds; and where they are so, the latter can hardly be deemed infallible.
CHAPTER II.
OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP.
"Respondeo, dupliciter aliquem dici grammaticum, arte et professione.
Grammatici vera arte paucissimi sunt: et hi magna laude digni sunt, ut
patuit: hos non vituperant summi viri; quia ipse Plinius ejusmodi
grammaticus fuit, et de arte grammatica libelos edidit. Et Grellius verae
grammaticae fuit diligentissimus doctor; sic et ipse Datus. Alii sunt
grammatici professione, et ii plerumque sunt inceptissimi; quia scribimus
indocti doctique, et indignissimus quisque hanc sibi artem vindicat:----hos
mastigias multis probris docti summo jure insectantur."--DESPAUTER.
_Syntaxis_, fol. 1.
1. It is of primary importance in all discussions and expositions of
doctrines, of any sort, to ascertain well the _principles_ upon which our
reasonings are to be founded, and to see that they be such as are immovably
established in the nature of things; for error in first principles is
fundamental, and he who builds upon an uncertain foundation, incurs at
least a _hazard_ of seeing his edifice overthrown. The lover of _truth_
will be, at all times, diligent to seek it, firm to adhere to it, willing
to submit to it, and ready to promote it; but even the truth may be urged
unseasonably, and important facts are things liable to be misjoined. It is
proper, therefore, for every grammarian gravely to consider, whether and
how far the principles of his philosophy, his politics, his morals, or his
religion, ought to influence, or actually do influence, his theory of
language, and his practical instructions respecting the right use of words.
In practice, grammar is so interwoven with all else that is known,
believed, learned, or spoken of among men, that to determine its own
peculiar principles with due distinctness, seems to be one of the most
difficult points of a grammarian's duty.
2. From misapprehension, narrowness of conception, or improper bias, in
relation to this point, many authors have started wrong; denounced others
with intemperate zeal; departed themselves from sound doctrine; and
produced books which are disgraced not merely by occasional oversights, but
by central and radical errors. Hence, too, have sprung up, in the name of
grammar, many unprofitable discussions, and whimsical systems of teaching,
calculated rather to embarrass than to inform the student. Mere collisions
of opinion, conducted without any acknowledged standard to guide the
judgement, never tend to real improvement. Grammar is unquestionably a
branch of that universal philosophy by which the thoroughly educated mind
is enlightened to see all things aright; for philosophy, in this sense of
the term, is found in everything. Yet, properly speaking, the true
grammarian is not a philosopher, nor can any man strengthen his title to
the former character by claiming the latter; and it is certain, that a most
disheartening proportion of what in our language has been published under
the name of Philosophic Grammar, is equally remote from philosophy, from
grammar, and from common sense.
3. True grammar is founded on the authority of reputable custom; and that
custom, on the use which men make of their reason. The proofs of what is
right are accumulative, and on many points there can be no dispute, because
our proofs from the best usage, are both obvious and innumerable. On the
other hand, the evidence of what is wrong is rather demonstrative; for when
we would expose a particular error, we exhibit it in contrast with the
established principle which it violates. He who formed the erroneous
sentence, has in this case no alternative, but either to acknowledge the
solecism, or to deny the authority of the rule. There are disputable
principles in grammar, as there are moot points in law; but this
circumstance affects no settled usage in either; and every person of sense
and taste will choose to express himself in the way least liable to
censure. All are free indeed from positive constraint on their phraseology;
for we do not speak or write by statutes. But the ground of instruction
assumed in grammar, is similar to that upon which are established the
maxims of _common law_, in jurisprudence. The ultimate principle, then, to
which we appeal, as the only true standard of grammatical propriety, is
that species of custom which critics denominate GOOD USE; that is, present,
reputable, general use.
4. Yet a slight acquaintance with the history of grammar will suffice to
show us, that it is much easier to acknowledge this principle, and to
commend it in words, than to ascertain what it is, and abide by it in
practice. Good use is that which is neither ancient nor recent, neither
local nor foreign, neither vulgar nor pedantic; and it will be found that
no few have in some way or other departed from it, even while they were
pretending to record its dictates. But it is not to be concealed, that in
every living language, it is a matter of much inherent difficulty, to reach
the standard of propriety, where usage is various; and to ascertain with
clearness the decisions of custom, when we descend to minute details. Here
is a field in which whatsoever is achieved by the pioneers of literature,
can be appreciated only by thorough scholars; for the progress of
improvement in any art or science, can be known only to those who can
clearly compare its ruder with its more refined stages; and it often
happens that what is effected with much labour, may be presented in a very
small compass.
5. But the knowledge of grammar may _retrograde_; for whatever loses the
vital principle of renovation and growth, tends to decay. And if mere
copyists, compilers, abridgers, and modifiers, be encouraged as they now
are, it surely will not advance. Style is liable to be antiquated by time,
corrupted by innovation, debased by ignorance, perverted by conceit,
impaired by negligence, and vitiated by caprice. And nothing but the living
spirit of true authorship, and the application of just criticism, can
counteract the natural tendency of these causes. English grammar is still
in its infancy; and even bears, to the imagination of some, the appearance
of a deformed and ugly dwarf among the liberal arts. Treatises are
multiplied almost innumerably, but still the old errors survive. Names are
rapidly added to our list of authors, while little or nothing is done for
the science. Nay, while new blunders have been committed in every new book,
old ones have been allowed to stand as by prescriptive right;. and
positions that were never true, and sentences that were never good English,
have been published and republished under different names, till in our
language grammar has become the most ungrammatical of all studies!
"Imitators generally copy their originals in an inverse ratio of their
merits; that is, by adding as much to their faults, as they lose of their
merits."--KNIGHT, _on the Greek Alphabet_, p. 117.
"Who to the life an exact piece would make,
Must not from others' work a copy take."--_Cowley_.
6. All science is laid in the nature of things; and he only who seeks it
there, can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can
know whether his predecessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a
judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many
false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one
grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had
eyes to see them! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and
reasonable; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own,
nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others.
Grammar unsupported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology
is this, for that authorship which has produced so many grammars without
originality? Shall he who cannot write for himself, improve upon him who
can? Shall he who cannot paint, retouch the canvass of Guido? Shall modest
ingenuity be allowed only to imitators and to thieves? How many a prefatory
argument issues virtually in this! It is not deference to merit, but
impudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance! Commonness
alone exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of
its own worthlessness! To read and be informed, is to make a proper use of
books for the advancement of learning; but to assume to be an author by
editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the
ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man.
"'T is true, the ancients we may rob with ease;
But who with that mean shift himself can please?"
_Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham_.
7. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every
intelligent person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a
book written professedly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of
its author's skill. But it would seem that a multitude of bad or
indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of
speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and neatness of
style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. Nay, I have
before suggested that in no other science are the principles of good
writing so frequently and so shamefully violated. The code of false grammar
embraced in the following work, will go far to sustain this opinion. There
have been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an
object not unworthy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the
principles of English Grammar. But these, with scarcely any exception, have
executed their inadequate designs, not as men engaged in their proper
calling, but as mere literary almoners, descending for a day from their
loftier purposes, to perform a service, needful indeed, and therefore
approved, but very far from supplying all the aid that is requisite to a
thorough knowledge of the subject. Even the most meritorious have left
ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability which does
honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an
inducement to greater labour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to
praise, nor stipulate for a reward; and to those who were best qualified to
write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence.
8. Unlearned men, who neither make, nor can make, any pretensions to a
knowledge of grammar as a study, if they show themselves modest in what
they profess, are by no means to be despised or undervalued for the want of
such knowledge. They are subject to no criticism, till they turn authors
and write for the public. And even then they are to be treated gently, if
they have any thing to communicate, which is worthy to be accepted in a
homely dress. Grammatical inaccuracies are to be kindly excused, in all
those from whom nothing better can be expected; for people are often under
a necessity of appearing as speakers or writers, before they can have
learned to write or speak grammatically. The body is more to be regarded
than raiment; and the substance of an interesting message, may make the
manner of it a little thing. Men of high purposes naturally spurn all that
is comparatively low; or all that may seem nice, overwrought, ostentatious,
or finical. Hence St. Paul, in writing to the Corinthians, suggests that
the design of his preaching might have been defeated, had he affected the
orator, and turned his attention to mere "excellency of speech," or "wisdom
of words." But this view of things presents no more ground for neglecting
grammar, and making coarse and vulgar example our model of speech, than for
neglecting dress, and making baize and rags the fashionable costume. The
same apostle exhorts Timothy to "hold fast the form of sound _words_,"
which he himself had taught him. Nor can it be denied that there is an
obligation resting upon all men, to use speech fairly and understandingly.
But let it be remembered, that all those upon whose opinions or practices I
am disposed to animadvert, are either professed grammarians and
philosophers, or authors who, by extraordinary pretensions, have laid
themselves under special obligations to be accurate in the use of language.
"The _wise in heart_ shall be called prudent; and _the sweetness of the
lips_ increaseth learning."--_Prov._, xvi, 21. "The words of a man's mouth
are as deep waters, and the well-spring of wisdom [is] as a flowing
brook."--_Ib._, xviii, 4. "A fool's mouth is his destruction, and his lips
are the snare of his soul."--_Ib._, xviii, 7.
9. The old maxim recorded by Bacon, "_Loquendum ut vulgus, sentiendum ut
sapientes_,"--"We should speak as the vulgar, but think as the wise," is
not to be taken without some limitation. For whoever literally speaks as
the vulgar, shall offend vastly too much with his tongue, to have either
the understanding of the wise or the purity of the good. In all untrained
and vulgar minds, the ambition of speaking well is but a dormant or very
weak principle. Hence the great mass of uneducated people are lamentably
careless of what they utter, both as to the matter and the manner; and no
few seem naturally prone to the constant imitation of low example, and
some, to the practice of every abuse of which language is susceptible.
Hence, as every scholar knows, the least scrupulous of our lexicographers
notice many terms but to censure them as "_low_," and omit many more as
being beneath their notice. Vulgarity of language, then, ever has been, and
ever must be, repudiated by grammarians. Yet we have had pretenders to
grammar, who could court the favour of the vulgar, though at the expense of
all the daughters of Mnemosyne.
10. Hence the enormous insult to learning and the learned, conveyed in the
following scornful quotations: "Grammarians, go to your _tailors_ and
_shoemakers_, and learn from them the _rational_ art of constructing your
grammars!"--_Neef's Method of Education_, p. 62. "From a labyrinth without
a clew, in which the _most enlightened scholars_ of Europe have mazed
themselves and misguided others, the author ventures to turn
aside."--_Cardell's Gram._, 12mo, p. 15. Again: "The _nations_ of
_unlettered men_ so adapted their language to philosophic truth, that all
physical and intellectual research can find no essential rule to reject or
change."--_Ibid._, p. 91. I have shown that "the nations of unlettered men"
are among that portion of the earth's population, upon whose language the
genius of grammar has never yet condescended to look down! That people who
make no pretensions to learning, can furnish better models or instructions
than "the most enlightened scholars," is an opinion which ought not to be
disturbed by argument.
11. I regret to say, that even Dr. Webster, with all his obligations and
pretensions to literature, has well-nigh taken ground with Neef and
Cardell, as above cited; and has not forborne to throw contempt, even on
grammar as such, and on men of letters indiscriminately, by supposing the
true principles of every language to be best observed and kept by the
illiterate. What marvel then, that all his multifarious grammars of the
English language are despised? Having suggested that the learned must
follow the practice of the populace, because they cannot control it, he
adds: "Men of letters may revolt at this suggestion, but if they will
attend to the history of our language, they will find the fact to be as
here stated. It is commonly supposed that the tendency of this practice of
unlettered men is _to corrupt the language_. But the fact is directly the
reverse. I am prepared to prove, were it consistent with the nature of this
work, that nineteen-twentieths of _all the corruptions_ of our language,
for five hundred years past, have been introduced by _authors_--men who
have made alterations in particular idioms _which they did not understand_.
The same remark is applicable to the _orthography_ and _pronunciation_. The
tendency of unlettered men is to _uniformity_--to _analogy_; and so strong
is this disposition, that the common people have actually converted some of
our irregular verbs into regular ones. It is to unlettered people that we
owe the disuse of _holpen, bounden, sitten_, and the use of the regular
participles, _swelled, helped, worked_, in place of the ancient ones. This
popular tendency is not to be contemned and disregarded, as some of the
learned affect to do;[3] for it is governed by _the natural, primary
principles of all languages_, to which we owe all their regularity and all
their melody; viz., a love of uniformity in words of a like character, and
a preference of an easy natural pronunciation, and a desire to express the
most ideas with the smallest number of words and syllables. It is a
fortunate thing for language, that these natural principles generally
prevail over arbitrary and artificial rules."--_Webster's Philosophical
Gram._, p. 119; _Improved Gram._, p. 78. So much for _unlettered
erudition!_
12. If every thing that has been taught under the name of grammar, is to be
considered as belonging to the science, it will be impossible ever to
determine in what estimation the study of it ought to be held; for all that
has ever been urged either for or against it, may, upon such a principle,
be _proved_ by reference to different authorities and irreconcilable
opinions. But all who are studious to know, and content to follow, _the
fashion_ established by the concurrent authority of _the learned_,[4] may
at least have some standard to refer to; and if a grammarian's rules be
based upon this authority, it must be considered the exclusive privilege
of the unlearned to despise them--as it is of the unbred, to contemn the
rules of civility. But who shall determine whether the doctrines contained
in any given treatise are, or are not, based upon such authority? Who shall
decide whether the contributions which any individual may make to our
grammatical code, are, or are not, consonant with the best usage? For this,
there is no tribunal but the mass of readers, of whom few perhaps are very
competent judges. And here an author's reputation for erudition and
judgement, may be available to him: it is the public voice in his favour.
Yet every man is at liberty to form his own opinion, and to alter it
whenever better knowledge leads him to think differently.
13. But the great misfortune is, that they who need instruction, are not
qualified to choose their instructor; and many who must make this choice
for their children, have no adequate means of ascertaining either the
qualifications of such as offer themselves, or the comparative merits of
the different methods by which they profess to teach. Hence this great
branch of learning, in itself too comprehensive for the genius or the life
of any one man, has ever been open to as various and worthless a set of
quacks and plagiaries as have ever figured in any other. There always have
been some who knew this, and there may be many who know it now; but the
credulity and ignorance which expose so great a majority of mankind to
deception and error, are not likely to be soon obviated. With every
individual who is so fortunate as to receive any of the benefits of
intellectual culture, the whole process of education must begin anew; and,
by all that sober minds can credit, the vision of human perfectibility is
far enough from any national consummation.
14. Whatever any may think of their own ability, or however some might
flout to find their errors censured or their pretensions disallowed;
whatever improvement may actually have been made, or however fondly we may
listen to boasts and felicitations on that topic; it is presumed, that the
general ignorance on the subject of grammar, as above stated, is too
obvious to be denied. What then is the remedy? and to whom must our appeal
be made? Knowledge cannot be imposed by power, nor is there any domination
in the republic of letters. The remedy lies solely in that zeal which can
provoke to a generous emulation in the cause of literature; and the appeal,
which has recourse to the learning of the learned, and to the common sense
of all, must be pressed home to conviction, till every false doctrine stand
refuted, and every weak pretender exposed or neglected. Then shall Science
honour them that honour her; and all her triumphs be told, all her
instructions be delivered, in "sound speech that cannot be condemned."
15. A generous man is not unwilling to be corrected, and a just one cannot
but desire to be set right in all things. Even over noisy gainsayers, a
calm and dignified exhibition of true docrine [sic--KTH], has often more
influence than ever openly appears. I have even seen the author of a faulty
grammar heap upon his corrector more scorn and personal abuse than would
fill a large newspaper, and immediately afterwards, in a new edition of his
book, renounce the errors which had been pointed out to him, stealing the
very language of his amendments from the man whom he had so grossly
vilified! It is true that grammarians have ever disputed, and often with
more acrimony than discretion. Those who, in elementary treatises, have
meddled much with philological controversy, have well illustrated the
couplet of Denham: "The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces
sapless leaves in stead of fruits."
16. Thus, then, as I have before suggested, we find among writers on
grammar two numerous classes of authors, who have fallen into opposite
errors, perhaps equally reprehensible; the visionaries, and the copyists.
The former have ventured upon too much originality, the latter have
attempted too little. "The science of philology," says Dr. Alexander
Murray, "is not a frivolous study, fit to be conducted by ignorant pedants
or visionary enthusiasts. It requires more qualifications to succeed in it,
than are usually united in those who pursue it:--a sound penetrating
judgement; habits of calm philosophical induction; an erudition various,
extensive, and accurate; and a mind likewise, that can direct the knowledge
expressed in words, to illustrate the nature of the signs which convey
it."--_Murray's History of European Languages_, Vol. ii, p. 333.
17. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be
ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole
ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So
various have been the notions of this sort of critics, that it would be
difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books. Amidst
this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various attempts
have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long use has
rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is
manifestly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this
system, than to invent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have
generally met the reception they deserved. Their history will give no
encouragement to future innovators.
18. Again: While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights,
vainly supposing that the learning of ages would give place to their
whimsical theories; others, with more success, not better deserved, have
multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by abridging or modifying the books
they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the
origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into our
schools, cannot but desire to see them all displaced by some abler and
better work, more honourable to its author and more useful to the public,
more intelligible to students and more helpful to teachers. Books
professedly published for the advancement of knowledge, are very frequently
to be reckoned, among its greatest impediments; for the interests of
learning are no less injured by whimsical doctrines, than the rights of
authorship by plagiarism. Too many of our grammars, profitable only to
their makers and venders, are like weights attached to the heels of Hermes.
It is discouraging to know the history of this science. But the
multiplicity of treatises already in use, is a reason, not for silence, but
for offering more. For, as Lord Bacon observes, the number of ill-written
books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others
which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious.[5]
19. I have said that some grammars have too much originality, and others
too little. It may be added, that not a few are chargeable with both these
faults at once. They are original, or at least anonymous, where there
should have been given other authority than that of the compiler's name;
and they are copies, or, at best, poor imitations, where the author should
have shown himself capable of writing in a good style of his own. What then
is the middle ground for the true grammarian? What is the kind, and what
the degree, of originality, which are to be commended in works of this
sort? In the first place, a grammarian must be a writer, an author, a man
who observes and thinks for himself; and not a mere compiler, abridger,
modifier, copyist, or plagiarist. Grammar is not the only subject upon
which we allow no man to innovate in doctrine; why, then, should it be the
only one upon which a man may make it a merit, to work up silently into a
book of his own, the best materials found among the instructions of his
predecessors and rivals? Some definitions and rules, which in the lapse of
time and by frequency of use have become a sort of public property, the
grammarian may perhaps be allowed to use at his pleasure; yet even upon
these a man of any genius will be apt to set some impress peculiar to
himself. But the doctrines of his work ought, in general, to be expressed
in his own language, and illustrated by that of others. With respect to
quotation, he has all the liberty of other writers, and no more; for, if a
grammarian makes "use of his predecessors' labours," why should any one
think with Murray, "it is scarcely necessary to apologize for" this, "or
for _omitting_ to _insert_ their names?"--_Introd. to L. Murray's Gram._,
8vo, p. 7.
20. The author of this volume would here take the liberty briefly to refer
to his own procedure. His knowledge of what is _technical_ in grammar, was
of course chiefly derived from the writings of other grammarians; and to
their concurrent opinions and practices, he has always had great respect;
yet, in truth, not a line has he ever copied from any of them with a design
to save the labour of composition. For, not to compile an English grammar
from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the
sources of the art, was the task which he at first proposed to himself. Nor
is there in all the present volume a single sentence, not regularly quoted,
the authorship of which he supposes may now be ascribed to an other more
properly than to himself. Where either authority or acknowledgement was
requisite, names have been inserted. In the doctrinal parts of the volume,
not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion,
are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while,
to almost every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a
name or reference is added. For those citations, however, which there was
occasion to repeat in different parts of the work, a single reference has
sometimes been thought sufficient. This remark refers chiefly to the
corrections in the Key, the references being given in the Exercises.
21. Though the theme is not one on which a man may hope to write well with
little reflection, it is true that the parts of this treatise which have
cost the author the most labour, are those which "consist chiefly of
materials selected from the writings of others." These, however, are not
the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples; which,
according to the custom of the ancient grammarians, ought to be taken from
other authors. But so much have the makers of our modern grammars been
allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers, that
the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many
phrases and sentences, either original with the writer, or common to
everybody, will therefore be found among the illustrations of the following
work; for it was not supposed that any reader would demand for every thing
of this kind the authority of some great name. Anonymous examples are
sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and
elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed.
22. It is obvious enough, that no writer on grammar has any right to
propose himself as authority for what he teaches; for every language, being
the common property of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded
against the caprices of individuals; and especially against that
presumption which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary
definitions and rules. "Since the matter of which we are treating," says
the philologist of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then
by testimony and usage, none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from
the track of great men; for, with whatever authority any grammarian may
weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason, and
also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as
Seneca says, Epistle 95, 'Grammarians are the _guardians_, not the
_authors_, of language.'"--_Sanctii Minerva_, Lib. ii, Cap. 2. Yet, as what
is intuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or
detected, many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly
stated and illustrated; nay, it would seem an injurious reflection on the
understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be
evident to all who speak the language.
23. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so
far as they become competitors for the same prize; but in competition there
is nothing dishonourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and
no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to
account him the best grammarian, who has the most completely executed the
worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology; and it is
worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which
prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other--or to
underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having "done all
that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the
science of English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the
generality of English grammarians; and he who begins with saying, that
"little can be expected" from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully
contradicted, when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power
of speech, nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics,
makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary
merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a
grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy--a
courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior
pretensions may be accepted and honoured under the name.
24. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential,
grammatical authorship has been reduced, in the view of many, to little or
nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed; and,
what is most remarkable, even for an indifferent performance of this low
office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not
scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence! And thus
the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a _professed
compiler_; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to
deny it even the common courtesies of compilation! What marvel is it, that,
under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to
improve upon this most happy design; while all who were competent to the
task, have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete
grammar of our language? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued
diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of
preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his
labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them
both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world under better
auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has
generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself
reduced to an "humble drudge"--or, like Perizonius, apologize for the
apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar?
25. The first edition of the "Institutes of English Grammar," the doctrinal
parts of which are embraced in the present more copious work, was published
in the year 1823; since which time, (within the space of twelve years,)
about forty new compends, mostly professing to be abstracts of _Murray_,
with improvements, have been added to our list of English grammars. The
author has examined as many as thirty of them, and seen advertisements of
perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be
variously estimated; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without
exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to be much
patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would have
been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the
writers of several of them have committed upon his earlier text, were it
not possible, that by such a frittering-away of his work, he himself might
one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken
from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the
production of the books which bear his name, far more has been done for the
grammar of our language than any single hand had before achieved within the
scope of practical philology, and that with perfect fairness towards other
writers; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be
preserved, whatever else may befall; and that the multitude of scribblers
who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would
forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the
following pages.
26. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it
is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to
complete a work of public utility, without entering a warfare for life to
defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent,
and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But,
though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is
not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading
to know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed;
and a multitude of minute things must be minutely compared. And who will
undertake such a task but he that is personally interested? Of the
thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know,
by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for them. And
even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are adequate
judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this
subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than
to truth; and even of some things within their reach, the majority seem
contend to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that
that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred; or that
which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But common sense
might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who,
for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen.
27. The fortune of a grammar is not always an accurate test of its merits.
The goddess of the plenteous horn stands blindfold yet upon the floating
prow; and, under her capricious favour, any pirate-craft, ill stowed with
plunder, may sometimes speed as well, as barges richly laden from the
golden mines of science. Far more are now afloat, and more are stranded on
dry shelves, than can be here reported. But what this work contains, is
candidly designed to qualify the reader to be himself a judge of what it
_should_ contain; and I will hope, so ample a report as this, being thought
sufficient, will also meet his approbation. The favour of one discerning
mind that comprehends my subject, is worth intrinsically more than that of
half the nation: I mean, of course, the half of whom my gentle reader is
not one.
"They praise and they admire they know not what,
And know not whom, but as one leads the other."--_Milton_.
CHAPTER III.
OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME.
"Non is ego sum, cui aut jucundum, aut adeo opus sit, de aliis detrahere,
et hac via ad famara contendere. Melioribus artibus laudem parare didici.
Itaque non libenter dico, quod praesens institutum dicere cogit."--Jo.
AUGUSTI ERNESTI _Praef. ad Graecum Lexicon_, p. vii.
1. The real history of grammar is little known; and many erroneous
impressions are entertained concerning it: because the story of the systems
most generally received has never been fully told; and that of a multitude
now gone to oblivion was never worth telling. In the distribution of
grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we
have had a strange illustration of the saying: "Unto every one that hath
shall be given, and he shall have abundance; but from him that hath not,
shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made
popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talent are to be
taken into the account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary
claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians,
and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade, or made them
tributary to their own success and popularity.
2. It is an ungrateful task to correct public opinion by showing the
injustice of praise. Fame, though it may have been both unexpected and
undeserved, is apt to be claimed and valued as part and parcel of a man's
good name; and the dissenting critic, though ever-so candid, is liable to
be thought an envious detractor. It would seem in general most prudent to
leave mankind to find out for themselves how far any commendation bestowed
on individuals is inconsistent with truth. But, be it remembered, that
celebrity is not a virtue; nor, on the other hand, is experience the
cheapest of teachers. A good man may not have done all things ably and
well; and it is certainly no small mistake to estimate his character by the
current value of his copy-rights. Criticism may destroy the reputation of a
book, and not be inconsistent with a cordial respect for the private worth
of its author. The reader will not be likely to be displeased with what is
to be stated in this chapter, if he can believe, that no man's merit as a
writer, may well be enhanced by ascribing to him that which he himself, for
the protection of his own honour, has been constrained to disclaim. He
cannot suppose that too much is alleged, if he will admit that a
grammarian's fame should be thought safe enough in his _own keeping_. Are
authors apt to undervalue their own performances? Or because proprietors
and publishers may profit by the credit of a book, shall it be thought
illiberal to criticise it? Is the author himself to be disbelieved, that
the extravagant praises bestowed upon him may be justified? "Superlative
commendation," says Dillwyn, "is near akin to _detraction_." (See his
_Reflections_, p. 22.) Let him, therefore, who will charge detraction upon
me, first understand wherein it consists. I shall criticise, freely, both
the works of the living, and the doctrines of those who, to us, live only
in their works; and if any man dislike this freedom, let him rebuke it,
showing wherein it is wrong or unfair. The amiable author just quoted, says
again: "Praise has so often proved an _impostor_, that it would be well,
wherever we meet with it, to treat it as a vagrant."--_Ib._, p. 100. I go
not so far as this; but that eulogy which one knows to be false, he cannot
but reckon impertinent.
3. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than WILLIAM LILY and
LINDLEY MURRAY. Others have left better monuments of their learning and
talents, but none perhaps have had greater success and fame. The Latin
grammar which was for a long time most popular in England, has commonly
been ascribed to the one; and what the Imperial Review, in 1805, pronounced
"the best English grammar, beyond all comparison, that has yet appeared,"
was compiled by the other. And doubtless they have both been rightly judged
to excel the generality of those which they were intended to supersede; and
both, in their day, may have been highly serviceable to the cause of
learning. For all excellence is but comparative; and to grant them this
superiority, is neither to prefer them now, nor to justify the praise which
has been bestowed upon their authorship. As the science of grammar can
never be taught without a book, or properly taught by any book which is not
itself grammatical, it is of some importance both to teachers and to
students, to make choice of the best. Knowledge will not advance where
grammars hold rank by prescription. Yet it is possible that many, in
learning to write and speak, may have derived no inconsiderable benefit
from a book that is neither accurate nor complete.
4. With respect to time, these two grammarians were three centuries apart;
during which period, the English language received its most classical
refinement, and the relative estimation of the two studies, Latin and
English grammar, became in a great measure reversed. Lily was an
Englishman, born at Odiham,[6] in Hampshire, in 1466. When he had arrived
at manhood, he went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and while abroad studied
some time at Rome, and also at Paris. On his return he was thought one of
the most accomplished scholars in England. In 1510, Dr. John Colet, dean of
St. Paul's church, in London, appointed him the first high master of St.
Paul's School, then recently founded by this gentleman's munificence. In
this situation, Lily appears to have taught with great credit to himself
till 1522, when he died of the plague, at the age of 56. For the use of
this school, he wrote and published certain parts of the grammar which has
since borne his name. Of the authorship of this work many curious
particulars are stated in the preface by John Ward, which may be seen in
the edition of 1793. Lily had able rivals, as well as learned coadjutors
and friends. By the aid of the latter, he took precedence of the former;
and his publications, though not voluminous, soon gained a general
popularity. So that when an arbitrary king saw fit to silence competition
among the philologists, by becoming himself, as Sir Thomas Elliott says,
"the chiefe authour and setter-forth of an introduction into grammar, for
the childrene of his lovynge subjects," Lily's Grammar was preferred for
the basis of the standard. Hence, after the publishing of it became a
privilege patented by the crown, the book appears to have been honoured
with a royal title, and to have been familiarly called King Henry's
Grammar.
5. Prefixed to this book, there appears a very ancient epistle to the
reader, which while it shows the reasons for this royal interference with
grammar, shows also, what is worthy of remembrance, that guarded and
maintained as it was, even royal interference was here ineffectual to its
purpose. It neither produced uniformity in the methods of teaching, nor,
even for instruction in a dead language, entirely prevented the old manual
from becoming diverse in its different editions. The style also may serve
to illustrate what I have elsewhere said about the duties of a modern
grammarian. "As for the diversitie of grammars, it is well and profitably
taken awaie by the King's Majesties wisdome; who, foreseeing the
inconvenience, and favorably providing the remedie, caused one kind of
grammar by sundry learned men to be diligently drawn, and so to be set out,
only every where to be taught, for the use of learners, and for the hurt in
changing of schoolemaisters." That is, to prevent the injury which
schoolmasters were doing by a whimsical choice, or frequent changing, of
grammars. But, says the letter, "The varietie of teaching is divers yet,
and alwaies will be; for that every schoolemaister liketh that he knoweth,
and seeth not the use of that he knoweth not; and therefore judgeth that
the most sufficient waie, which he seeth to be the readiest meane, and
perfectest kinde, to bring a learner to have a thorough knowledge therein."
The only remedy for such an evil then is, to teach those who are to be
teachers, and to desert all who, for any whim of their own, desert sound
doctrine.
6. But, to return. A law was made in England by Henry the Eighth,
commanding Lily's Grammar only, (or that which has commonly been quoted as
Lily's,) to be everywhere adopted and taught, as the common standard of
grammatical instruction.[7] Being long kept in force by means of a special
inquiry, directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations,
this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established
schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has
thus gone under the name of Lily, ("because," says one of the patentees,
"he had _so considerable a hand_ in the composition,") was written by Dr.
Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death.
And of the other half, it has been incidentally asserted in history, that
neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar,
London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says: "The Italians in
a short time brought it to _that_ perfection, that in the beginning of the
year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the
present age; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar, written by Omnibonus
Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th of January, 1474; _from whom
our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his Grammar, and
transcribed the greatest part thereof, without paying any regard to the
memory of this author_." The historian then proceeds to speak about types.
See also the same thing in the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This
is the grammar which bears upon its title page: "_Quam solam Regia Majestas
in omnibus scholis docendam prcaecipit_."
7. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours
in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in
original thought and critical skill he fell far below most of "the authors
to whom," he confesses, "the grammatical part of his compilation is
_principally indebted for its materials_; namely, Harris, Johnson, Lowth,
Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and
Campbell."--_Introd. to Lindley Murray's Gram._, p. 7. It is certain and
evident that he entered upon his task with a very insufficient preparation.
His biography, which was commenced by himself and completed by one of his
most partial friends, informs us, that, "Grammar did not particularly
engage his attention, until a short time previous to the publication of his
first work on that subject;" that, "His Grammar, as it appeared in the
first edition, was completed in rather less than a year;" that, "It was
begun in the spring of 1794, and published in the spring of 1795--though he
had an intervening illness, which, for several weeks, stopped the progress
of the work;" and that, "The Exercises and Key were also composed in about
a year."--_Life of L. Murray_, p. 188. From the very first sentence of his
book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of
the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before
the public.[8] He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that
"little can be expected" from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to
express it) "from a _new compilation_, besides a careful selection of the
most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting
it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners."--_Introd.
to L. Murray's Gram._; 8vo, p. 5; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his
own art--to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's
business! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully
selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which
fashioned them!
8. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He
attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught; for he
had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor
the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own
abilities to their best account, he seems to have done much to promote and
facilitate the study of our language. But his notion of grammatical
authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the sake
of doing good; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for
his own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards
the very authors whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places
them, in common with others, under a degrading necessity which no able
grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or learning must
repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time
to have a new one that will; for, to expect the perfection of grammar from
him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure, is
absurd. He says, "The greater part of an English grammar _must necessarily
be a compilation _;" and adds, with reference to his own, "originality
belongs to but a small portion of it. This I have acknowledged; and I trust
_this acknowledgement_ will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any
supposed unjust and irregular assumptions." This quotation is from a letter
addressed by Murray to his American publishers, in 1811, after they had
informed him of certain complaints respecting the liberties which he had
taken in his work. See "_The Friend_," Vol. iii, p. 34.
9. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies, does not appear to have
been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was,
however, at some period, introduced into his short preface, or
"Introduction," in the following well-meant but singularly sophistical
terms: "In _a work_ which professes itself to be a _compilation_, and
which, _from the nature and design of it_, must consist chiefly of
materials selected from the writings of others, _it is scarcely necessary
to apologise_ for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors'
labours, or for _omitting to insert_ their names. _From the alterations_
which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit
the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they
are introduced; and, in many instances, _from the uncertainty to whom_ the
passages originally belonged, the insertion of names _could seldom be made
with propriety_. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this
nature _would derive no advantage from it_, equal to the inconvenience of
crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references. It is.
however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the authors to whom
the grammatical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its
materials, are Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan,
Walker, and Coote."--_Introd.; Duodecimo Gram._, p. 4; _Octavo_, p. 7.
10. The fallacy, or absurdity, of this language sprung from necessity. An
impossible case was to be made out. For compilation, though ever so fair,
is not grammatical authorship. But some of the commenders of Murray have
not only professed themselves satisfied with this general acknowledgement,
but have found in it a candour and a liberality, a modesty and a
diffidence, which, as they allege, ought to protect him from all
animadversion. Are they friends to learning? Let them calmly consider what
I reluctantly offer for its defence and promotion. In one of the
recommendations appended to Murray's grammars, it _is_ said, "They have
nearly superseded every thing else of the kind, by concentrating the
remarks of the best authors on the subject." But, in truth, with several
of the best English grammars published previously to his own, Murray
appears to have been totally unacquainted. The chief, if not the only
school grammars which were largely copied by him, were Lowth's and
Priestley's, though others perhaps may have shared the fate of these in
being "superseded" by his. It may be seen by inspection, that in copying
these two authors, the compiler, agreeably to what he says above, omitted
all names and references--even such as they had scrupulously inserted: and,
at the outset, assumed to be himself the sole authority for all his
doctrines and illustrations; satisfying his own mind with making, some
years afterwards, that general apology which we are now criticising. For if
he so mutilated and altered the passages which he adopted, as to make it
improper to add the names of their authors, upon what other authority than
his own do they rest? But if, on the other hand, he generally copied
without alteration; his examples are still anonymous, while his first
reason for leaving them so, is plainly destroyed: because his position is
thus far contradicted by the fact.
11. In his later editions, however, there are two opinions which the
compiler thought proper to support by regular quotations; and, now and
then, in other instances, the name of an author appears. The two positions
thus distinguished, are these: _First_, That the noun _means_ is
necessarily singular as well as plural, so that one cannot with propriety
use the singular form, _mean_, to signify that by which an end is attained;
_Second_, That the subjective mood, to which he himself had previously
given all the tenses without inflection, is not different in form from the
indicative, except in the present tense. With regard to the later point, I
have shown, in its proper place, that he taught erroneously, both before
and after he changed his opinion; and concerning the former, the most that
can be proved by quotation, is, that both _mean_ and _means_ for the
singular number, long have been, and still are, in good use, or sanctioned
by many elegant writers; so that either form may yet be considered
grammatical, though the irregular can claim to be so, only when it is used
in this particular sense. As to his second reason for the suppression of
names, to wit, "the _uncertainty to whom_ the passages originally
belonged,"--to make the most of it, it is but partial and relative; and,
surely, no other grammar ever before so multiplied the difficulty in the
eyes of teachers, and so widened the field for commonplace authorship, as
has the compilation in question. The origin of a sentiment or passage may
be uncertain to one man, and perfectly well known to an other. The
embarrassment which a _compiler_ may happen to find from this source, is
worthy of little sympathy. For he cannot but know from what work he is
taking any particular sentence or paragraph, and those parts of a
_grammar_, which are new to the eye of a great grammarian, may very well be
credited to him who claims to have written the book. I have thus disposed
of his second reason for the omission of names and references, in
compilations of grammar.
12. There remains one more: "A work of this nature _would derive no
advantage from it_, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a
repetition of names and references." With regard to a small work, in which
the matter is to be very closely condensed, this argument has considerable
force. But Murray has in general allowed himself very ample room,
especially in his two octavoes. In these, and for the most part also in his
duodecimoes, all needful references might easily have been added without
increasing the size of his volumes, or injuring their appearance. In nine
cases out of ten, the names would only have been occupied what is now blank
space. It is to be remembered, that these books do not differ much, except
in quantity of paper. His octavo Grammar is but little more than a reprint,
in a larger type, of the duodecimo Grammar, together with his Exercises and
Key. The demand for this expensive publication has been comparatively
small; and it is chiefly to the others, that the author owes his popularity
as a grammarian. As to the advantage which Murray or his work might have
derived from an adherence on his part to the usual custom of compilers,
_that_ may be variously estimated. The remarks of the best grammarians or
the sentiments of the best authors, are hardly to be thought the more
worthy of acceptance, for being concentrated in such a manner as to merge
their authenticity in the fame of the copyist. Let me not be understood to
suggest that this good man sought popularity at the expense of others; for
I do not believe that either fame or interest was his motive. But the right
of authors to the credit of their writings, is a delicate point; and,
surely, his example would have been worthier of imitation, had he left no
ground for the foregoing objections, and carefully barred the way to any
such interference.
13. But let the first sentence of this apology be now
considered. It is here suggested, that because this work is a compilation,
even such an acknowledgement as the author makes, is "scarcely necessary."
This is too much to say. Yet one may readily admit, that a compilation,
"from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly"--nay,
_wholly_--"of materials selected from the writings of others." But what
able grammarian would ever willingly throw himself upon the horns of such a
dilemma! The nature and design _of a book_, whatever they may be, are
matters for which the author alone is answerable; but the nature and design
_of grammar_, are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology, than to
the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by Murray in
his work of compilation. It is the express purpose of this practical
science, to enable a man to write well himself. He that cannot do this,
exhibits no excess of modesty when he claims to have "done all that could
reasonably be expected in a work of this nature."--_L. Murray's Gram.,
Introd._, p. 9. He that sees with other men's eyes, is peculiarly liable to
errors and inconsistencies: uniformity is seldom found in patchwork, or
accuracy in secondhand literature. Correctness of language is in the mind,
rather than in the hand or the tongue; and, in order to secure it, some
originality of thought is necessary. A delineation from new surveys is not
the less original because the same region has been sketched before; and how
can he be the ablest of surveyors, who, through lack of skill or industry,
does little more than transcribe the field-notes and copy the projections
of his predecessors?
14. This author's oversights are numerous. There is no part of the volume
more accurate than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short
Introduction alone, he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty
paragraphs; and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous.
Many of the best practical notes were taken from Priestley; yet it was he,
at whose doctrines were pointed most of those "positions and discussions,"
which alone the author claims as original. To some of these reasonings,
however, his own alterations may have given rise; for, where he "persuades
himself he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against
the text of his own earlier editions. Webster's well-known complaints of
Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital; for there was no
generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in
question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about sixty
pages were extracted from Blair; and it requires no great critical acumen
to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of
language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell; which, with a few
exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the same as
Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross blunder; and the fourth, a,
needless repetition.
15. Were this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable
might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid
down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeatedly violated
by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those who have since
abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it.
Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon,
Miller, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham,
Cooper, R. G. Greene, Woodworth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater
skill? It is curious to observe, how frequently a grammatical blunder
committed by Murray, or some one of his predecessors, has escaped the
notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to
copy him than to write for themselves. No man professing to have copied and
improved Murray, can rationally be supposed to have greatly excelled him;
for to pretend to have produced an _improved copy of a compilation_, is to
claim a sort of authorship, even inferior to his, and utterly unworthy of
any man who is able to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English
grammar.
16. But Murray's grammatical works, being extolled in the reviews, and made
common stock in trade,--being published, both in England and in America, by
booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even
by those who were most interested in the sale of them,--have been eminently
successful with the public; and in the opinion of the world, success is the
strongest proof of merit. Nor has the force of this argument been
overlooked by those who have written in aid of his popularity. It is the
strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed upon
Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, "at least five
millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed;"
particularly commends him for his "candour and liberality towards rival
authors;" avers that, "he went on, examining and correcting his Grammar,
through all its forty editions, till he brought it to a degree of
perfection which will render it as permanent as the English language
itself;" censures (and not without reason) the "presumption" of those
"superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his
honours; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to
others, but as a mark of "his exemplary diffidence of his own merits,"
adds, (in very bad English,) "Perhaps there never was an author whose
success and fame were more _unexpected by himself than Lindley
Murray_."--_The Friend_, Vol. iii, p. 33.
17. In a New-York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was
inserted a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American
correspondents and publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled
success and merit of the work, "as it came _in purity_ from the pen of the
author;" with an earnest remonstrance against the several _revised
editions_ which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and
against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering
the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated,
"that _the whole_ of these mutilated editions _have been seen_ and examined
by Lindley Murray himself, and that they, have met with _his decided
disapprobation_. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, "will
agree with him, that, 'the _rights of living authors_, and the _interests
of science and literature_, demand the abolition of this _ungenerous
practice_.'" (See this also in _Murray's Key_, 12mo, N. Y., 1811, p. iii.)
Here, then, we have the feeling and opinion of Murray himself, upon this
tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judging
it "scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which _they have made_ of
their predecessors' labours."
18. It is really remarkable to find an author and his admirers so much at
variance, as are Murray and his commenders, in relation to his grammatical
authorship; and yet, under what circumstances could men have stronger
desires to avoid apparent contradiction? They, on the one side, claim for
him the highest degree of merit as a grammarian; and continue to applaud
his works as if nothing more could be desired in the study of English
grammar--a branch of learning which some of them are willing emphatically
to call "_his_ science." He, on the contrary, to avert the charge of
plagiarism, disclaims almost every thing in which any degree of literary
merit consists; supposes it impossible to write an English grammar the
greater part of which is not a "compilation;" acknowledges that originality
belongs to but a small part of his own; trusts that such a general
acknowledgement will protect him from all censure; suppresses the names of
other writers, and leaves his examples to rest solely on his own authority;
and, "contented with the great respectability of his private character and
station, is satisfied with being _useful_ as an author."--_The Friend_,
Vol. iii, p. 33. By the high praises bestowed upon his works, his own voice
is overborne: the trumpet of fame has drowned it. His liberal authorship is
profitable in trade, and interest has power to swell and prolong the
strain.
19. The name and character of Lindley Murray are too venerable to allow us
to approach even the errors of his grammars, without some recognition of
the respect due to his personal virtues and benevolent intentions. For the
private virtues of Murray, I entertain as cordial a respect as any other
man. Nothing is argued against these, even if it be proved that causes
independent of true literary merit have given him his great and unexpected
fame as a grammarian. It is not intended by the introduction of these
notices, to impute to him any thing more or less than what his own words
plainly imply; except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still
disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course he did not
discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such
perfection as has been ascribed to it; for, by way of apology for his
frequent alterations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated
improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." Necessity has urged this
reasoning upon me. I am as far from any invidious feeling, or any sordid
motive, as was Lindley Murray. But it is due to truth, to correct erroneous
impressions; and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of
the following pages, it seemed necessary first to convince them, _that it
is possible_ to compose a better grammar than Murray's, without being
particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of
time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, the
achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from
his, and from all the pretended amendments of his, as a new map, drawn from
actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from
others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the
scope are essentially the same; the tracing and the colouring are more
original; and (if the reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more
accurate and vivid.
20. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of
learning, unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the
same purpose; and nothing for his own honour, unless such excellence result
from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally
commends itself to every reader--even to him who cannot tell why it is
worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, that the true
principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by
time, will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual
caprice may substitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be
some who can distinguish merit; and it is impossible that these should ever
be converted to any whimsical theory of language, which goes to make void
the learning of past ages. There will always be some who can discern the
difference between originality of style, and innovation in
doctrine,--between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual
usurpation of their text; and it is incredible that these should ever be
satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar, or with any such authorship
as either confesses or betrays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not
true, that, "an English grammar must necessarily be," in any considerable
degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a theme, and in "the
grammatical part" of the work, all compilation beyond a fair use of
authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished
or free to all, most unavoidably implies--not conscious "ability,"
generously doing honour to rival merit--nor "exemplary diffidence,"
modestly veiling its own--but inadequate skill and inferior talents,
bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking precedence by such
means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify.
21. Among the professed copiers of Murray, there is not one to whom the
foregoing remarks do not apply, as forcibly as to him. For no one of them
all has attempted any thing more honourable to himself, or more beneficial
to the public, than what their master had before achieved; nor is there any
one, who, with the same disinterestedness, has guarded his design from the
imputation of a pecuniary motive. It is comical to observe what they say in
their prefaces. Between praise to sustain their choice of a model, and
blame to make room for their pretended amendments, they are often placed in
as awkward a dilemma, as that which was contrived when grammar was
identified with compilation. I should have much to say, were I to show them
all in their true light.[9] Few of them have had such success as to be
worthy of notice here; but the names of many will find frequent place in my
code of false grammar. The one who seems to be now taking the lead in fame
and revenue, filled with glad wonder at his own popularity, is SAMUEL
KIRKHAM. Upon this gentleman's performance, I shall therefore bestow a few
brief observations. If I do not overrate this author's literary importance,
a fair exhibition of the character of his grammar, may be made an
instructive lesson to some of our modern literati. The book is a striking
sample of a numerous species.
22. Kirkham's treatise is entitled, "English Grammar _in familiar
Lectures_, accompanied by a _Compendium_;" that is, by a folded sheet. Of
this work, of which I have recently seen copies purporting to be of the
"SIXTY-SEVENTH EDITION," and others again of the "HUNDRED AND FIFTH
EDITION," each published at Baltimore in 1835, I can give no earlier
account, than what may be derived from the "SECOND EDITION, enlarged and
much improved," which was published at Harrisburg in 1825. The preface,
which appears to have been written for his _first_ edition, is dated,
"Fredericktown, Md., August 22, 1823." In it, there is no recognition of
any obligation to Murray, or to any other grammarian in particular; but
with the modest assumption, that the style of the "best philologists,"
needed to be retouched, the book is presented to the world under the
following pretensions:
"The author of this production has endeavoured to condense _all the most
important subject-matter of the whole science_, and present it in so small
a compass that the learner can become familiarly acquainted with it in a
_short time_. He makes but small pretensions to originality in theoretical
matter. Most of the principles laid down, have been selected from our _best
modern philologists_. If his work is entitled to any degree of _merit_, it
is not on account of a judicious selection of principles and rules, but for
the easy mode adopted of communicating _these_ to the mind of the
learner."--_Kirkham's Grammar_, 1825, p. 10.
23. It will be found on examination, that what this author regarded as
_"all the most important subject-matter of the whole science" of grammar_,
included nothing more than the most common elements of the orthography,
etymology, and syntax, of the English tongue--beyond which his scholarship
appears not to have extended. Whatsoever relates to derivation, to the
sounds of the letters, to prosody, (as punctuation, utterance, figures,
versification, and poetic diction,) found no place in his "comprehensive
system of grammar;" nor do his later editions treat any of these things
amply or well. In short, he treats nothing well; for he is a bad writer.
Commencing his career of authorship under circumstances the most
forbidding, yet receiving encouragement from commendations bestowed in
pity, he proceeded, like a man of business, to profit mainly by the chance;
and, without ever acquiring either the feelings or the habits of a scholar,
soon learned by experience that, "It is much better to _write_ than [to]
_starve_."--_Kirkham's Gram., Stereotyped_, p. 89. It is cruel in any man,
to look narrowly into the faults of an author who peddles a school-book for
bread. The starveling wretch whose defence and plea are poverty and
sickness, demands, and must have, in the name of humanity, an immunity from
criticism, if not the patronage of the public. Far be it from me, to notice
any such character, except with kindness and charity. Nor need I be told,
that tenderness is due to the "young;" or that noble results sometimes
follow unhopeful beginnings. These things are understood and duly
appreciated. The gentleman was young once, even as he says; and I, his
equal in years, was then, in authorship, as young--though, it were to be
hoped, not quite so immature. But, as circumstances alter cases, so time
and chance alter circumstances. Under no circumstances, however, can the
artifices of quackery be thought excusable in him who claims to be the very
greatest of modern grammarians. The niche that in the temple of learning
belongs to any individual, can be no other than that which his own labours
have purchased: here, his _own merit_ alone must be his pedestal. If this
critical sketch be unimpeachably _just_, its publication requires no
further warrant. The correction has been forborne, till the subject of it
has become rich, and popular, and proud; proud enough at least to have
published his utter contempt for me and all my works. Yet not for this do I
judge him worthy of notice here, but merely as an apt example of some men's
grammatical success and fame. The ways and means to these grand results are
what I purpose now to consider.
24. The common supposition, that the world is steadily advancing in
knowledge and improvement, would seem to imply, that the man who could
plausibly boast of being the most successful and most popular grammarian of
the nineteenth century, cannot but be a scholar of such merit as to deserve
some place, if not in the general literary history of his age, at least in
the particular history of the science which he teaches. It will presently
be seen that the author of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures," boasts
of a degree of success and popularity, which, in this age of the world, has
no parallel. It is not intended on my part, to dispute any of his
assertions on these points; but rather to take it for granted, that in
reputation and revenue he is altogether as preeminent as he pretends to be.
The character of his alleged _improvements_, however, I shall inspect with
the eyes of one who means to know the certainty for himself; and, in this
item of literary history, the reader shall see, in some sort, _what profit_
there is in grammar. Is the common language of two of the largest and most
enlightened nations on earth so little understood, and its true grammar so
little known or appreciated, that one of the most unscholarly and
incompetent of all pretenders to grammar can have found means to outrival
all the grammarians who have preceded him? Have plagiarism and quackery
become the only means of success in philology? Are there now instances to
which an intelligent critic may point, and say, "This man, or that, though
he can scarcely write a page of good English, has patched up a grammar, by
the help of Murray's text only, and thereby made himself rich?" Is there
such a charm in the name of _Murray_, and the word _improvement_, that by
these two implements alone, the obscurest of men, or the absurdest of
teachers, may work his passage to fame; and then, perchance, by contrast of
circumstances, grow conceited and arrogant, from the fortune of the
undertaking? Let us see what we can find in Kirkham's Grammar, which will
go to answer these questions.
25. Take first from one page of his "hundred and fifth edition," a few
brief quotations, as a sample of his thoughts and style:
"They, however, who introduce _usages which depart from the analogy and
philosophy_ of a language, _are conspicuous_ among the number of those who
_form that language_, and have power to control it." "PRINCIPLE.--A
principle in grammar is a _peculiar construction_ of the language,
sanctioned by good usage." "DEFINITION.--A definition in grammar is a
_principle_ of language expressed in a _definite form_." "RULE.--A rule
describes _the peculiar construction_ or circumstantial relation of words,
_which_ custom has established for our observance."--_Kirkham's Grammar_,
page 18.
Now, as "a rule describes a peculiar construction," and "a principle is a
peculiar construction," and "a definition is a principle;" how, according
to this grammarian, do a principle, a definition, and a rule, differ each
from the others? From the rote here imposed, it is certainly not easier
for the learner to conceive of all these things _distinctly_, than it is to
understand how a departure from philosophy may make a man deservedly
"_conspicuous_." It were easy to multiply examples like these, showing the
work to be deficient in clearness, the first requisite of style.
26. The following passages may serve as a specimen of the gentleman's
taste, and grammatical accuracy; in one of which, he supposes the neuter
verb _is_ to express an _action_, and every _honest man_ to be _long since
dead!_ So it stands in all his editions. Did his praisers think so too?
"It is correct to say, _The man eats, he eats_; but we cannot say, _The man
dog eats, he dog eats_. Why not? Because the man _is here represented_ as
the possessor, and dog, the property, or thing possessed; and the genius of
our language requires, that when we add _to the possessor_, the _thing_
which _he_ is represented as possessing, _the possessor_ shall take a
particular form to show ITS case, or relation to the property."--_Ib._, p.
52.
THE PRESENT TENSE.--"This tense is sometimes applied to represent the
_actions_ of persons _long since dead_; as, 'Seneca _reasons_ and
_moralizes_ well; An HONEST MAN IS the noblest work of God.'"--_Ib._, p.
138.
PARTICIPLES.--"The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word
_participio_,[10] which signifies to _partake_."--"Participles are formed
by adding to the verb the termination _ing, ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies
the same thing as the noun _being_. When _postfixed_ to the _noun-state_ of
the verb, the _compound word_ thus formed expresses a continued state of
the _verbal denotement_. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is
_being_ continued."--_Ib._, p. 78. "All participles _are compound_ in their
meaning and office."--_Ib._, p. 79.
VERBS.--"Verbs express, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but,
likewise, all the different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and
things, whether animate or inanimate."--_Ib._, p. 62. "It can be easily
shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have
sprung. Nay, more. _They_ may even be reduced to _one_. _Verbs do not, in
reality, express actions_; but they are intrinsically _the mere_ NAMES _of
actions_."--_Ib._, p. 37.
PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.--"I have thought proper to intersperse through the
pages of this work, under the head of '_Philosophical Notes_,' an entire
system of grammatical principles, as deduced from what _appears[11] to me_
to be the _most rational and consistent_ philosophical investigations."--
_Ib._, p. 36. "Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at_,
had they essayed to thrust _any thing like our_ modernized philosophical
grammar _down the throats of their cotemporaries_."--_Ib._, p. 143.
Is it not a pity, that "more than one hundred thousand children and youth"
should be daily poring over language and logic like this?
27. For the sake of those who happily remain ignorant of this successful
empiricism, it is desirable that the record and exposition of it be made
brief. There is little danger that it will long survive its author. But the
present subjects of it are sufficiently numerous to deserve some pity. The
following is a sample of the gentleman's method of achieving what he both
justly and exultingly supposes, that Johnson, or Blair, or Lowth, could not
have effected. He scoffs at his own grave instructions, as if they had been
the production of some _other_ impostor. Can the fact be credited, that in
the following instances, he speaks of _what he himself teaches_?--of what
he seriously pronounces _"most rational and consistent?"_--of what is part
and parcel of that philosophy of his, which he declares, "will _in general
be found to accord_ with the _practical theory_ embraced in the body of his
work?"--See _Kirkham's Gram._, p. 36.
"Call this '_philosophical parsing_, on reasoning principles, according to
the original laws of nature and of thought,' and _the pill will be
swallowed_, by pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease
imaginable."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 144. "For the _satisfaction_ of those
teachers who prefer it, and _for their adoption, too_, a modernized
philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented. If it is
not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate
to adopt it. It has the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds
_large_, and will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly
understood that you teach '[_Kirkham's_] _philosophical grammar_, founded
on reason and common sense,' and you will pass for a very learned man, and
make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and
the vast improvements of the age."--_Ib._, p. 141.
28. The _pretty promises_ with which these "Familiar Lectures" abound, are
also worthy to be noticed here, as being among the peculiar attractions of
the performance. The following may serve as a specimen:
"If you _proceed according to my instructions_, you will be sure to acquire
a practical knowledge of Grammar in _a short time_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p.
49. "If you have sufficient _resolution to do this_, you will, in a short
time, _perfectly understand_ the nature and office of the different parts
of speech, their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax
that apply to them; _and, in a few weeks_, be able to speak and write
accurately."--_Ib._, p. 62. "You will please to turn back and read over
again _the whole five lectures_. You must exercise _a little_
patience."--_Ib._, p. 82. "By studying these lectures with attention, you
will acquire _more grammatical_ knowledge in three months, than is commonly
obtained in _two years_."--_Ib._, p. 82. "I will conduct you _so smoothly
through the moods and tenses_, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead
of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will
scarcely find _an obstruction to impede your progress_."--_Ib._, p. 133.
"The supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be
transformed into _a few hours of pleasant pastime_."--_Ib._, p. 142. "_By
examining carefully_ the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you
will find it _very easy_."--_Ib._, p. 147. "By pursuing the following
direction, you can, _in a very short time_, learn to conjugate any
verb."--_Ib._, p. 147. "Although this mode of procedure _may, at first,
appear to be laborious_, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not
hesitate to adopt it. _My confidence in your perseverance_, induces me to
recommend _any course_ which I know will tend to facilitate your
progress."--_Ib._, p. 148.
29. The grand boast of this author is, that he _has succeeded_ in "pleasing
himself and the public." He trusts to have "gained the latter point," to so
great an extent, and with such security of tenure, that henceforth no man
can safely question _the merit_ of his performance. Happy mortal! to whom
that success which is the ground of his pride, is also the glittering aegis
of his sure defence! To this he points with exultation and self-applause,
as if the prosperity of the wicked, or the popularity of an imposture, had
never yet been heard of in this clever world![12] Upon what merit this
success has been founded, my readers may judge, when I shall have finished
this slight review of his work. Probably no other grammar was ever so
industriously spread. Such was the author's perseverance in his measures to
increase the demand for his book, that even the attainment of such accuracy
as he was capable of, was less a subject of concern. For in an article
designed "to ward off some of the arrows of criticism,"--an advertisement
which, from the eleventh to the "one hundred and fifth edition," has been
promising "to the _publick another and a better_ edition,"--he plainly
offers this urgent engagement, as "an apology for its defects:"
"The author is apprehensive that his work is _not yet as_ accurate and as
much simplified as it _may be_. If, however, the disadvantages of lingering
under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject
_only a small portion of his time_, snatched from the _active pursuits of a
business life_, (active as far as imperfect health permits him to be,) are
any apology for his defects, he hopes that the candid will set down _the
apology to his credit_.--Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen
_criticks_ and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of
_self-confidence_ and _moral courage_, which he would by no means, be
willing to avow."--_Kirkham's Gram._, (Adv. of 1829,) p. 7.
30. Now, to this painful struggle, this active contention between business
and the vapours, let all _credit_ be given, and all _sympathy_ be added;
but, as an aid to the studies of healthy children, what better is the book,
for any forbearance or favour that may have been won by this apology? It
is well known, that, till _phrenology_ became the common talk, the author's
principal business was, to commend his own method of teaching _grammar_,
and to turn this publication to profit. This honourable industry, aided, as
himself suggests, by "not much _less_ than one thousand written
recommendations," is said to have wrought for him, in a very few years, a
degree of success and fame, at which both the eulogists of Murray and the
friends of English grammar may hang their heads. As to a "_compromise_"
with any critic or reviewer whom he cannot bribe, it is enough to say of
that, it is morally impossible. Nor was it necessary for such an author to
throw the gauntlet, to prove himself not lacking in "_self-confidence_." He
can show his "_moral courage_," only by daring do right.
31. In 1829, after his book had gone through ten editions, and the demand
for it had become so great as "to call forth twenty thousand copies during
the year," the prudent author, intending to veer his course according to
the _trade-wind_, thought it expedient to retract his former
acknowledgement to "our best modern philologists," and to profess himself a
modifier of the Great Compiler's code. Where then holds the anchor of his
praise? Let the reader say, after weighing and comparing his various
pretensions:
"Aware that there is, in the _publick_ mind, a strong predilection for the
doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not
merely from motives of policy, but from choice, _to select his principles
chiefly from that work_; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with
his own views, _the language of that eminent philologist_. In no instance
has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, _some
practical advantage_ would be gained. He hopes, _therefore_, to escape the
censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those _unfortunate
innovators_ who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text
of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in
the world _as authors_, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to
themselves _the credit due to another_." [13]--_Kirkham's Gram._, 1829, p.
10.
32. Now these statements are either true or false; and I know not on which
supposition they are most creditable to the writer. Had any Roman
grammatist thus profited by the name of Varro or Quintilian, he would have
been filled with constant dread of somewhere meeting the injured author's
frowning shade! Surely, among the professed admirers of Murray, no other
man, whether innovator or copyist, unfortunate or successful, is at all to
be compared to this gentleman for the audacity with which he has "not
scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture, the text of that able writer."
Murray simply intended to do good, and good that might descend to
posterity; and this just and generous intention goes far to excuse even his
errors. But Kirkham, speaking of posterity, scruples not to disavow and to
renounce all care for them, or for any thing which a coming age may think
of his character: saying,
"My pretensions reach not so far. To the _present generation only_, I
present my claims. Should it lend me a listening ear, and grant me its
suffrages, _the height of my ambition_ will be attained."--_Advertisement,
in his Elocution_, p. 346.
His whole design is, therefore, upon the very face of it, a paltry scheme
of present income. And, seeing his entered classes of boys and girls must
soon have done with him, he has doubtless acted wisely, and quite in
accordance with his own interest, to have made all possible haste in his
career.
33. Being no rival with him in this race, and having no personal quarrel
with him on any account, I would, for his sake, fain rejoice at his
success, and withhold my criticisms; because he is said to have been
liberal with his gains, and because he has not, like some others, copied me
instead of Murray. But the vindication of a greatly injured and perverted
science, constrains me to say, on this occasion, that pretensions less
consistent with themselves, or less sustained by taste and scholarship,
have seldom, if ever, been promulgated in the name of grammar. I have,
certainly, no intention to say more than is due to the uninformed and
misguided. For some who are ungenerous and prejudiced themselves, will not
be unwilling to think me so; and even this freedom, backed and guarded as
it is by facts and proofs irrefragable, may still be ingeniously ascribed
to an ill motive. To two thirds of the community, one grammar is just as
good as an other; because they neither know, nor wish to know, more than
may be learned from the very worst. An honest expression of sentiment
against abuses of a literary nature, is little the fashion of these times;
and the good people who purchase books upon the recommendations of others,
may be slow to believe there is no merit where so much has been attributed.
But facts may well be credited, in opposition to courteous flattery, when
there are the author's own words and works to vouch for them in the face of
day. Though a thousand of our great men may have helped a copier's weak
copyist to take "some practical advantage" of the world's credulity, it is
safe to aver, in the face of dignity still greater, that testimonials more
fallacious have seldom mocked the cause of learning. They did not read his
book.
34. Notwithstanding the author's change in his professions, the work is now
essentially the same as it was at first; except that its errors and
contradictions have been greatly multiplied, by the addition of new matter
inconsistent with the old. He evidently cares not what doctrines he
teaches, or whose; but, as various theories are noised abroad, seizes upon
different opinions, and mixes them together, that his books may contain
something to suit all parties. "_A System of Philosophical Grammar_,"
though but an idle speculation, even in his own account, and doubly absurd
in him, as being flatly contradictory to his main text, has been thought
worthy of insertion. And what his title-page denominates "_A New System of
Punctuation_," though mostly in the very words of Murray, was next invented
to supply a deficiency which he at length discovered. To admit these, and
some other additions, the "comprehensive system-of grammar" was gradually
extended from 144 small duodecimo pages, to 228 of the ordinary size. And,
in this compass, it was finally stereotyped in 1829; so that the
ninety-four editions published since, have nothing new for history.
35. But the publication of an other work designed for schools, "_An Essay
an Elocution_" shows the progress of the author's mind. Nothing can be more
radically opposite, than are some of the elementary doctrines which this
gentleman is now teaching; nothing, more strangely inconsistent, than are
some of his declarations and professions. For instance: "A consonant is a
letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a
vowel."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 19. Again: "A consonant is not only capable
of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, moreover, of
forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 32.
Take a second example. He makes "ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS" a _prominent division_
and _leading title_, in treating of the pronouns proper; defines the term
in a manner peculiar to himself; prefers and uses it in all his parsing;
and yet, by the third sentence of the story, the learner is conducted to
this just conclusion: "Hence, such a thing as an _adjective-pronoun_ cannot
exist."--_Grammar_, p. 105. Once more. Upon his own rules, or such as he
had borrowed, he comments thus, and comments _truly_, because he had either
written them badly or made an ill choice: "But some of these rules are
foolish, trifling, and unimportant."--_Elocution_, p. 97. Again: "Rules 10
and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the
principles of the language."--_Grammar_, p. 59. These are but specimens of
his own frequent testimony against himself! Nor shall he find refuge in the
impudent falsehood, that the things which I quote as his, are not his
own.[14] These contradictory texts, and scores of others which might be
added to them, are as rightfully his own, as any doctrine he has ever yet
inculcated. But, upon the credulity of ignorance, his high-sounding
certificates and unbounded boasting can impose any thing. They overrule all
in favour of cue of the worst grammars extant;--of which he says, "it is
now studied by more than one hundred thousand children and youth; and is
more extensively used than _all other English grammars_ published in the
United States."--_Elocution_, p. 347. The booksellers say, he receives from
his publishers _ten cents a copy_, on this work, and that he reports the
sale of _sixty thousand copies per annum_. Such has of late been his public
boast. I have once had the story from his own lips, and of course
congratulated him, though I dislike the book. Six thousand dollars a year,
on this most miserable modification of Lindley Murray's Grammar! Be it
so--or double, if he and the public please. Murray had so little
originality in his work, or so little selfishness in his design, that he
would not take any thing; and his may ultimately prove the better bargain.
36. A man may boast and bless himself as he pleases, his fortune, surely,
can never be worthy of an other's envy, so long as he finds it inadequate
to his own great merits, and unworthy of his own poor gratitude. As a
grammarian, Kirkham claims to be second only to Lindley Murray; and says,
"Since the days of Lowth, no other work on grammar, Murray's only excepted,
has been so favourably received by the _publick_ as his own. As a proof of
this, he would mention, that within the last six years it has passed
through _fifty_ editions."--_Preface to Elocution_, p. 12. And, at the same
time, and in the same preface, he complains, that, "Of all the labours done
under the sun, the labours _of the pen_ meet with the poorest
reward."--_Ibid._, p. 5. This too clearly favours the report, that his
books were not written by himself, but by others whom he hired. Possibly,
the anonymous helper may here have penned, not his employer's feeling, but
a line of his own experience. But I choose to ascribe the passage to the
professed author, and to hold him answerable for the inconsistency. Willing
to illustrate by the best and fairest examples these fruitful means of
grammatical fame, I am glad of his present success, which, through this
record, shall become yet more famous. It is the only thing which makes him
worthy of the notice here taken of him. But I cannot sympathize with his
complaint, because he never sought any but "the poorest reward;" and more
than all he sought, he found. In his last "Address to Teachers," he says,
"He may doubtless be permitted emphatically to say with Prospero, '_Your
breath has filled my sails_.'"--_Elocution_, p. 18. If this boasting has
any truth in it, he ought to be satisfied. But it is written, "He that
loveth silver, shall not be satisfied with silver; nor he that loveth
abundance, with increase." Let him remember this.[15] He now announces
three or four other works as forthcoming shortly. What these will achieve,
the world will see. But I must confine myself to the Grammar.
37. In this volume, scarcely any thing is found where it might be expected.
"The author," as he tells us in his preface, "has not followed the common
'artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors;'
_yet he_ has endeavoured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, '_the
order of the understanding_.'"--_Grammar_, p. 12. But if this is the order
of his understanding, he is greatly to be pitied. A book more confused in
its plan, more wanting in method, more imperfect in distinctness of parts,
more deficient in symmetry, or more difficult of reference, shall not
easily be found in stereotype. Let the reader try to follow us here. Bating
twelve pages at the beginning, occupied by the title, recommendations,
advertisement, contents, preface, hints to teachers, and advice to
lecturers; and fifty-four at the end, embracing syntax, orthography,
orthoepy, provincialisms, prosody, punctuation, versification, rhetoric,
figures of speech, and a Key, all in the sequence here given; the work
consists of fourteen chapters of grammar, absurdly called "Familiar
Lectures." The first treats of sundries, under half a dozen titles, but
chiefly of Orthography; and the last is three pages and a half, of the most
common remarks, on Derivation. In the remaining twelve, the Etymology and
Syntax of the ten parts of speech are commingled; and an attempt is made,
to teach simultaneously all that the author judged important in either.
Hence he gives us, in a strange congeries, rules, remarks, illustrations,
false syntax, systematic parsing, exercises in parsing, two different
orders of notes, three different orders of questions, and a variety of
other titles merely occasional. All these things, being additional to his
main text, are to be connected, in the mind of the learner, with the parts
of speech successively, in some new and inexplicable catenation found only
in the arrangement of the lectures. The author himself could not see
through the chaos. He accordingly made his table of contents a mere meagre
alphabetical index. Having once attempted in vain to explain the order of
his instructions, he actually gave the matter up in despair!
38. In length, these pretended lectures vary, from three or four pages, to
eight-and-thirty. Their subjects run thus: 1. Language, Grammar,
Orthography; 2. Nouns and Verbs; 3. Articles; 4. Adjectives; 5.
Participles; 6. Adverbs; 7. Prepositions; 8. Pronouns; 9. Conjunctions; 10.
Interjections and Nouns; 11. Moods and Tenses; 12. Irregular Verbs; 13.
Auxiliary, Passive, and Defective Verbs; 14. Derivation. Which, now, is
"more judicious," such confusion as this, or the arrangement which has been
common from time immemorial? Who that has any respect for the human
intellect, or whose powers of mind deserve any in return, will avouch this
jumble to be "the order of the understanding?" Are the methods of science
to be accounted mere hinderances to instruction? Has grammar really been
made easy by this confounding of its parts? Or are we lured by the name,
"_Familiar Lectures_,"--a term manifestly adopted as a mere decoy, and,
with respect to the work itself, totally inappropriate? If these chapters
have ever been actually delivered as a series of lectures, the reader must
have been employed on some occasions eight or ten times as long as on
others! "People," says Dr. Johnson, "have now-a-days got a strange opinion
that every thing should be taught by _lectures_. Now, I cannot see that
lectures can do so much good as a private reading of the books from which
the lectures are taken. I know of nothing that can be best taught by
lectures, except where experiments are to be shown. You may teach chymistry
by lectures--you _might_ teach the making of shoes by lectures."
--_Boswell's Life of Johnson_.
39. With singular ignorance and untruth, this gentleman claims to have
invented a better method of analysis than had ever been practised before.
Of other grammars, his preface avers, "They have _all overlooked_ what the
author considers a very important object; namely, _a systematick order of
parsing_."--_Grammar_, p. 9. And, in his "Hints to Teachers," presenting
himself as a model, and his book as a paragon, he says: "By pursuing this
system, he can, with less labour, advance a pupil _farther_ in the
practical knowledge of this _abstruse science_, in _two months_, than he
could in _one year_, when he taught in the _old way_."--_Grammar_, p. 12.
What his "_old way_" was, does not appear. Doubtless something sufficiently
bad. And as to his new way, I shall hereafter have occasion to show that
_that_ is sufficiently bad also. But to this gasconade the simple-minded
have given credit--because the author showed certificates that testified to
his great success, and called him "amiable and modest!" But who can look
into the book, or into the writer's pretensions in regard to his
predecessors, and conceive the merit which has made him--"preeminent by so
much odds?" Was Murray less praiseworthy, less amiable, or less modest? In
illustration of my topic, and for the sake of literary justice, I have
selected that honoured "_Compiler_" to show the abuses of praise; let the
history of this his vaunting _modifier_ cap the climax of vanity. In
general, his amendments of "that eminent philologist," are not more
skillful than the following touch upon an eminent dramatist; and here, it
is plain, he has mistaken two nouns for adjectives, and converted into bad
English a beautiful passage, the sentiment of which is worthy of an
_author's_ recollection:
"The evil _deed_ or _deeds_ that men do, _lives_ after them;
The good _deed_ or _deeds is_ oft interred with their bones." [16]
_Kirkham's Grammar_, p. 75.
40. Lord Bacon observes, "Nothing is thought so easy a request to a great
person as his letter; and yet, if it be not in a good cause, it is so much
out of his reputation." It is to this mischievous facility of
recommendation, this prostituted influence of great names, that the
inconvenient diversity of school-books, and the continued use of bad ones,
are in a great measure to be attributed. It belongs to those who understand
the subjects of which authors profess to treat, to judge fairly and fully
of their works, and then to let the _reasons_ of their judgement be known.
For no one will question the fact, that a vast number of the school-books
now in use are either egregious plagiarisms or productions of no
comparative merit. And, what is still more surprising and monstrous,
presidents, governors, senators, and judges; professors, doctors,
clergymen, and lawyers; a host of titled connoisseurs; with incredible
facility lend their names, not only to works of inferior merit, but to the
vilest thefts, and the wildest absurdities, palmed off upon their own and
the public credulity, under pretence of improvement. The man who thus
prefixes his letter of recommendation to an ill-written book, publishes,
out of mere courtesy, a direct impeachment of his own scholarship or
integrity. Yet, how often have we seen the honours of a high office, or
even of a worthy name, prostituted to give a temporary or local currency to
a book which it would disgrace any man of letters to quote! With such
encouragement, nonsense wrestles for the seat of learning, exploded errors
are republished as novelties, original writers are plundered by dunces, and
men that understand nothing well, profess to teach all sciences!
41. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing
itself is so. To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others
wherein grammatical excellence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of
perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. The limit to
improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject, as in the powers
of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble
and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests, in his masterly preface, "that a
whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole
life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such
facts and confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty
publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other
hands we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of
instruction in English grammar? With great sacrifices, both of pleasure and
of interest, I have humbly endeavoured to supply this desideratum; and it
remains for other men to determine, and other times to know, what place
shall be given to these my labours, in the general story of this branch of
learning. Intending to develop not only the principles but also the history
of grammar, I could not but speak of its authors. The writer who looks
broadly at the past and the present, to give sound instruction to the
future, must not judge of men by their shadows. If the truth, honestly
told, diminish the stature of some, it does it merely by clearing the sight
of the beholder. Real greatness cannot suffer loss by the dissipating of a
vapour. If reputation has been raised upon the mist of ignorance, who but
the builder shall lament its overthrow? If the works of grammarians are
often ungrammatical, whose fault is this but their own? If _all_
grammatical fame is little in itself, how can the abatement of what is
undeserved of it be much? If the errors of some have long been tolerated,
what right of the critic has been lost by nonuser? If the interests of
Science have been sacrificed to Mammon, what rebuke can do injustice to the
craft? Nay, let the broad-axe of the critic hew up to the line, till every
beam in her temple be smooth and straight. For, "certainly, next to
commending good writers, the greatest service to learning is, to expose the
bad, who can only in that way be made of any use to it." [17] And if, among
the makers of grammars, the scribblings of some, and the filchings of
others, are discreditable alike to themselves and to their theme, let the
reader consider, how great must be the intrinsic worth of that study which
still maintains its credit in spite of all these abuses!
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.
"Tot fallaciis obrutum, tot hallucinationibus demersum, tot adhuc tenebris
circumfusum studium hocce mihi visum est, ut nihil satis tuto in hac
materia praestari posse arbitratus sim, nisi nova quadam arte critica
praemissa."--SCIPIO MAFFEIUS: _Cassiod. Complexiones_, p. xxx.
1. The origin of things is, for many reasons, a peculiarly interesting
point in their history. Among those who have thought fit to inquire into
the prime origin of speech, it has been matter of dispute, whether we ought
to consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry--a
natural endowment, or an artificial invention. Nor is any thing that has
ever yet been said upon it, sufficient to set the question permanently at
rest. That there is in some words, and perhaps in some of every language, a
natural connexion between the sounds uttered and the things signified,
cannot be denied; yet, on the other hand, there is, in the use of words in
general, so much to which nature affords no clew or index, that this whole
process of communicating thought by speech, seems to be artificial. Under
an other head, I have already cited from Sanctius some opinions of the
ancient grammarians and philosophers on this point. With the reasoning of
that zealous instructor, the following sentence from Dr. Blair very
obviously accords: "To suppose words invented, or names given to things, in
a manner purely arbitrary, without any ground or reason, is to suppose an
effect without a cause. There must have always been some motive which led
to the assignation of one name rather than an other."--_Rhet._, Lect. vi,
p. 55.
2. But, in their endeavours to explain the origin and early progress of
language, several learned men, among whom is this celebrated lecturer, have
needlessly perplexed both themselves and their readers, with sundry
questions, assumptions, and reasonings, which are manifestly contrary to
what has been made known to us on the best of all authority. What signifies
it[18] for a man to tell us how nations rude and barbarous invented
interjections first,[19] and then nouns, and then verbs,[20] and finally
the other parts of speech; when he himself confesses that he does not know
whether language "can be considered a human invention at all;" and when he
believed, or ought to have believed, that the speech of the first man,
though probably augmented by those who afterwards used it, was,
essentially, the one language of the earth for more than eighteen
centuries? The task of inventing a language _de novo_, could surely have
fallen upon no man but Adam; and he, in the garden of Paradise, had
doubtless some aids and facilities not common to every wild man of the
woods.
3. The learned Doctor was equally puzzled to conceive, "either how society
could form itself, previously to language, or how words could rise into a
language, previously to society formed."--_Blair's Rhet._, Lect. vi, p. 54.
This too was but an idle perplexity, though thousands have gravely pored
over it since, as a part of the study of rhetoric; for, if neither could be
previous to the other, they must have sprung up simultaneously. And it is a
sort of slander upon our prime ancestor, to suggest, that, because he was
"_the first_," he must have been "_the rudest_" of his race; and that,
"consequently, those first rudiments of speech," which alone the
supposition allows to him or to his family, "must have been poor and
narrow."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 54. It is far more reasonable to think, with
a later author, that, "Adam had an insight into natural things far beyond
the acutest philosopher, as may be gathered from his giving of names to all
creatures, according to their different constitutions."--_Robinson's
Scripture Characters_, p. 4.
4. But Dr. Blair is not alone in the view which he here takes. The same
thing has bean suggested by other learned men. Thus Dr. James P. Wilson, of
Philadelphia, in an octavo published in 1817, says: "It is difficult to
discern how communities could have existed without language, and equally so
to discover how language could have obtained, in a peopled world, prior to
society."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 1. I know not how so many
professed Christians, and some of them teachers of religion too, with the
Bible in their hands, can reason upon this subject as they do. We find
them, in their speculations, conspiring to represent primeval man, to use
their own words, as a "_savage_, whose 'howl at the appearance of danger,
and whose exclamations of joy at the sight of his prey, reiterated, or
varied with the change of objects, were probably the origin of
language.'--_Booth's Analytical Dictionary_. In the dawn of society, ages
may have passed away, with little more converse than what these efforts
would produce."--_Gardiner's Music of Nature_, p. 31. Here Gardiner quotes
Booth with approbation, and the latter, like Wilson, may have borrowed his
ideas from Blair. Thus are we taught by a multitude of guessers, grave,
learned, and oracular, that the last of the ten parts of speech was in fact
the first: "_Interjections_ are exceedingly interesting in one respect.
They are, there can be little doubt, _the oldest words_ in all languages;
and may be considered the elements of speech."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._,
p. 78. On this point, however, Dr. Blair seems not to be quite consistent
with himself: "Those exclamations, therefore, which by grammarians are
called _interjections_, uttered in a strong and passionate manner, were,
_beyond doubt_, the first elements or beginnings of speech."--_Rhet._,
Lect. vi, p. 55. "The _names_ of sensible objects were, _in all languages_,
the words most early introduced."--_Rhet._, Lect. xiv, p. 135. "The _names
of sensible objects_," says Murray too, "were the words most early
introduced."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 336. Bat what says the Bible?
5. Revelation informs us that our first progenitor was not only endowed
with the faculty of speech, but, as it would appear, actually incited by
the Deity to exert that faculty in giving _names_ to the objects by which
he was surrounded. "Out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of
the field and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam, to see
what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature,
that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the
fowls of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was
not found a help meet for him."--_Gen._, ii, 19, 20. This account of the
first naming of the other creatures by man, is apparently a parenthesis in
the story of the creation of woman, with which the second chapter of
Genesis concludes. But, in the preceding chapter, the Deity is represented
not only as calling all things into existence _by his Word_; but as
_speaking to the first human pair_, with reference to their increase in the
earth, and to their dominion over it, and over all the living creatures
formed to inhabit it. So that the order of the events cannot be clearly
inferred from the order of the narration. The manner of this communication
to man, may also be a subject of doubt. Whether it was, or was not, made by
a voice of words, may be questioned. But, surely, that Being who, in
creating the world and its inhabitants, manifested his own infinite wisdom,
eternal power, and godhead, does not lack words, or any other means of
signification, if he will use them. And, in the inspired record of his work
in the beginning, he is certainly represented, not only as naming all
things imperatively, when he spoke them into being, but as expressly
calling the light _Day_, the darkness _Night_, the firmament _Heaven_, the
dry land _Earth_, and the gatherings of the mighty waters _Seas_.
6. Dr. Thomas Hartwell Horne, in commending a work by Dr. Ellis, concerning
the origin of human wisdom and understanding, says: "It shows
satisfactorily, that religion _and language_ entered the world by divine
revelation, without the aid of which, man had not been a rational or
religious creature."--_Study of the Scriptures_, Vol. i, p. 4. "Plato
attributes the primitive words of the _first language_ to a divine origin;"
and Dr. Wilson remarks, "The transition from silence to speech, implies an
effort of the understanding too great for man."--_Essay on Gram._, p. 1.
Dr. Beattie says, "Mankind must have spoken in all ages, the young
constantly learning to speak by imitating those who were older; and, if so,
our first parents must have received this art, as well as some others, by
inspiration."--_Moral Science_, p. 27. Horne Tooke says, "I imagine that it
is, _in some measure_, with the vehicle of our thoughts, as with the
vehicles for our bodies. Necessity produced both."--_Diversions of Purley_,
Vol. i, p. 20. Again: "Language, it is true, _is an art_, and a glorious
one; whose influence extends over all the others, and in which finally all
science whatever must centre: but an art _springing from necessity_, and
originally invented by artless men, who did not sit down like philosophers
to invent it."--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 259.
7. Milton imagines Adam's first knowledge of speech, to have sprung from
the hearing of his own voice; and that voice to have been raised,
instinctively, or spontaneously, in an animated inquiry concerning his own
origin--an inquiry in which he addresses to unintelligent objects, and
inferior creatures, such questions as the Deity alone could answer:
"Myself I then perused, and limb by limb
Surveyed, and sometimes went, and sometimes ran
With supple joints, as lively vigor led:
But who I was, or where, or from what cause,
Knew not; _to speak I tried, and forthwith spake;
My tongue obeyed, and readily could name
Whatever I saw_. 'Thou Sun,' said I, 'fair light,
And thou enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay,
Ye Hills and Dales, ye Rivers, Woods, and Plains;
And ye that live and move, fair Creatures! tell,
Tell, if ye saw, how came I thus, how here?
Not of myself; by some great Maker then,
In goodness and in power preeminent:
Tell me how I may know him, how adore,
From whom I have that thus I move and live,
And feel that I am happier than I know.'"
_Paradise Lost_, Book viii, l. 267.
But, to the imagination of a poet, a freedom is allowed, which belongs not
to philosophy. We have not always the means of knowing how far he
_literally_ believes what he states.
8. My own opinion is, that language is partly natural and partly
artificial. And, as the following quotation from the Greek of Ammonius will
serve in some degree to illustrate it, I present the passage in English for
the consideration of those who may prefer ancient to modern speculations:
"In the same manner, therefore, as mere motion is from nature, but dancing
is something positive; and as wood exists in nature, but a door is
something positive; so is the mere utterance of vocal sound founded in
nature, but the signification of ideas by nouns or verbs is something
positive. And hence it is, that, as to the simple power of producing vocal
sound--which is as it were the organ or instrument of the soul's faculties
of knowledge or volition--as to this vocal power, I say, man seems to
possess it from nature, in like manner as irrational animals; but as to the
power of using significantly nouns or verbs, or sentences combining these,
(which are not natural but positive,) this he possesses by way of peculiar
eminence; because he alone of all mortal beings partakes of a soul which
can move itself, and operate to the production of arts. So that, even in
the utterance of sounds, the inventive power of the mind is discerned; as
the various elegant compositions, both in metre, and without metre,
abundantly prove."--_Ammon. de Interpr._, p. 51.[21]
9. Man was made for society; and from the first period of human existence
the race were social. Monkish seclusion is manifestly unnatural; and the
wild independence of the savage, is properly denominated a state of nature,
only in contradistinction to that state in which the arts are cultivated.
But to civilized life, or even to that which is in any degree social,
language is absolutely necessary. There is therefore no danger that the
language of any nation shall fall into disuse, till the people by whom it
is spoken, shall either adopt some other, or become themselves extinct.
When the latter event occurs, as is the case with the ancient Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin, the language, if preserved at all from oblivion, becomes
the more permanent; because the causes which are constantly tending to
improve or deteriorate every living language, have ceased to operate upon
those which are learned only from ancient books. The inflections which now
compose the declensions and conjugations of the dead languages, and which
indeed have ever constituted the peculiar characteristics of those forms of
speech, must remain forever as they are.
10. When a nation changes, its
language, as did our forefathers in Britain, producing by a gradual
amalgamation of materials drawn from various tongues a new one differing
from all, the first stages of its grammar will of course be chaotic and
rude. Uniformity springs from the steady application of rules; and polish
is the work of taste and refinement. We may easily err by following the
example of our early writers with more reverence than judgement; nor is it
possible for us to do justice to the grammarians, whether early or late,
without a knowledge both of the history and of the present state of the
science which they profess to teach. I therefore think it proper rapidly to
glance at many things remote indeed in time, yet nearer to my present
purpose, and abundantly more worthy of the student's consideration, than a
thousand matters which are taught for grammar by the authors of treatises
professedly elementary.
11. As we have already seen, some have supposed that the formation of the
first language must have been very slow and gradual. But of this they offer
no proof, and from the pen of inspiration we seem to have testimony against
it. Did Adam give names to all the creatures about him, and then allow
those names to be immediately forgotten? Did not both he and his family
continually use his original nouns in their social intercourse? and how
could they use them, without other parts of speech to form them into
sentences? Nay, do we not know from the Bible, that on several occasions
our prime ancestor expressed himself like an intelligent man, and used all
the parts of speech which are now considered _necessary_? What did he say,
when his fit partner, the fairest and loveliest work of God, was presented
to him? "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be
called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." And again: Had he not
other words than nouns, when he made answer concerning his transgression:
"I heard thy voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked;
and I hid myself?" What is it, then, but a groundless assumption, to make
him and his immediate descendants ignorant savages, and to affirm, with Dr.
Blair, that "their speech must have been poor and narrow?" It is not
possible now to ascertain what degree of perfection the oral communication
of the first age exhibited. But, as languages are now known to improve in
proportion to the improvement of society in civilization and intelligence,
and as we cannot reasonably suppose the first inhabitants of the earth to
have been savages, it seems, I think, a plausible conjecture, that the
primeval tongue was at least sufficient for all the ordinary intercourse of
civilized men, living in the simple manner ascribed to our early ancestors
in Scripture; and that, in many instances, human speech subsequently
declined far below its original standard.
12. At any rate, let it be remembered that the first language spoken on
earth, whatever it was, originated in Eden before the fall; that this "one
language," which all men understood until the dispersion, is to be traced,
not to the cries of savage hunters, echoed through the wilds and glades
where Nimrod planted Babel, but to that eastern garden of God's own
planting, wherein grew "every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good
for food;" to that paradise into which the Lord God put the new-created
man, "to dress it and to keep it." It was here that Adam and his partner
learned to speak, while yet they stood blameless and blessed, entire and
wanting nothing; free in the exercise of perfect faculties of body and
mind, capable of acquiring knowledge through observation and experience,
and also favoured with immediate communications with their Maker. Yet Adam,
having nothing which he did not receive, could not originally bring any
real knowledge into the world with him, any more than men do now: this, in
whatever degree attained, must be, and must always have been, either an
acquisition of reason, or a revelation from God. And, according to the
understanding of some, even in the beginning, "That was not first which is
spiritual, but that which is natural; and afterward that which is
spiritual."--_1 Cor., xv, 46_. That is, the spirit of Christ, the second
Adam, was bestowed on the first Adam, after his creation, as the life and
the light of the immortal soul. For, "In _Him_ was life, and the life was
the light of men," a life which our first parents forfeited and lost on the
day of their transgression. "It was undoubtedly in the light of this pure
influence that Adam had such an intuitive discerning of the creation, as
enabled him to give names to all creatures according to their several
natures."--_Phipps, on Man_, p. 4. A lapse from all this favour, into
conscious guilt and misery; a knowledge of good withdrawn, and of evil made
too sure; followed the first transgression. Abandoned then in great measure
by superhuman aid, and left to contend with foes without and foes within,
mankind became what history and observation prove them to have been; and
henceforth, by painful experience, and careful research, and cautious
faith, and humble docility, must they gather the fruits of _knowledge_; by
a vain desire and false conceit of which, they had forfeited the tree of
life. So runs the story
"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world, and all our wo,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat."
13. The analogy of words in the different languages now known, has been
thought by many to be sufficiently frequent and clear to suggest the idea
of their common origin. Their differences are indeed great; but perhaps not
greater, than the differences in the several races of men, all of whom, as
revelation teaches, sprung from one common stock. From the same source we
learn, that, till the year of the world 1844, "The whole earth was of one
language, and of one speech."--_Gen._, xi, 1.[22] At that period, the whole
world of mankind consisted only of the descendants of the eight souls who
had been saved in the ark, and so many of the eight as had survived the
flood one hundred and eighty-eight years. Then occurred that remarkable
intervention of the Deity, in which he was pleased to confound their
language; so that they could not understand one an other's speech, and were
consequently scattered abroad upon the face of the earth. This, however, in
the opinion of many learned men, does not prove the immediate formation of
any new languages.
14. But, whether new languages were thus immediately formed or not, the
event, in all probability, laid the foundation for that diversity which
subsequently obtained among the languages of the different nations which
sprung from the dispersion; and hence it may be regarded as the remote
cause of the differences which now exist. But for the immediate origin of
the peculiar characteristical differences which distinguish the various
languages now known, we are not able with much certainty to account. Nor is
there even much plausibility in the speculations of those grammarians who
have attempted to explain the order and manner in which the declensions,
the moods, the tenses, or other leading features of the languages, were
first introduced. They came into use before they could be generally known,
and the partial introduction of them could seldom with propriety be made a
subject of instruction or record, even if there were letters and learning
at hand to do them this honour. And it is better to be content with
ignorance, than to form such conjectures as imply any thing that is absurd
or impossible. For instance: Neilson's Theory of the Moods, published in
the Classical Journal of 1819, though it exhibits ingenuity and learning,
is liable to this strong objection; that it proceeds on the supposition,
that the moods of English verbs, and of several other derivative tongues,
were invented in a certain order by persons, not speaking a language
learned chiefly from their fathers, but uttering a new one as necessity
prompted. But when or where, since the building of Babel, has this ever
happened? That no dates are given, or places mentioned, the reader regrets,
but he cannot marvel.
15. By what successive changes, our words in general, and especially the
minor parts of speech, have become what we now find them, and what is their
original and proper signification according to their derivation, the
etymologist may often show to our entire satisfaction. Every word must have
had its particular origin and history; and he who in such things can
explain with certainty what is not commonly known, may do some service to
science. But even here the utility of his curious inquiries may be
overrated; and whenever, for the sake of some favourite theory, he ventures
into the regions of conjecture, or allows himself to be seduced from the
path of practical instruction, his errors are obstinate, and his guidance
is peculiarly deceptive. Men fond of such speculations, and able to
support them with some show of learning, have done more to unsettle the
science of grammar, and to divert ingenious teachers from the best methods
of instruction, than all other visionaries put together. Etymological
inquiries are important, and I do not mean to censure or discourage them,
merely as such; but the folly of supposing that in our language words must
needs be of the same class, or part of speech, as that to which they may be
traced in an other, deserves to be rebuked. The words _the_ and _an_ may be
articles in English, though obviously traceable to something else in Saxon;
and a learned man may, in my opinion, be better employed, than in
contending that _if, though_, and _although_, are not conjunctions, but
verbs!
16. Language is either oral or written; the question of its origin has
consequently two parts. Having suggested what seemed necessary respecting
the origin of _speech_, I now proceed to that of _writing_. Sheridan says,
"We have in use _two kinds of language_, the spoken and the written: the
one, the gift of God; the other, the invention of man."--_Elocution_, p.
xiv. If this ascription of the two things to their sources, were as just as
it is clear and emphatical, both parts of our question would seem to be
resolved. But this great rhetorician either forgot his own doctrine, or did
not mean what he here says. For he afterwards makes the former kind of
language as much a work of art, as any one will suppose the latter to have
been. In his sixth lecture, he comments on the gift of speech thus: "But
still we are to observe, that nature did no more than furnish the power and
means; _she did not give the language_, as in the case of the passions, but
left it to the industry of men, to find out and agree upon such articulate
sounds, as they should choose to make the symbols of their ideas."--_Ib._,
p. 147. He even goes farther, and supposes certain _tones of the voice_ to
be things invented by man: "Accordingly, as she did not furnish the
_words_, which were to be the symbols of his ideas; neither did she furnish
the _tones_, which were to manifest, and communicate by their own virtue,
the internal exertions and emotions, of such of his nobler faculties, as
chiefly distinguish him from the brute species; but left them also, like
words, to the care and invention of man."--_Ibidem_. On this branch of the
subject, enough has already been presented.
17. By most authors, alphabetic writing is not only considered an
artificial invention, but supposed to have been wholly unknown in the early
ages of the world. Its antiquity, however, is great. Of this art, in which
the science of grammar originated, we are not able to trace the
commencement. Different nations have claimed the honour of the invention;
and it is not decided, among the learned, to whom, or to what country, it
belongs. It probably originated in Egypt. For, "The Egyptians," it is said,
"paid divine honours to the Inventor of Letters, whom they called _Theuth_:
and Socrates, when he speaks of him, considers him as a god, or a god-like
man."--_British Gram._, p. 32. Charles Bucke has it, "That the first
inventor of letters is supposed to have been _Memnon_; who was, in
consequence, fabled to be the son of Aurora, goddess of the
morning."--_Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 5. The ancients in general seem to
have thought Phoenicia the birthplace of Letters:
"Phoenicians first, if ancient fame be true,
The sacred mystery of letters knew;
They first, by sound, in various lines design'd,
Express'd the meaning of the thinking mind;
The power of words by figures rude conveyed,
And useful science everlasting made."
_Rowe's Lucan_, B. iii, l. 334.
18. Some, however, seem willing to think writing coeval with speech. Thus
Bicknell, from Martin's Physico-Grammatical Essay: "We are told by Moses,
that Adam _gave names to every living creature_;[23] but how those names
were written, or what sort of characters he made use of, is not known to
us; nor indeed whether Adam ever made use of a written language at all;
since we find no mention made of any in the sacred history."--_Bicknell's
Gram._, Part ii, p. 5. A certain late writer on English grammar, with
admirable flippancy, cuts this matter short, as follows,--satisfying
himself with pronouncing all speech to be natural, and all writing
artificial: "Of how many primary kinds is language? It is of two kinds;
natural or spoken, and artificial or written."--_Oliver B. Peirce's Gram._,
p. 15. "Natural language is, to a limited extent, (the representation of
the passions,) common to brutes as well as man; but artificial language,
being the work of invention, is peculiar to man."--_Ib._, p. 16.[24]
19. The writings delivered to the Israelites by Moses, are more ancient
than any others now known. In the thirty-first chapter of Exodus, it is
said, that God "gave unto Moses, upon Mount Sinai, two tables of testimony,
tables of stone, _written with the finger of God_." And again, in the
thirty-second: "The tables were the work of God, and the writing was _the
writing of God_, graven upon the tables." But these divine testimonies,
thus miraculously written, do not appear to have been the first writing;
for Moses had been previously commanded to write an account of the victory
over Amalek, "for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of
Joshua."--_Exod._, xvii, 14. This first battle of the Israelites occurred
in Rephidim, a place on the east side of the western gulf of the Red Sea,
at or near Horeb, but before they came to Sinai, upon the top of which, (on
the fiftieth day after their departure from Egypt,) Moses received the ten
commandments of the law.
20. Some authors, however, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, suppose that in
this instance the order of the events is not to be inferred from the order
of the record, or that there is room to doubt whether the use of letters
was here intended; and that there consequently remains a strong
probability, that the sacred Decalogue, which God himself delivered to
Moses on Sinai, A. M. 2513, B. C. 1491, was "the first writing _in
alphabetical characters_ ever exhibited to the world." See _Clarke's
Succession of Sacred Literature_, Vol. i, p. 24. Dr. Scott, in his General
Preface to the Bible, seems likewise to favour the same opinion. "Indeed,"
says he, "there is some probability in the opinion, that the art of writing
was first communicated by revelation, to Moses, in order to perpetuate,
with certainty, those facts, truths, and laws, which he was employed to
deliver to Israel. Learned men find no traces of _literary_, or
alphabetical, writing, in the history of the nations, till long after the
days of Moses; unless the book of Job may be regarded as an exception. The
art of expressing almost an infinite variety of sounds, by the interchanges
of a few letters, or marks, seems more like a discovery to man from heaven,
than a human invention; and its beneficial effects, and almost absolute
necessity, for the preservation and communication of true religion, favour
the conjecture."--_Scott's Preface_, p. xiv.
21. The time at which Cadmus, the Phoenician, introduced this art into
Greece, cannot be precisely ascertained. There is no reason to believe it
was antecedent to the time of Moses; some chronologists make it between two
and three centuries later. Nor is it very probable, that Cadmus invented
the sixteen letters of which he is said to have made use. His whole story
is so wild a fable, that nothing certain can be inferred from it. Searching
in vain for his stolen sister--his sister Europa, carried off by
Jupiter--he found a wife in the daughter of Venus! Sowing the teeth of a
dragon, which had devoured his companions, he saw them spring up to his aid
a squadron of armed soldiers! In short, after a series of wonderful
achievements and bitter misfortunes, loaded with grief and infirm with age,
he prayed the gods to release him from the burden of such a life; and, in
pity from above, both he and his beloved Hermione were changed into
serpents! History, however, has made him generous amends, by ascribing to
him the invention of letters, and accounting him the worthy benefactor to
whom the world owes all the benefits derived from literature. I would not
willingly rob him of this honour. But I must confess, there is no feature
of the story, which I can conceive to give any countenance to his claim;
except that as the great progenitor of the race of authors, his sufferings
correspond well with the calamities of which that unfortunate generation
have always so largely partaken.
22. The benefits of this invention, if it may be considered an invention,
are certainly very great. In oral discourse the graces of elegance are more
lively and attractive, but well-written books are the grand instructors of
mankind, the most enduring monuments of human greatness, and the proudest
achievements of human intellect. "The chief glory of a nation," says Dr.
Johnson, "arises from its authors." Literature is important, because it is
subservient to all objects, even those of the very highest concern.
Religion and morality, liberty and government, fame and happiness, are
alike interested in the cause of letters. It was a saying of Pope Pius the
Second, that, "Common men should esteem learning as silver, noblemen value
it as gold, and princes prize it as jewels." The uses of learning are seen
in every thing that is not itself useless.[25] It cannot be overrated, but
where it is perverted; and whenever that occurs, the remedy is to be sought
by opposing learning to learning, till the truth is manifest, and that
which is reprehensible, is made to appear so.
23. I have said, learning cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted.
But men may differ in their notions of what learning is; and, consequently,
of what is, or is not, a perversion of it. And so far as this point may
have reference to theology, and the things of God, it would seem that the
Spirit of God alone can fully show us its bearings. If the illumination of
the Spirit is necessary to an understanding and a reception of scriptural
truth, is it not by an inference more erudite than reasonable, that some
great men have presumed to limit to a verbal medium the communications of
Him who is everywhere His own witness, and who still gives to His own holy
oracles all their peculiar significance and authority? Some seem to think
the Almighty has never given to men any notion of Himself, except by words.
"Many ideas," says the celebrated Edmund Burke, "have never been at all
presented to the senses of any men _but by words_, as God,[26] angels,
devils, heaven, and hell, all of which have however a great influence over
the passions."--_On the Sublime and [the] Beautiful_, p. 97. That God can
never reveal facts or truths except by words, is a position with which I am
by no means satisfied. Of the great truths of Christianity, Dr. Wayland, in
his Elements of Moral Science, repeatedly avers, "All these being _facts_,
can never be known, except _by language_, that is, by revelation."--_First
Edition_, p. 132. Again: "All of them being of the _nature of facts_, they
could be made known to man _in no other way than by language_."--_Ib._, p.
136. But it should be remembered, that these same facts were otherwise made
known to the prophets; (1 Pet., i, 11;) and that which has been done, is
not impossible, whether there is reason to expect it again or not. So of
the Bible, Calvin says, "No man can have the least knowledge of true and
sound doctrine, without having been a disciple of the Scripture."--
_Institutes_, B. i, Ch. 6. Had Adam, Abel, Enoch, Noah, and Abraham, then,
no such knowledge? And if such they had, what Scripture taught them? We
ought to value the Scriptures too highly to say of them any thing that is
_unscriptural_. I am, however, very far from supposing there is any _other
doctrine_ which can be safely substituted for the truths revealed of old,
the truths contained in the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments:
"Left only in those written records pure,
Though not but by the Spirit understood." [27]--_Milton_.
CHAPTER V.
OF THE POWER OF LANGUAGE.
"Quis huic studio literarum, quod profitentur ii, qui grammatici vocantur,
penitus se dedidit, quin omnem illarum artium paene infinitam _vim_ et
_materiam_ scientiae cogitatione comprehenderit?"--CICERO. _De Oratore_,
Lib. i, 3.
1. The peculiar _power_ of language is another point worthy of particular
consideration. The power of an instrument is virtually the power of him who
wields it; and, as language is used in common, by the wise and the foolish,
the mighty and the impotent, the candid and the crafty, the righteous and
the wicked, it may perhaps seem to the reader a difficult matter, to speak
intelligibly of its _peculiar power_. I mean, by this phrase, its fitness
or efficiency to or for the accomplishment of the purposes for which it is
used. As it is the nature of an agent, to be the doer of something, so it
is the nature of an instrument, to be that with which something is
effected. To make signs, is to do something, and, like all other actions,
necessarily implies an agent; so all signs, being things by means of which
other things are represented, are obviously the instruments of such
representation. Words, then, which represent thoughts, are things in
themselves; but, as signs, they are relative to other things, as being the
instruments of their communication or preservation. They are relative also
to him who utters them, as well as to those who may happen to be instructed
or deceived by them. "Was it Mirabeau, Mr. President, or what other master
of the human passions, who has told us that words are things? They are
indeed things, and things of mighty influence, not only in addresses to
the passions and high-wrought feelings of mankind, but in the discussion of
legal and political questions also; because a just conclusion is often
avoided, or a false one reached, by the adroit substitution of one phrase
or one word for an other."--_Daniel Webster, in Congress_, 1833.
2. To speak, is a moral action, the quality of which depends upon the
motive, and for which we are strictly accountable. "But I say unto you,
that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof
in the day of judgement; for by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by
thy words thou shalt be condemned."--_Matt._, xii, 36, 37. To listen, or to
refuse to listen, is a moral action also; and there is meaning in the
injunction, "Take heed what ye hear."--_Mark_, iv, 24. But why is it, that
so much of what is spoken or written, is spoken or written in vain? Is
language impotent? It is sometimes employed for purposes with respect to
which it is utterly so; and often they that use it, know not how
insignificant, absurd, or ill-meaning a thing they make of it. What is
said, with whatever inherent force or dignity, has neither power nor value
to him who does not understand it;[28] and, as Professor Duncan observes,
"No word can be to any man the sign of an idea, till that idea comes to
have a real existence in his mind."--_Logic_, p. 62. In instruction,
therefore, speech ought not to be regarded as the foundation or the essence
of knowledge, but as the sign of it; for knowledge has its origin in the
power of sensation, or reflection, or consciousness, and not in that of
recording or communicating thought. Dr. Spurzheim was not the first to
suggest, "It is time to abandon the immense error of supposing that words
and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual
faculties into active exercise."--_Spurzheim's Treatise on Education_, p.
94.
3. But to this it may be replied, When God wills, the signs of knowledge
are knowledge; and words, when he gives the ability to understand them,
may, in some sense, become--"spirit and life." See _John_, vi, 63. Where
competent intellectual faculties exist, the intelligible signs of thought
do move the mind to think; and to think sometimes with deep feelings too,
whether of assent or dissent, of admiration or contempt. So wonderful a
thing is a rational soul, that it is hard to say to what ends the language
in which it speaks, may, or may not, be sufficient. Let experience
determine. We are often unable to excite in others the sentiments which we
would: words succeed or fail, as they are received or resisted. But let a
scornful expression be addressed to a passionate man, will not the words
"call internal feelings" into action? And how do feelings differ from
thoughts?[29] Hear Dr. James Rush: "The human mind is the place of
representation of all the existences of nature which are brought within the
scope of the senses. The representatives are called ideas. These ideas are
the simple passive pictures of things, or [else] they exist with an
activity, capable of so affecting the physical organs as to induce us to
seek the continuance of that which produces them, or to avoid it. This
active or vivid class of ideas comprehends the passions. The functions of
the mind here described, exist then in different forms and degrees, from
the simple idea, to the highest energy of passion: and the terms, thought,
sentiment, emotion, feeling, and passion, are but the verbal signs of these
degrees and forms. Nor does there appear to be any line of classification,
for separating thought from passion: since simple thoughts, without
changing their nature, do, from interest or incitement, often assume the
colour of passion."--_Philosophy of the Human Voice_, p. 328.
4. Lord Kames, in the Appendix to his Elements of Criticism, divides _the
senses_ into external and internal, defining _perception_ to be the act by
which through the former we know outward objects, and _consciousness_ the
act by which through the latter we know what is within the mind. An _idea_,
according to his definition, (which he says is precise and accurate,) is,
"That _perception_ of a real object which _is raised_ in the mind by the
power of _memory_." But among the real objects from which memory may raise
ideas, he includes the workings of the mind itself, or whatever we remember
of our former passions, emotions, thoughts, or designs. Such a definition,
he imagines, might have saved Locke, Berkley, and their followers, from
much vain speculation; for with the ideal systems of these philosophers, or
with those of Aristotle and Des Cartes, he by no means coincides. This
author says, "As ideas are the chief materials employed in reasoning and
reflecting, it is of consequence that their nature and differences be
understood. It appears now that ideas may be distinguished into three
kinds: first, Ideas derived from original perceptions, properly termed
_ideas of memory_; second, Ideas communicated _by language_ or other signs;
and third, Ideas _of imagination_. These ideas differ from each other in
many respects; but chiefly in respect to their _proceeding from different
causes_. The first kind is derived from real existences that have been
objects of our senses; _language is the cause of the second_, or any other
sign that has the same power with language; and a man's imagination is to
himself the cause of the third. It is scarce [ly] necessary to add, that an
idea, originally of imagination, being conveyed to others by language or
any other vehicle, becomes in their mind an idea of the second kind; and
again, that an idea of this kind, being afterwards recalled to the mind,
becomes in that circumstance an idea of memory."--_El. of Crit._, Vol. ii,
p. 384.
5. Whether, or how far, language is to the mind itself _the instrument of
thought_, is a question of great importance in the philosophy of both. Our
literature contains occasional assertions bearing upon this point, but I
know of no full or able discussion of it.[30] Cardell's instructions
proceed upon the supposition, that neither the reason of men, nor even that
of superior intelligences, can ever operate independently of words.
"Speech," says he, "is to the mind what action is to animal bodies. Its
improvement is the improvement of our intellectual nature, and a duty to
God who gave it."--_Essay on Language_, p. 3. Again: "An attentive
investigation will show, that there is no way in which the individual mind
can, within itself, to any extent, _combine its ideas_, but by the
intervention of words. Every process of the reasoning powers, beyond the
immediate perception of sensible objects, depends on the structure of
speech; and, in a great degree, according to the excellence of this _chief
instrument of all mental operations_, will be the means of personal
improvement, of the social transmission of thought, and the elevation of
national character. From this, it may be laid down as a broad principle,
that no individual can make great advances in intellectual improvement,
beyond the bounds of a ready-formed language, as the necessary means of his
progress."--_Ib._, p. 9. These positions might easily be offset by contrary
speculations of minds of equal rank; but I submit them to the reader, with
the single suggestion, that the author is not remarkable for that sobriety
of judgement which gives weight to opinions.
6. We have seen, among the citations in a former chapter, that Sanctius
says, "Names are the signs, and as it were _the instruments, of things_."
But what he meant by "_instrumenta rerum_" is not very apparent. Dr. Adam
says, "The principles of grammar may be traced from the progress of the
mind in the acquisition of language. Children first express their feelings
by motions and gestures of the body, by cries and tears. _This is_[31] the
language of nature, and therefore universal. _It fitly represents_[32] the
quickness of sentiment and thought, which are as instantaneous as the
impression of light on the eye. Hence we always express our stronger
feelings by these natural signs. But when we want to make known to others
the particular conceptions of the mind, we must represent them by parts, we
must divide and analyze them. We express _each part by certain signs_,[33]
and join these together, according to the order of their relations. Thus
words are _both the instrument and signs[34] the division_ of
thought."--_Preface to Latin Gram._
7. The utterance of words, or the making of signs of any sort, requires
time;[35] but it is here suggested by Dr. Adam, that sentiment and thought,
though susceptible of being retained or recalled, naturally flash upon the
mind with immeasurable quickness.[36] If so, they must originate in
something more spiritual than language. The Doctor does not affirm that
words are the instruments of thought, but of _the division_ of thought. But
it is manifest, that if they effect this, they are not the only instruments
by means of which the same thing may be done. The deaf and dumb, though
uninstructed and utterly ignorant of language, can think; and can, by rude
signs of their own inventing, manifest a similar division, corresponding to
the individuality of things. And what else can be meant by "_the division
of thought_," than our notion of objects, as existing severally, or as
being distinguishable into parts? There can, I think, be no such division
respecting that which is perfectly pure and indivisible in its essence;
and, I would ask, is not simple continuity apt to exclude it from our
conception of every thing which appears with uniform coherence? Dr. Beattie
says, "It appears to me, that, as all things are individuals, all thoughts
must be so too."--_Moral Science_, Chap, i, Sec. 1. If, then, our thoughts
are thus divided, and consequently, as this author infers, have not in
themselves any of that generality which belongs to the signification of
common nouns, there is little need of any instrument to divide them
further: the mind rather needs help, as Cardell suggests, "to combine its
ideas." [37]
8. So far as language is a work of art, and not a thing conferred or
imposed upon us by nature, there surely can be in it neither division nor
union that was not first in the intellect for the manifestation of which it
was formed. First, with respect to generalization. "The human mind," says
Harris, "by an energy as spontaneous and familiar to its nature, as the
seeing of colour is familiar to the eye, discerns at once what in many is
one, what in things dissimilar and different is similar and the
same."--_Hermes_, p. 362. Secondly, with respect to division. Mechanical
separations are limited: "But the mind surmounts all power of concretion;
and can place in the simplest manner every attribute by itself; convex
without concave; colour without superficies; superficies without body; and
body without its accidents: as distinctly each one, as though they had
never been united. And thus it is, that it penetrates into the recesses of
all things, not only dividing them as wholes, into their more conspicuous
parts, but persisting till it even separate those elementary principles
which, being blended together after a more mysterious manner, are united in
the minutest part as much as in the mightiest whole."--_Harris's Hermes_,
p. 307.
9. It is remarkable that this philosopher, who had so sublime conceptions
of the powers of the human mind, and who has displayed such extraordinary
acuteness in his investigations, has represented the formation of words, or
the utterance of language, as equalling in speed the progress of our very
thoughts; while, as we have seen, an other author, of great name, avers,
that thought is "as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye."
Philosophy here too evidently nods. In showing the advantage of words, as
compared with pictures, Harris says, "If we consider the ease and speed
with which words are formed,-an ease which knows no trouble or fatigue, and
a _speed which equals the progress of our very thoughts_,[38]--we may
plainly perceive an answer to the question here proposed, Why, in the
common intercourse of men with men, imitations have been rejected, and
symbols preferred."--_Hermes_, p. 336. Let us hear a third man, of equal
note: "Words have been called _winged_; and they well deserve that name,
when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could
make without these inventions; but, compared with the rapidity of thought,
they have not _the smallest claim to that title_. Philosophers have
calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light; but who will
attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought!"--_Horne
Tooke's Epea Pteroenta_, Vol. i, p. 23.
10. It is certain, that, in the admirable economy of the creation, natures
subordinate are made, in a wonderful manner, subservient to the operations
of the higher; and that, accordingly, our first ideas are such as are
conceived of things external and sensible. Hence all men whose intellect
appeals only to external sense, are prone to a philosophy which reverses
the order of things pertaining to the mind, and tends to materialism, if
not to atheism. "But"--to refer again to Harris--"the intellectual scheme
which never forgets Deity, postpones every thing corporeal to the primary
mental Cause. It is here it looks for the origin of intelligible ideas,
even of those which exist in human capacities. For though sensible objects
may be the destined medium to awaken the dormant energies of man's
understanding, yet are those energies themselves no more contained, in
sense, than the explosion of a cannon, in the spark which gave it fire. In
short, all minds that are, are similar and congenial; and so too are their
ideas, or intelligible forms. Were it otherwise, there could be no
intercourse between man and man, or (what is more important) between man
and God."--_Hermes_, p. 393.
11. A doctrine somewhat like this, is found in the Meditations of the
emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, though apparently repugnant to the
polytheism commonly admitted by the Stoics, to whom he belonged: "The
world, take it all together, is but one; there is but one sort of matter to
make it of, one God to govern it, and one law to guide it. For, run through
the whole system of rational beings, and you will find reason and truth but
single and the same. And thus beings of the same kind, and endued with the
same reason, are made happy by the same exercises of it."--Book vii, Sec.
9. Again: "Let your soul receive the Deity as your blood does the air; for
the influences of the one are no less vital, than those of the other. This
correspondence is very practicable: for there is an ambient omnipresent
Spirit, which lies as open and pervious to your mind, as the air you
breathe does to your lungs: but then you must remember to be disposed to
draw it."--Book viii, Sec. 54; _Collier's Translation_.
12. Agreeably to these views, except that he makes a distinction between a
natural and a supernatural idea of God, we find Barclay, the early defender
of the Quakers, in an argument with a certain Dutch nobleman,
philosophizing thus: "If the Scripture then be true, there is in men a
supernatural idea of God, which altogether differs from this natural
idea--I say, in all men; because all men are capable of salvation, and
consequently of enjoying this divine vision. Now this capacity consisteth
herein, that they have such a supernatural idea in themselves.[39] For if
there were no such idea in them, it were impossible they should so know
God; for whatsoever is clearly and distinctly known, is known by its proper
idea; neither can it otherwise be clearly and distinctly known. _For the
ideas of all things are divinely planted in our souls_; for, as the better
philosophy teacheth, they are not begotten in us by outward objects or
outward causes, but only are by these outward things excited or stirred up.
And this is true, not only in supernatural ideas of God and things divine,
and in natural ideas of the natural principles of human understanding, and
conclusions thence deduced by the strength of human reason; but even in the
ideas of outward objects, which are perceived by the outward senses: as
that noble Christian philosopher Boethius hath well observed; to which also
the Cartesian philosophy agreeth." I quote only to show the concurrence of
others, with Harris's position. Barclay carries on his argument with much
more of a similar import. See _Sewell's History_, folio, p. 620.
13. But the doctrine of ideas existing primarily in God, and being divinely
planted in our souls, did not originate with Boethius: it may be traced
back a thousand years from his time, through the philosophy of Proclus,
Zeno, Aristotle,[40] Plato, Socrates, Parmenides, and Pythagoras. It is
absurd to suppose any production or effect to be more excellent than its
cause. That which really produces motion, cannot itself be inert; and that
which actually causes the human mind to think and reason, cannot itself be
devoid of intelligence. "For knowledge can alone produce knowledge." [41] A
doctrine apparently at variance with this, has recently been taught, with
great confidence, among the professed discoveries of _Phrenology_. How much
truth there may be in this new "_science_," as it is called, I am not
prepared to say; but, as sometimes held forth, it seems to me not only to
clash with some of the most important principles of mental philosophy, but
to make the power of thought the result of that which is in itself inert
and unthinking. Assuming that the primitive faculties of the human
understanding have not been known in earlier times, it professes to have
discovered, in the physical organization of the brain, their proper source,
or essential condition, and the true index to their measure, number, and
distribution. In short, the leading phrenologists, by acknowledging no
spiritual substance, virtually deny that ancient doctrine, "It is not in
flesh to think, or bones to reason," [42] and make the mind either a
material substance, or a mere mode without substantial being.
14. "The
doctrine of _immaterial substances_," says Dr. Spurzheim, "is not
sufficiently amenable to the test of observation; it is founded on belief,
and only supported by hypothesis."--_Phrenology_, Vol. i, p. 20. But it
should be remembered, that our notion of material substance, is just as
much a matter of hypothesis. All accidents, whether they be qualities or
actions, we necessarily suppose to have some support; and this we call
_substance_, deriving the term from the Latin, or _hypostasis_, if we
choose to borrow from the Greek. But what this substance, or hypostasis,
is, independently of its qualities or actions, we know not. This is clearly
proved by Locke. What do we mean by _matter_? and what by _mind_? _Matter_
is that which is solid, extended, divisible, movable, and occupies space.
_Mind_ is that which thinks, and wills, and reasons, and remembers, and
worships. Here are qualities in the one case; operations in the other. Here
are two definitions as totally distinct as any two can be; and he that sees
not in them a difference of _substance_, sees it nowhere: to him all
natures are one; and that one, an absurd supposition.
15. In favour of what is urged by the phrenologists, it may perhaps be
admitted, as a natural law, that, "If a picture of a visible object be
formed upon the retina, and the impression be communicated, by the nerves,
to the brain, the _result_ will be an act of perception."--_Wayland's Moral
Science_, p. 4. But it does not follow, nor did the writer of this sentence
believe, that perception is a mere act or attribute of the organized matter
of the brain. A material object can only occasion in our sensible organs a
corporeal motion, which has not in it the nature of thought or perception;
and upon what principle of causation, shall a man believe, in respect to
vision, that the thing which he sees, is more properly the cause of the
idea conceived of it, than is the light by which he beholds it, or the mind
in which that idea is formed? Lord Kames avers, that, "Colour, which
appears to the eye as spread upon a substance, has no existence but in the
mind of the spectator."--_Elements of Criticism_, i, 178. And Cicero placed
the perception, not only of colour, but of taste, of sound, of smell, and
of touch, in the mind, rather than in the senses. "Illud est album, hoc
dulce, canorum illud, hoc bene olens, hoc asperum: animo jam haec tenemus
comprehensa, non sensibus."--_Ciceronis Acad._ Lib. ii, 7. Dr. Beattie,
however, says: "Colours inhere not in the coloured body, but in the light
that falls upon it; * * * and the word _colour_ denotes, an external thing,
and never a sensation of the mind."--_Moral Science_, i, 54. Here is some
difference of opinion; but however the thing may be, it does not affect my
argument; which is, that to perceive or think is an act or attribute of our
immaterial substance or nature, and not to be supposed the effect either of
the objects perceived or of our own corporeal organization.
16. Divine wisdom has established the senses as the avenues through which
our minds shall receive notices of the forms and qualities of external
things; but the sublime conception of the ancients, that these forms and
qualities had an abstract preexistence in the divine mind, is a common
doctrine of many English authors, as Milton, Cowper, Akenside, and others.
For example: "Now if _Ens primum_ be the cause of _entia a primo_, then he
hath the idea of them in him: for he made them by counsel, and not by
necessity; for then he should have needed them, and they have a parhelion
of that wisdom that is in his Idea."--_Richardson's Logic_, p. 16: Lond.
1657.
"Then the Great Spirit, whom his works adore,
Within his own deep essence view'd the forms,
The forms eternal of created things."--AKENSIDE.
_Pleasures of the Imagination_, Book i.
"And in the school of sacred wisdom taught,
To read his wonders, in whose thought the world,
Fair as it is, existed ere it was."--COWPER.
_Task: Winter Morning Walk_, p. 150.
"Thence to behold this new-created world,
The addition of his empire, how it show'd
In prospect from his throne, how good, how fair,
Answering his great idea."--MILTON.
_Paradise Lost_, Book vii, line 554.
"Thought shines from God as shines the morn;
Language from kindling thought is born."
ANON.: _a Poem in imitation of Coleridge_.
17. "Original Truth," [43] says Harris, "having the most intimate
connection with the _Supreme Intelligence_, may be said (as it were) to
shine with unchangeable splendor, enlightening throughout the universe
every possible subject, by nature susceptible of its benign influence.
Passions and other obstacles may prevent indeed its efficacy, as clouds and
vapours may obscure the sun; but itself neither admits diminution, nor
change, because the darkness respects only particular percipients. Among
_these_ therefore we must look for ignorance and error, and for that
_subordination of intelligence_ which is their natural consequence. Partial
views, the imperfections of sense; inattention, idleness, the turbulence of
passions; education, local sentiments, opinions, and belief; conspire in
many instances to furnish us with ideas, some too partial, and (what is
worse than all this) with many that are erroneous, and contrary to truth.
These it behoves us to correct as far as possible, by cool suspense and
candid examination. Thus by a connection perhaps little expected, the cause
of _Letters_, and that of _Virtue_, appear to coincide; it being the
business of both, to examine our ideas, and to amend them by the standard
of nature and of truth."--See _Hermes_, p. 406.
18. Although it seems plain from our own consciousness, that the mind is an
active self-moving principle or essence, yet capable of being moved, after
its own manner, by other causes outward as well as inward; and although it
must be obvious to reflection, that all its ideas, perceptions, and
emotions, are, with respect to itself, of a spiritual nature--bearing such
a relation to the spiritual substance in which alone they appear, as bodily
motion is seen to bear to material substances; yet we know, from experience
and observation, that they who are acquainted with words, are apt to think
in words--that is, mentally to associate their internal conceptions with
the verbal signs which they have learned to use. And though I do not
conceive the position to be generally true, that words are to the mind
itself the necessary instruments of thought, yet, in my apprehension, it
cannot well be denied, that in some of its operations and intellectual
reaches, the mind is greatly assisted by its own contrivances with respect
to language. I refer not now to the communication of knowledge; for, of
this, language is admitted to be properly the instrument. But there seem to
be some processes of thought, or calculation, in which the mind, by a
wonderful artifice in the combination of terms, contrives to prevent
embarrassment, and help itself forward in its conceptions, when the objects
before it are in themselves perhaps infinite in number or variety.
19. We have an instance of this in numeration. No idea is more obvious or
simple than that of unity, or one. By the continual addition of this, first
to itself to make two, and then to each higher combination successively, we
form a series of different numbers, which may go on to infinity. In the
consideration of these, the mind would not be able to go tar without the
help of words, and those peculiarly fitted to the purpose. The
understanding would lose itself in the multiplicity, were it not aided by
that curious concatenation of names, which has been contrived for the
several parts of the succession. As far as _twelve_ we make use of simple
unrelated terms. Thenceforward we apply derivatives and compounds, formed
from these in their regular order, till we arrive at a _hundred_. This one
new word, _hundred_, introduced to prevent confusion, has nine hundred and
ninety-nine distinct repetitions in connexion with the preceding terms, and
thus brings us to a _thousand_. Here the computation begins anew, runs
through all the former combinations, and then extends forward, till the
word _thousand_ has been used nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand times;
and then, for ten hundred thousand, we introduce the new word _million_.
With this name we begin again as before, and proceed till we have used it a
million of times, each combination denoting a number clearly distinguished
from every other; and then, in like manner, we begin and proceed, with
_billions, trillions, quadrillions, quintillions, etc._, to any extent we
please.
20. Now can any one suppose that words are not here, in some true sense,
the instruments of thought, or of the intellectual process thus carried on?
Were all these different numbers to be distinguished directly by the mind
itself, and denominated by terms destitute of this artificial connexion, it
may well be doubted whether the greatest genius in the world would ever be
able to do what any child may now effect by this orderly arrangement of
words; that is, to distinguish exactly the several stages of this long
progression, and see at a glance how far it is from the beginning of the
series. "The great art of knowledge," says Duncan, "lies in managing with
skill the capacity of the intellect, and contriving such helps, as, if they
strengthen not its natural powers, may yet expose them to no unnecessary
fatigue. When ideas become very complex, and by the multiplicity of their
parts grow too unwieldy to be dealt with in the lump, we must ease the view
of the mind by taking them to pieces, and setting before it the several
portions separately, one after an other. By this leisurely survey we are
enabled to take in the whole; and if we can draw it into such an orderly
combination as will naturally lead the attention, step by step, in any
succeeding consideration of the same idea, we shall have it ever at
command, and with a single glance of thought be able to run over all its
parts."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 37, Hence we may infer the great importance
of method in grammar; the particulars of which, as Quintilian says, are
infinite.[44]
21. Words are in themselves but audible or visible signs, mere arbitrary
symbols, used, according to common practice and consent, as significant of
our ideas or thoughts.[45] But so well are they fitted to be made at will
the medium of mental conference, that nothing else can be conceived to
equal them for this purpose. Yet it does not follow that they who have the
greatest knowledge and command of words, have all they could desire in this
respect. For language is in its own nature but an imperfect instrument, and
even when tuned with the greatest skill, will often be found inadequate to
convey the impression with which the mind may labour. Cicero, that great
master of eloquence, frequently confessed, or declared, that words failed
him. This, however, may be thought to have been uttered as a mere figure of
speech; and some may say, that the imperfection I speak of, is but an
incident of the common weakness or ignorance of human nature; and that if a
man always knew what to say to an other in order to persuade or confute, to
encourage or terrify him, he would always succeed, and no insufficiency of
this kind would ever be felt or imagined. This also is plausible; but is
the imperfection less, for being sometimes traceable to an ulterior source?
Or is it certain that human languages used by perfect wisdom, would all be
perfectly competent to their common purpose? And if some would be found
less so than others, may there not be an insufficiency in the very nature
of them all?
22. If there is imperfection in any instrument, there is so much the more
need of care and skill in the use of it. Duncan, in concluding his chapter
about words as signs of our ideas, says, "It is apparent, that we are
sufficiently provided with the means' of communicating our thoughts one to
another; and that the mistakes so frequently complained of on this head,
are wholly owing to ourselves, in not sufficiently defining the terms we
use; or perhaps not connecting them with clear and determinate
ideas."--_Logic_, p. 69. On the other hand, we find that some of the best
and wisest of men confess the inadequacy of language, while they also
deplore its misuse. But, whatever may be its inherent defects, or its
culpable abuses, it is still to be honoured as almost the only medium for
the communication of thought and the diffusion of knowledge. Bishop Butler
remarks, in his Analogy of Religion, (a most valuable work, though
defective in style,) "So likewise the imperfections attending the only
method by which nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts
to each other, are innumerable. Language is, in its very nature,
inadequate, ambiguous, liable to infinite abuse, even from negligence; and
so liable to it from design, that every man can deceive and betray by
it."--Part ii, Chap. 3. Lord Kames, too, seconds this complaint, at least
in part: "Lamentable is the imperfection of language, almost in every
particular that falls not under external sense. I am talking of a matter
exceedingly clear in the perception, and yet I find no small difficulty to
express it clearly in words."--_Elements of Criticism_, Vol. i, p. 86. "All
writers," says Sheridan, "seem to be under the influence of one common
delusion, that by the help of words alone, they can communicate all that
passes in their minds."--_Lectures on Elocution_, p. xi.
23. Addison also, in apologizing for Milton's frequent use of old words and
foreign idioms, says, "I may further add, that Milton's sentiments and
ideas were so wonderfully sublime, that it would have been impossible for
him to have represented them in their full strength and beauty, without
having recourse to these foreign assistances. _Our language sunk under
him_, and was unequal to that greatness of soul which furnished him with
such glorious conceptions."--_Spectator_, No. 297. This, however, Dr.
Johnson seems to regard as a mere compliment to genius; for of Milton he
says, "The truth is, that both in prose and verse, he had formed his style
by a perverse and pedantick principle." But the grandeur of his thoughts is
not denied by the critic; nor is his language censured without
qualification. "Whatever be the faults of his diction, he cannot want the
praise of copiousness and variety: he was master of his language in its
full extent; and has selected the melodious words with such diligence, that
from his book alone the Art of English Poetry might be learned."--
_Johnson's Life of Milton_: _Lives_, p. 92. 24. As words abstractly
considered are empty and vain, being in their nature mere signs, or tokens,
which derive all their value from the ideas and feelings which they
suggest; it is evident that he who would either speak or write well, must
be furnished with something more than a knowledge of sounds and letters.
Words fitly spoken are indeed both precious and beautiful--"like apples of
gold in pictures of silver." But it is not for him whose soul is dark,
whose designs are selfish, whose affections are dead, or whose thoughts are
vain, to say with the son of Amram, "My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my
speech shall distil as the dew; as the small rain upon the tender herb, and
as the showers upon the grass."--_Deut._, xxxii, 2. It is not for him to
exhibit the true excellency of speech, because he cannot feel its power. It
is not for him, whatever be the theme, to convince the judgement with
deductions of reason, to fire the imagination with glowing imagery, or win
with graceful words the willing ear of taste. His wisdom shall be silence,
when men are present; for the soul of manly language, is the soul that
thinks and feels as best becomes a man.
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
"Non mediocres enim tenebrae in sylva, ubi haec captanda: neque eon, quo
pervenire volumus semitae tritae: neque non in tramitibus quaedam objecta, quae
euntem retinere possent."--VARRO. _De Lingua Latina_, Lib. iv, p. 4.
1. In order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those
who, in former times, gave particular attention to the culture of the
English language, and that we may the better judge of the credibility of
modern pretensions to further improvements, it seems necessary that we
should know something of the course of events through which its
acknowledged melioration in earlier days took place. For, in this case, the
extent of a man's knowledge is the strength of his argument. As Bacon
quotes Aristotle, "Qui respiciunt ad pauca, de facili pronunciant." He that
takes a narrow view, easily makes up his mind. But what is any opinion
worth, if further knowledge of facts can confute it?
2. Whatsoever is successively varied, or has such a manner of existence as
time can affect, must have had both an origin and a progress; and may have
also its particular _history_, if the opportunity for writing it be not
neglected. But such is the levity of mankind, that things of great moment
are often left without memorial, while the hand of Literature is busy to
beguile the world with trifles or with fictions, with fancies or with lies.
The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, till the genius of
Grammar arise to their rescue, are among those transitory things which
unsparing time is ever hurrying away, irrecoverably, to oblivion. Tradition
knows not what they were; for of their changes she takes no account.
Philosophy tells us, they are resolved into the variable, fleeting breath
of the successive generations of those by whom they were spoken; whose
kindred fate it was, to pass away unnoticed and nameless, lost in the
elements from which they sprung.
3. Upon the history of the English language, darkness thickens as we tread
back the course of time. The subject of our inquiry becomes, at every step,
more difficult and less worthy. We have now a tract of English literature,
both extensive and luminous; and though many modern writers, and no few
even of our writers on grammar, are comparatively very deficient in style,
it is safe to affirm that the English language in general has never been
written or spoken with more propriety and elegance, than it is at the
present day. Modern English we read with facility; and that which was good
two centuries ago, though considerably antiquated, is still easily
understood. The best way, therefore, to gain a practical knowledge of the
changes which our language has undergone, is, to read some of our older
authors in retrograde order, till the style employed at times more and more
remote, becomes in some degree familiar. Pursued in this manner, the study
will be less difficult, and the labour of the curious inquirer, which may
be suspended or resumed at pleasure, will be better repaid, than if he
proceed in the order of history, and attempt at first the Saxon remains.
4. The value of a language as an object of study, depends chiefly on the
character of the _books_ which it contains; and, secondarily, on its
connexion with others more worthy to be thoroughly known. In this instance,
there are several circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage
research. As our language took its rise during the barbarism of the dark
ages, the books through which its early history must be traced, are not
only few and meagre, but, in respect to grammar, unsettled and diverse. It
is not to be expected that inquiries of this kind will ever engage the
attention of any very considerable number of persons. Over the minds of the
reading public, the attractions of novelty hold a much greater influence,
than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk of antiquity. All old
books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words, and antiquated
modes of expression, which puzzle the reader, and call him too frequently
to his glossary. And even the most common terms, when they appear in their
ancient, unsettled orthography, are often so disguised as not to be readily
recognized.
5. These circumstances (the last of which should be a caution to us against
innovations in spelling) retard the progress of the reader, impose a labour
too great for the ardour of his curiosity, and soon dispose him to rest
satisfied with an ignorance, which, being general, is not likely to expose
him to censure. For these reasons, ancient authors are little read; and the
real antiquary is considered a man of odd habits, who, by a singular
propensity, is led into studies both unfashionable and fruitless--a man who
ought to have been born in the days of old, that he might have spoken the
language he is so curious to know, and have appeared in the costume of an
age better suited to his taste.
6. But _Learning_ is ever curious to explore the records of time, as well
as the regions of space; and wherever her institutions flourish, she will
amass her treasures, and spread them before her votaries. Difference of
languages she easily overcomes; but the leaden reign of unlettered
Ignorance defies her scrutiny. Hence, of one period of the world's history,
she ever speaks with horror--that "long night of apostasy," during which,
like a lone Sibyl, she hid her precious relics in solitary cells, and
fleeing from degraded Christendom, sought refuge with the eastern caliphs.
"This awful decline of true religion in the world carried with it almost
every vestige of civil liberty, of classical literature, and of scientific
knowledge; and it will generally be found in experience that they must all
stand or fall together."--_Hints on Toleration_, p. 263. In the tenth
century, beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the
English language as now written, this mental darkness appears to have
gathered to its deepest obscuration; and, at that period, England was sunk
as low in ignorance, superstition, and depravity, as any other part of
Europe.
7. The English language gradually varies as we trace it back, and becomes
at length identified with the Anglo-Saxon; that is, with the dialect spoken
by the Saxons after their settlement in England. These Saxons were a
fierce, warlike, unlettered people from Germany; whom the ancient Britons
had invited to their assistance against the Picts and Scots. Cruel and
ignorant, like their Gothic kindred, who had but lately overrun the Roman
empire, they came, not for the good of others, but to accommodate
themselves. They accordingly seized the country; destroyed or enslaved the
ancient inhabitants; or, more probably, drove the remnant of them into the
mountains of Wales. Of Welsh or ancient British words, Charles Bucke, who
says in his grammar that he took great pains to be accurate in his scale of
derivation, enumerates but one hundred and eleven, as now found in our
language; and Dr. Johnson, who makes them but ninety-five, argues from
their paucity, or almost total absence, that the Saxons could not have
mingled at all with these people, or even have retained them in vassalage.
8. The ancient languages of France and of the British isles are said to
have proceeded from an other language yet more ancient, called the
_Celtic_; so that, from one common source, are supposed to have sprung the
present Welsh, the present Irish, and the present Highland Scotch.[46] The
term _Celtic_ Dr. Webster defines, as a noun, "The language of the Celts;"
and, as an adjective, "Pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south
and west of Europe, or to the early inhabitants of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and
Britain." What _unity_, according to this, there was, or could have been,
in the ancient Celtic tongue, does not appear from books, nor is it easy to
be conjectured.[47] Many ancient writers sustain this broad application of
the term _Celtae_ or _Celts_; which, according to Strabo's etymology of it,
means horsemen, and seems to have been almost as general as our word
_Indians_. But Caesar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed
by the people who, in his day, lived in France between the Seine and the
Garonne, and who by the Romans were called _Galli_, or _Gauls_.
9. The _Celtic_ tribes are said to have been the descendants of Gomer, the
son of Japhet. The English historians agree that the first inhabitants of
their island owed their origin and their language to the _Celtae_, or Gauls,
who settled on the opposite shore. Julius Caesar, who invaded Britain about
half a century before the Christian era, found the inhabitants ignorant of
letters, and destitute of any history but oral tradition. To this, however,
they paid great attention, teaching every thing in verse. Some of the
Druids, it is said in Caesar's Commentaries, spent twenty years in learning
to repeat songs and hymns that were never committed to writing. These
ancient priests, or diviners, are represented as having great power, and as
exercising it in some respects beneficially; but their horrid rites, with
human sacrifices, provoked the Romans to destroy them. Smollett says,
"Tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in Gaul; and Claudius destroyed
the Druids of that country; but they subsisted in Britain till the reign of
Nero, when Paulus Suetonius reduced the island of Anglesey, which was the
place of their retreat, and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and
sudden destruction, that all their knowledge and tradition, conveyed to
them in the songs of their predecessors, perished at once."--_Smollett's
Hist. of Eng._, 4to, B. i, Ch. i, Sec.7.
10. The Romans considered Britain a province of their empire, for a period
of about five hundred years; but the northern part of the island was never
entirely subdued by them, and not till Anno Domini 78, a hundred and
thirty-three years after their first invasion of the country, had they
completed their conquest of England. Letters and arts, so far at least as
these are necessary to the purposes of war or government, the victors
carried with them; and under their auspices some knowledge of Christianity
was, at a very early period, introduced into Britain. But it seems strange,
that after all that is related of their conquests, settlements, cities,
fortifications, buildings, seminaries, churches, laws, &c., they should at
last have left the Britons in so helpless, degraded, and forlorn a
condition. They _did not sow among them the seeds_ of any permanent
improvement.
11. The Roman government, being unable to sustain itself at home, withdrew
its forces finally from Britain in the year 446, leaving the wretched
inhabitants almost as savage as it found them, and in a situation even less
desirable. Deprived of their native resources, their ancient independence
of spirit, as well as of the laws, customs, institutions, and leaders, that
had kept them together under their old dynasties, and now deserted by their
foreign protectors, they were apparently left at the mercy of blind
fortune, the wretched vicissitudes of which there was none to foresee, none
to resist. The glory of the Romans now passed away. The mighty fabric of
their own proud empire crumbled into ruins. Civil liberty gave place to
barbarism; Christian truth, to papal superstition; and the lights of
science were put out by both. The shades of night gathered over all;
settling and condensing, "till almost every point of that wide horizon,
over which the Sun of Righteousness had diffused his cheering rays, was
enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of
old descended upon rebellious Pharaoh and the callous sons of Ham."--_Hints
on Toleration_, p. 310.
12. The Saxons entered Britain in the year 449. But what was the form of
their language at that time, cannot now be known. It was a dialect of the
_Gothic_ or _Teutonic_; which is considered the parent of all the northern
tongues of Europe, except some few of Sclavonian origin. The only remaining
monument of the Gothic language is a copy of the Gospels, translated by
Ulphilas; which is preserved at Upsal, and called, from its embellishments,
_the Silver Book_. This old work has been three times printed in England.
We possess not yet in America all the advantages which may be enjoyed by
literary men in the land of our ancestors; but the stores of literature,
both ancient and modern, are somewhat more familiar to us, than is there
supposed; and the art of printing is fast equalizing, to all nations that
cultivate learning, the privilege of drinking at its ancient fountains.
13. It is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the
intellectual or the moral condition of any remote age or country, merely
from our own ignorance of it. It is true, we can derive from no quarter a
favourable opinion of the state of England after the Saxon invasion, and
during the tumultuous and bloody government of the heptarchy. But I will
not darken the picture through design. If justice were done to the few
names--to Gildas the wise, the memorialist of his country's sufferings and
censor of the nation's depravity, who appears a solitary star in the night
of the sixth century--to the venerable Bede, the greatest theologian, best
scholar, and only historian of the seventh--to Alcuin, the abbot of
Canterbury, the luminary of the eighth--to Alfred the great, the glory of
the ninth, great as a prince, and greater as a scholar, seen in the evening
twilight of an age in which the clergy could not read;--if justice were
done to all such, we might find something, even in these dark and rugged
times, if not to soften the grimness of the portrait, at least to give
greater distinctness of feature.
14. In tracing the history of our language, Dr. Johnson, who does little
more than give examples, cites as his first specimen of ancient English, a
portion of king [sic--KTH] Alfred's paraphrase in imitation of Boethius.
But this language of Alfred's is not English; but rather, as the learned
doctor himself considered it, an example of the Anglo-Saxon in its highest
state of purity. This dialect was first changed by admixture with words
derived from the Danish and the Norman; and, still being comparatively rude
and meagre, afterwards received large accessions from the Latin, the
French, the Greek, the Dutch--till, by gradual changes, which the
etymologist may exhibit, there was at length produced a language bearing a
sufficient resemblance to the present English, to deserve to be called
English at this day.
15. The formation of our language cannot with
propriety be dated earlier than the thirteenth century. It was then that a
free and voluntary amalgamation of its chief constituent materials took
place; and this was somewhat earlier than we date the revival of learning.
The English of the thirteenth century is scarcely intelligible to the
modern reader. Dr. Johnson calls it "a kind of intermediate diction,
neither Saxon nor English;" and says, that Sir John Gower, who wrote in the
latter part of the fourteenth century, was "the first of our authors who
can be properly said to have written English." Contemporary with Gower, the
father of English poetry, was the still greater poet, his disciple Chaucer;
who embraced many of the tenets of Wickliffe, and imbibed something of the
spirit of the reformation, which was now begun.
16. The literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full
of interest; for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and
obvious improvement. The reformation of religion and the revival of
learning were nearly simultaneous. Yet individuals may have acted a
conspicuous part in the latter, who had little to do with the former; for
great learning does not necessarily imply great piety, though, as Dr.
Johnson observes, "the Christian religion always implies or produces a
certain degree of civility and learning."--_Hist. Eng. Lang. before his 4to
Dict._ "The ordinary instructions of the clergy, both philosophical and
religious, gradually fell into contempt, as the Classics superseded the
one, and the Holy Scriptures expelled the other. The first of these changes
was effected by _the early grammarians_ of Europe; and it gave considerable
aid to the reformation, though it had no immediate connexion with that
event. The revival of the English Bible, however, completed the work: and
though its appearance was late, and its progress was retarded in every
possible manner, yet its dispersion was at length equally rapid, extensive,
and effectual."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 75.
17. Peculiar honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances
human happiness. And, surely, our just admiration of the character of the
_reformers_ must be not a little enhanced, when we consider what they did
for letters as well as for the church. Learning does not consist in useless
jargon, in a multitude of mere words, or in acute speculations remote from
practice; else the seventeen folios of St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelical
doctor of the thirteenth century, and the profound disputations of his
great rival, Duns Scotus the subtle, for which they were revered in their
own age, had not gained them the contempt of all posterity. From such
learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers delivered the halls of
instruction. The school divinity of the middle ages passed away before the
presence of that which these men learned from the Bible, as did in a later
age the Aristotelian philosophy before that which Bacon drew from nature.
18. Towards the latter part of the fourteenth century, Wickliffe furnished
the first entire translation of the Bible into English. In like manner did
the Germans, a hundred and fifty years after, receive it in their tongue
from the hands of Luther; who says, that at twenty years of age, he himself
had not seen it in any language. Wickliffe's English style is elegant for
the age in which he lived, yet very different from what is elegant now.
This first English translation of the Bible, being made about a hundred
years before the introduction of printing into England, could not have been
very extensively circulated. A large specimen of it may be seen in Dr.
Johnson's History of the English Language. Wickliffe died in 1384. The art
of printing was invented about 1440, and first introduced into England, in
1468; but the first printed edition of the Bible in English, was executed
in Germany. It was completed, October 5th, 1535.
19. "Martin Luther, about the year 1517, first introduced metrical psalmody
into the service of the church, which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of
the reformers, but formed a rallying point for his followers. This practice
spread in all directions; and it was not long ere six thousand persons were
heard singing together at St. Paul's Cross in London. Luther was a poet and
musician; but the same talent existed not in his followers. Thirty years
afterwards, Sternhold versified fifty-one of the Psalms; and in 1562, with
the help of Hopkins, he completed the Psalter. These poetical effusions
were chiefly sung to German melodies, which the good taste of Luther
supplied: but the Puritans, in a subsequent age, nearly destroyed these
germs of melody, assigning as a reason, that music should be so simplified
as to suit all persons, and that all may join."--_Dr. Gardiner's Music of
Nature_, p. 283.
20. "The schools and colleges of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries were not governed by a system of education which would render
their students very eminent either as scholars or as gentlemen: and the
monasteries, which were used as seminaries, even until the reformation,
taught only the corrupt Latin used by the ecclesiastics. The time however
was approaching, when the united efforts of Stanbridge, Linacre, Sir John
Cheke, Dean Colet, Erasmus, William Lily, Roger Ascham, &c., were
successful in reviving the Latin tongue in all its purity; and even in
exciting a taste for Greek in a nation the clergy of which opposed its
introduction with the same vehemence which characterized their enmity to a
reformation in religion. The very learned Erasmus, the first who undertook
the teaching of the Greek language at Oxford, met with few friends to
support him; notwithstanding Oxford was the seat of nearly all the learning
in England."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 146.
21. "The priests preached against it, as a very recent invention of the
arch-enemy; and confounding in their misguided zeal, the very foundation of
their faith, with the object of their resentment, they represented the New
Testament itself as 'an impious and dangerous book,' because it was written
in that heretical language. Even after the accession of Henry VIII, when
Erasmus, who had quitted Oxford in disgust, returned under his especial
patronage, with the support of several eminent scholars and powerful
persons, his progress was still impeded, and the language opposed. The
University was divided into parties, called Greeks and Trojans, the latter
being the strongest, from being favoured by the monks; and the Greeks were
driven from the streets, with hisses and other expressions of contempt. It
was not therefore until Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey gave it their
positive and powerful protection, that this persecuted language was allowed
to be quietly studied, even in the institutions dedicated to
learning."--_Ib._, p. 147.
22. These curious extracts are adduced to show the _spirit of the times_,
and the obstacles then to be surmounted in the cause of learning. This
popular opposition to Greek, did not spring from a patriotic design to
prefer and encourage English literature; for the improvement of this was
still later, and the great promoters of it were all of them classical
scholars. They wrote in English, not because they preferred it, but because
none but those who were bred in colleges, could read any thing else; and,
even to this very day, the grammatical study of the English language is
shamefully neglected in what are called the higher institutions of
learning. In alleging this neglect, I speak comparatively. Every student,
on entering upon the practical business of life, will find it of far more
importance to him, to be skillful in the language of his own country than
to be distinguished for any knowledge which the learned only can
appreciate. "Will the greatest Mastership in Greek and Latin, or [the]
translating [of] these Languages into English, avail for the Purpose of
acquiring an elegant English Style? No--we know just the Reverse from
woeful Experience! And, as Mr. Locke and the Spectator observe, Men who
have threshed hard at Greek and Latin for ten or eleven years together, are
very often deficient in their own Language."--_Preface to the British
Gram._, 8vo, 1784, p. xxi.
23. That the progress of English literature in early times was slow, will
not seem wonderful to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress
of other arts, more immediately connected with the comforts of life. "Down
to the reign of Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable
towns, had no chimneys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the
smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the
windows. The houses were mostly built of wattling, plastered over with
clay; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log of wood for a
pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects;
for, in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, 'to examine every
night the straw of the king's bed, that no daggers might be concealed
therein.' A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions
three things especially, that were 'marvellously altered for the worse in
England;' the multitude of chimneys lately erected, the increase of
lodgings, and the exchange of treen platters into pewter, and wooden spoons
into silver and tin; and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow
was employed in the building of houses."--REV. ROYAL ROBBINS: _Outlines of
History_, p. 377.
24. Shakspeare appeared in the reign of Elizabeth; outlived her thirteen
years; and died in 1616 aged 52. The English language in his hands did not
lack power or compass of expression. His writings are now more extensively
read, than any others of that age; nor has any very considerable part of
his phraseology yet become obsolete. But it ought to be known, that the
printers or editors of the editions which are now read, have taken
extensive liberty in modernizing his orthography, as well as that of other
old authors still popular. How far such liberty is justifiable, it is
difficult to say. Modern readers doubtless find a convenience in it. It is
very desirable that the orthography of our language should be made uniform,
and remain permanent. Great alterations cannot be suddenly introduced; and
there is, in stability, an advantage which will counterbalance that of a
slow approximation to regularity. Analogy may sometimes decide the form of
variable words, but the concurrent usage of the learned must ever be
respected, in this, as in every other part of grammar.
25. Among the earliest of the English grammarians, was Ben Jonson, the
poet; who died in the year 1637, at the age of sixty-three. His grammar,
(which Horne Tooke mistakingly calls "the _first_ as well as the _best_
English grammar,") is still extant, being published in the several editions
of his works. It is a small treatise, and worthy of attention only as a
matter of curiosity. It is written in prose, and designed chiefly for the
aid of foreigners. Grammar is an unpoetical subject, and therefore not
wisely treated, as it once very generally was, in verse. But every poet
should be familiar with the art, because the formal principles of his own
have always been considered as embraced in it. To its poets, too, every
language must needs be particularly indebted; because their compositions,
being in general more highly finished than works in prose, are supposed to
present the language in its most agreeable form. In the preface to the
Poems of Edmund Waller, published in 1690, the editor ventures to say, "He
was, indeed, the Parent of English Verse, and the first that shewed us our
Tongue had Beauty and Numbers in it. Our Language owes more to Him, than
the French does to Cardinal Richelieu and the whole Academy. * * * * The
Tongue came into His hands a rough diamond: he polished it first; and to
_that_ degree, that all artists since him have admired the workmanship,
without pretending to mend it."--_British Poets_, Vol. ii, Lond., 1800:
_Waller's Poems_, p. 4.
26. Dr. Johnson, however, in his Lives of the Poets, abates this praise,
that he may transfer the greater part of it to Dryden and Pope. He admits
that, "After about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre, some
advances towards nature and harmony had been already made by Waller and
Denham;" but, in distributing the praise of this improvement, he adds, "It
may be doubted whether Waller and Denham could have over-born [_overborne_]
the prejudices which had long prevailed, and which even then were sheltered
by the protection of Cowley. The new versification, as it was called, may
be considered as owing its establishment to Dryden; from whose time it is
apparent that English poetry has had no tendency to relapse to its former
savageness."--_Johnson's Life of Dryden: Lives_, p. 206. To Pope, as the
translator of Homer, he gives this praise: "His version may be said to have
tuned the English tongue; for since its appearance no writer, however
deficient in other powers, has wanted melody."--_Life of Pope: Lives_, p.
567. Such was the opinion of Johnson; but there are other critics who
object to the versification of Pope, that it is "monotonous and cloying."
See, in Leigh Hunt's Feast of the Poets, the following couplet, and a note
upon it:
"But ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town
With his cuckoo-song verses half up and half down."
27. The unfortunate Charles I, as well as his father James I, was a lover
and promoter of letters. He was himself a good scholar, and wrote well in
English, for his time: he ascended the throne in 1625, and was beheaded in
1648. Nor was Cromwell himself, with all his religious and military
enthusiasm, wholly insensible to _literary_ merit. This century was
distinguished by the writings of Milton, Dryden, Waller, Cowley, Denham,
Locke, and others; and the reign of Charles II, which is embraced in it,
has been considered by some "the Augustan age of English literature." But
that honour, if it may well be bestowed on any, belongs rather to a later
period. The best works produced in the eighteenth century, are so generally
known and so highly esteemed, that it would be lavish of the narrow space
allowed to this introduction, to speak particularly of their merits. Some
grammatical errors may be found in almost all books; but our language was,
in general, written with great purity and propriety by Addison, Swift,
Pope, Johnson, Lowth, Hume, Horne, and many other celebrated authors who
flourished in the last century. Nor was it much before this period, that
the British writers took any great pains to be accurate in the use of their
own language;
"Late, very late, correctness grew our care,
When the tir'd nation breath'd from civil war."--_Pope_.
28. English books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth
century; and, as soon as a taste for reading was formed, the press threw
open the flood-gates of general knowledge, the streams of which are now
pouring forth, in a copious, increasing, but too often turbid tide, upon
all the civilized nations of the earth. This mighty engine afforded a means
by which superior minds could act more efficiently and more extensively
upon society in general. And thus, by the exertions of genius adorned with
learning, our native tongue has been made the polished vehicle of the most
interesting truths, and of the most important discoveries; and has become a
language copious, strong, refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree
of harmony. Nay, it is esteemed by some who claim to be competent judges,
to be the strongest, the richest, the most elegant, and the most
susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world.
CHAPTER VII.
CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
"Quot enim verba, et nonnunquam in deterius, hoc, quo vivimus, saeculo,
partim aliqa, partim nulla necessitate cogente, mutata sunt?"--ROB.
AINSWORTH: _Lat. Dict., 4to_; Praef., p. xi.
1. In the use of language, every one chooses his words from that common
stock which he has learned, and applies them in practice according to his
own habits and notions. If the style of different writers of the same age
is various, much greater is the variety which appears in the productions of
different ages. Hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly
conjectured from the peculiarities of its style. As to what is best in
itself, or best adapted to the subject in hand, every writer must endeavour
to become his own judge. He who, in any sort of composition, would write
with a master's hand, must first apply himself to books with a scholar's
diligence. He must think it worth his while to inform himself, that he may
be critical. Desiring to give the student all the advantage, entertainment,
and satisfaction, that can be expected from a work of this kind, I shall
subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration of what has been said in the
foregoing chapter. The order of time will be followed _inversely_; and, as
Saxon characters are not very easily obtained, or very apt to be read, the
Roman letters will be employed for the few examples to which the others
would be more appropriate. But there are some peculiarities of ancient
usage in English, which, for the information of the young reader, it is
proper in the first place to explain.
2. With respect to the letters, there are _several changes_ to be
mentioned. (1.) The pages of old books are often crowded with capitals: it
was at one time the custom to distinguish all nouns, and frequently verbs,
or any other important words, by heading them with a great letter. (2.) The
letter Ess, of the lower case, had till lately two forms, the long and the
short, as [tall-s] and s; the former very nearly resembling the small f,
and the latter, its own capital. The short _s_ was used _at the end of
words_, and the long _[tall-s]_, in other places; but the latter is now
laid aside, in favour of the more distinctive form. (3.) The letters _I_
and _J_ were formerly considered as one and the same. Hence we find
_hallelujah_ for _halleluiah, Iohn_ for _John, iudgement_ for _judgement_,
&c. And in many dictionaries, the words beginning with _J_ are still mixed
with those which begin with _I_. (4.) The letters _U_ and _V_ were mixed in
like manner, and for the same reason; the latter being a consonant power
given to the former, and at length distinguished from it by a different
form. Or rather, the figure of the capital seems to have been at last
appropriated to the one, and that of the small letter to the other. But in
old books the forms of these two letters are continually confounded or
transposed. Hence it is, that our _Double-u_ is composed of two _Vees_;
which, as we see in old books, were sometimes printed separately: as, VV,
for W; or vv, for w.
3. The _orthography_ of our language, rude and unsettled as it still is in
many respects, was formerly much more variable and diverse. In books a
hundred years old or more, we often find the most common words spelled
variously by the same writer, and even upon the very same page. With
respect to the forms of words, a few particulars may here be noticed: (1.)
The article _an_, from which the _n_ was dropped before words beginning
with a consonant sound, is often found in old books where _a_ would be more
proper; as, _an heart, an help, an hill, an one, an use_. (2.) Till the
seventeenth century, the possessive case was written without the
apostrophe; being formed at different times, in _es, is, ys, or s_, like
the plural; and apparently without rule or uniformity in respect to the
doubling of the final consonant: as _Goddes, Godes, Godis, Godys_, or
_Gods_, for _God's_; so _mannes, mannis, mannys_ or _mans_, for _man's_.
Dr. Ash, whose English Grammar was in some repute in the latter part of the
eighteenth century, argued against the use of the apostrophe, alleging that
it was seldom used to distinguish the possessive case till about the
beginning of that century; and he then prophesied that the time would come,
when _correct writers would lay it aside again_, as a strange corruption,
an improper "departure from the original formation" of that case of English
nouns. And, among the speculations of these latter days, I have somewhere
seen an attempt to disparage this useful sign, and explode it, as an
unsightly thing _never well established_. It does not indeed, like a
syllabic sign, inform the ear or affect the sound; but still it is useful,
because it distinguishes to the eye, not only the _case_, but the _number_,
of the nouns thus marked. Pronouns, being different in their declension, do
not need it, and should therefore always be written without it.
4. The common usage of those who have spoken English, has always inclined
rather to brevity than to melody; contraction and elision of the ancient
terminations of words, constitute no small part of the change which has
taken place, or of the difference which perhaps always existed between the
solemn and the familiar style. In respect to euphony, however, these
terminations have certainly nothing to boast; nor does the earliest period
of the language appear to be that in which they were the most generally
used without contraction. That degree of smoothness of which the tongue was
anciently susceptible, had certainly no alliance with these additional
syllables. The long sonorous endings which constitute the declensions and
conjugations of the most admired languages, and which seem to chime so well
with the sublimity of the Greek, the majesty of the Latin, the sweetness of
the Italian, the dignity of the Spanish, or the polish of the French,
_never had_ any place in English. The inflections given to our words never
embraced any other vowel power than that of the short _e_ or _i_; and even,
this we are inclined to dispense with, whenever we can; so that most of our
grammatical inflections are, to the ear, nothing but consonants blended
with the final syllables of the words to which they are added. _Ing_ for
the first participle, _er_ for the comparative degree, and _est_ for the
superlative, are indeed added as whole syllables; but the rest, as _d_ or
_ed_ for preterits and perfect participles, _s_ or _es_ for the plural
number of nouns, or for the third person singular of verbs, and _st_ or
_est_ for the second person singular of verbs, nine times in ten, fall into
the sound or syllable with which the primitive word terminates. English
verbs, as they are now commonly used, run through their entire conjugation
without acquiring a single syllable from inflection, except sometimes when
the sound of _d, s_, or _st_ cannot be added to them.
5. This simplicity, so characteristic of our modern English, as well as of
the Saxon tongue, its proper parent, is attended with advantages that go
far to compensate for all that is consequently lost in euphony, or in the
liberty of transposition. Our formation of the moods and tenses, by means
of a few separate auxiliaries, all monosyllabic, and mostly without
inflection, is not only simple and easy, but beautiful, chaste, and strong.
In my opinion, our grammarians have shown far more affection for the
obsolete or obsolescent terminations _en, eth, est_, and _edst_, than they
really deserve. Till the beginning of the sixteenth century, _en_ was used
to mark the plural number of verbs, as, _they sayen_ for _they say_; after
which, it appears to have been dropped. Before the beginning of the
seventeenth century, _s_ or _es_ began to dispute with _th_ or _eth_ the
right of forming the third person singular of verbs; and, as the Bible and
other grave books used only the latter, a clear distinction obtained,
between the solemn and the familiar style, which distinction is well known
at this day. Thus we have, _He runs, walks, rides, reaches_, &c., for the
one; and, _He runneth, walketh, rideth, reacheth_, &c., for the other.
About the same time, or perhaps earlier, the use of the second person
singular began to be avoided in polite conversation, by the substitution of
the plural verb and pronoun; and, when used in poetry, it was often
contracted, so as to prevent any syllabic increase. In old books, all verbs
and participles that were intended to be contracted in pronunciation, were
contracted also, in some way, by the writer: as, "_call'd, carry'd,
sacrific'd;" "fly'st, ascrib'st, cryd'st;" "tost, curst, blest, finisht_;"
and others innumerable. All these, and such as are like them, we now
pronounce in the same way, but usually write differently; as, _called,
carried, sacrificed; fliest, ascribest, criettst; tossed, cursed, blessed,
finished_. Most of these topics will be further noticed in the Grammar.
I. ENGLISH OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
6. _Queen Victoria's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1837_.
"I thank you for your condolence upon the death of his late Majesty, for
the justice which you render to his character, and to the measures of his
reign, and for your warm congratulations upon my accession to the throne. I
join in your prayers for the prosperity of my reign, the best security for
which is to be found in reverence for our holy religion, and in the
observance of its duties."--VICTORIA, _to the Friends' Society_.
7. _From President Adams's Eulogy on Lafayette.--Written in 1834_.
"Pronounce him one of the first men of his age, and you have yet not done
him justice. Try him by that test to which he sought in vain to stimulate
the vulgar and selfish spirit of Napoleon; class him among the men who, to
compare and seat themselves, must take in the compass of all ages; turn
back your eyes upon the records of time; summon from the creation of the
world to this day the mighty dead of every age and every clime; and where,
among the race of merely mortal men, shall one be found, who, as the
benefactor of his kind, shall claim to take precedence of Lafayette?"--JOHN
QUINCY ADAMS.
8. _From President Jackson's Proclamation against Nullification.--1832_.
"No, we have not erred! The Constitution is still the object of our
reverence, the bond of our Union, our defence in danger, the source of our
prosperity in peace. It shall descend, as we have received it, uncorrupted
by sophistical construction, to our posterity: and the sacrifices of local
interest, of State prejudices, of personal animosities, that were made to
bring it into existence, will again be patriotically offered for its
support."--ANDREW JACKSON.
9. _From a Note on one of Robert Hall's Sermons.--Written about 1831_.
"After he had written down the striking apostrophe which occurs at about
page 76 of most of the editions--'Eternal God! on what are thine enemies
intent! what are those enterprises of guilt and horror, that, for the
safety of their performers, require to be enveloped in a darkness which the
eye of Heaven must not _penetrate_!'--he asked, 'Did I say _penetrate_,
sir, when I preached, it?' 'Yes.' 'Do you think, sir, I may venture to
alter it? for no man who considered the force of the English language,
would use a word of three syllables there, but from absolute necessity.'
'You are doubtless at liberty to alter it, if you think well.' 'Then be so
good, sir, as to take your pencil, and for _penetrate_ put _pierce_;
_pierce_ is the word, sir, and the only word to be used there.'"--OLINTHUS
GREGORY.
10. _King William's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1830_.
"I thank you sincerely for your condolence with me, on account of the loss
which I have sustained, in common with my people, by the death of my
lamented brother, his late Majesty. The assurances which you have conveyed
to me, of loyalty and affectionate attachment to my person, are very
gratifying to my feelings. You may rely upon my favour and protection, and
upon my anxious endeavours to promote morality and true piety among all
classes of my subjects."--WILLIAM IV, _to the Friends_.
11. _Reign of George IV, 1830 back to 1820.--Example written in 1827_.
"That morning, thou, that slumbered[48] not before,
Nor slept, great Ocean I laid thy waves to rest,
And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath
Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar;
Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still,
So lovely, thou, beneath the light that fell
From angel-chariots sentinelled on high,
Reposed, and listened, and saw thy living change,
Thy dead arise. Charybdis listened, and Scylla;
And savage Euxine on the Thracian beach
Lay motionless: and every battle ship
Stood still; and every ship of merchandise,
And all that sailed, of every name, stood still."
ROBERT POLLOK: _Course of Time_, Book VII, line 634-647.
II. ENGLISH OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
12. _Reign of George III, 1820 back to 1760.--Example written in 1800_.
"There is, it will be confessed, a delicate sensibility to character, a
sober desire of reputation, a wish to possess the esteem of the wise and
good, felt by the purest minds, which is at the farthest remove from
arrogance or vanity. The humility of a noble mind scarcely dares approve of
itself, until it has secured the approbation of others. Very different is
that restless desire of distinction, that passion for theatrical display,
which inflames the heart and occupies the whole attention of vain men. * *
* The truly good man is jealous over himself, lest the notoriety of his
best actions, by blending itself with their motive, should diminish their
value; the vain man performs the same actions for the sake of that
notoriety. The good man quietly discharges his duty, and shuns ostentation;
the vain man considers every good deed lost that is not publickly
displayed. The one is intent upon realities, the other upon semblances: the
one aims to _be_ virtuous, the other to _appear_ so."--ROBERT HALL: _Sermon
on Modern Infidelity_.
13. _From Washington's Farewell Address.--Example written in 1796_.
"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity,
Religion and Morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man
claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labour to subvert these great
pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and
citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect
and cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connexions with
private and publick felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the security
for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious
obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in
courts of justice? And let us with caution indulge the supposition, that
morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to
the influence of refined education on minds of a peculiar structure; reason
and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail
in exclusion of religious principle."--GEORGE WASHINGTON.
14. _From Dr. Johnson's Life of Addison.--Example written about 1780_.
"That he always wrote as he would think it necessary to write now, cannot
be affirmed; his instructions were such as the character of his readers
made proper. That general knowledge which now circulates in common talk,
was in his time rarely to be found. Men not professing learning, were not
ashamed of ignorance; and in the female world, any acquaintance with books
was distinguished only to be censured. His purpose was to infuse literary
curiosity, by gentle and unsuspected conveyance, into the gay, the idle,
and the wealthy; he therefore presented knowledge in the most alluring
form, not lofty and austere, but accessible and familiar. When he shewed
them their defects, he shewed them likewise that they might easily be
supplied. His attempt succeeded; inquiry was awakened, and comprehension
expanded. An emulation of intellectual elegance was excited, and from this
time to our own, life has been gradually exalted, and conversation purified
and enlarged."--SAMUEL JOHNSON: _Lives_, p. 321.
15. _Reign of George II, 1760 back to 1727.--Example written in 1751_.
"We Britons in our time have been remarkable borrowers, as our _multiform_
Language may sufficiently shew. Our Terms in _polite Literature_ prove,
that this came from _Greece_; our terms in _Music_ and _Painting_, that
these came from Italy; our Phrases in _Cookery_ and _War_, that we learnt
these from the French; and our phrases in _Navigation_, that we were taught
by the _Flemings_ and _Low Dutch_. These many and very different Sources of
our Language may be the cause, why it is so deficient in _Regularity_ and
_Analogy_. Yet we have this advantage to compensate the defect, that what
we want in _Elegance_, we gain in _Copiousness_, in which last respect few
Languages will be found superior to our own."--JAMES HARRIS: _Hermes_, Book
iii, Ch. v, p. 408.
16. _Reign of George I, 1727 back to 1714.--Example written about 1718_.
"There is a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our
European languages, when they are compared with the Oriental forms of
speech: and it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms ran into the
English tongue, with a particular grace and beauty. Our language has
received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infusion of
Hebraisms, which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy
writ. They give a force and energy to our expressions, warm and animate our
language, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than
any that are to be met with in our tongue."--JOSEPH ADDISON: _Evidences_,
p. 192.
17. _Reign of Queen Anne, 1714 to 1702.--Example written in 1708_.
"Some by old words to Fame have made pretence,
Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense;
Such labour'd nothings, in so strange a style,
Amaze th' unlearn'd, and make the learned smile."
"In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;
Alike fantastick, if too new or old:
Be not the first by whom the new are try'd,
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."
ALEXANDER POPE: _Essay on Criticism_, l. 324-336.
III. ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
18. _Reign of William III, 1702 to 1689.--Example published in 1700_.
"And when we see a Man of _Milton's_ Wit _Chime_ in with such a _Herd_, and
Help on the _Cry_ against _Hirelings_! We find How Easie it is for _Folly_
and _Knavery_ to Meet, and that they are Near of Kin, tho they bear
Different Aspects. Therefor since _Milton_ has put himself upon a _Level_
with the _Quakers_ in this, I will let them go together. And take as little
Notice of his _Buffoonry_, as of their _Dulness_ against _Tythes_. Ther is
nothing worth _Quoting_ in his _Lampoon_ against the _Hirelings_. But what
ther is of _Argument_ in it, is fully Consider'd in what follows."--CHARLES
LESLIE: _Divine Right of Tithes, Pref._, p. xi.
19. _Reign of James II, 1689 back to 1685.--Example written in 1685._
"His conversation, wit, and parts,
His knowledge in the noblest useful arts,
Were such, dead authors could not give;
But habitudes of those who live;
Who, lighting him, did greater lights receive:
He drain'd from all, and all they knew;
His apprehension quick, his judgment true:
That the most learn'd with shame confess
His knowledge more, his reading only less."
JOHN DRYDEN: _Ode to the Memory of Charles II; Poems_, p. 84.
20. _Reign of Charles II, 1685 to 1660.--Example from a Letter to the Earl
of Sunderland, dated, "Philadelphia, 28th 5th mo. July, 1683."_
"And I will venture to say, that by the help of God, and such noble
Friends, I will show a Province in seven years, equal to her neighbours of
forty years planting. I have lay'd out the Province into Countys. Six are
begun to be seated; they lye on the great river, and are planted about six
miles back. The town platt is a mile long, and two deep,--has a navigable
river on each side, the least as broad as the Thames at Woolwych, from
three to eight fathom water. There is built about eighty houses, and I have
settled at least three hundred farmes contiguous to it."--WILLIAM PENN.
_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 179.
21. _From an Address or Dedication to Charles II.--Written in 1675_.
"There is no [other] king in the world, who can so experimentally testify
of God's providence and goodness; neither is there any [other], who rules
so many free people, so many true Christians: which thing renders thy
government more honourable, thyself more considerable, than the accession
of many nations filled with slavish and superstitious souls."--ROBERT
BARCLAY: _Apology_, p. viii.
22. The following example, from the commencement of _Paradise Lost_, first
published in 1667, has been cited by several authors, to show how large a
proportion of our language is of Saxon origin. The thirteen words in
Italics are the only ones in this passage, which seem to have been derived
from any other source.
"Of man's first _disobedience_, and the _fruit_
Of that forbidden tree, whose _mortal_ taste
Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
With loss of _Eden_; till one greater Man
_Restore_ us, and _regain_ the blissful _seat_,
Sing, heav'nly _Muse_, that on the _secret_ top
Of _Oreb_, or of _Sinai_, didst _inspire_
That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed,
In the beginning, how the Heav'ns and Earth
Rose out of _Chaos_."--MILTON: _Paradise Lost_, Book I.
23. _Examples written during Cromwell's Protectorate, 1660 to 1650_.
"The Queene was pleased to shew me the letter, the seale beinge a Roman
eagle, havinge characters about it almost like the Greeke. This day, in the
afternoone, the vice-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours
with me; in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates."--WHITELOCKE.
_Bucke's Class. Gram._, p. 149.
"I am yet heere, and have the States of Holland ingaged in a more than
ordnary maner, to procure me audience of the States Generall. Whatever
happen, the effects must needes be good."--STRICKLAND: _Bucke's Classical
Gram._, p. 149.
24. _Reign of Charles I, 1648 to 1625.--Example from Ben Jonson's Grammar,
written about 1634; but the orthography is more modern_.
"The second and third person singular of the present are made of the first,
by adding _est_ and _eth_; which last is sometimes shortened into _s_. It
seemeth to have been poetical licence which first introduced this
abbreviation of the third person into use; but our best grammarians have
condemned it upon some occasions, though perhaps not to be absolutely
banished the common and familiar style."
"The persons plural keep the termination of the first person singular. In
former times, till about the reign of Henry the eighth, they were wont to
be formed by adding _en_; thus, _loven, sayen, complainen_. But now
(whatever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of use, and that other so
generally prevailed, that I dare not presume to set this afoot again:
albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lack hereof well
considered, will be found a great blemish to our tongue. For seeing _time_
and _person_ be, as it were, the right and left hand of a verb, what can
the maiming bring else, but a lameness to the whole body?"--Book i, Chap.
xvi.
25. _Reign of James I, 1625 to 1603.--From an Advertisement, dated 1608_.
"I svppose it altogether needlesse (Christian Reader) by commending M.
_VVilliam Perkins_, the Author of this booke, to wooe your holy affection,
which either himselfe in his life time by his Christian conversation hath
woon in you, or sithence his death, the neuer-dying memorie of his
excellent knowledge, his great humilitie, his sound religion, his feruent
zeale, his painefull labours, in the Church of God, doe most iustly
challenge at your hands: onely in one word, I dare be bold to say of him as
in times past _Nazianzen_ spake of _Athanasius_. His life was a good
definition of a true minister and preacher of the Gospell."--_The Printer
to the Reader_.
26. _Examples written about the end of Elizabeth's reign--1603_.
"Some say, That euer 'gainst that season comes
Wherein our Saviour's Birth is celebrated,
The Bird of Dawning singeth all night long;
And then, say they, no Spirit dares walk abroad:
The nights are wholsom, then no Planets strike,
No Fairy takes, nor Witch hath pow'r to charm;
So hallow'd and so gracious is the time."
SHAKSPEARE: _Hamlet_.
"The sea, with such a storme as his bare head
In hell-blacke night indur'd, would haue buoy'd up
And quench'd the stelled fires.
Yet, poore old heart, he holpe the heuens to raine.
If wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time,
Thou shouldst haue said, Good porter, turne the key."
SHAKSPEARE: _Lear_.
IV. ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
27. _Reign of Elizabeth, 1603 back to 1558.--Example written in 1592_.
"As for the soule, it is no accidentarie qualitie, but a spirituall and
inuisible essence or nature, subsisting by it selfe. Which plainely
appeares in that the soules of men haue beeing and continuance as well
forth of the bodies of men as in the same; and are as wel subiect to
torments as the bodie is. And whereas we can and doe put in practise
sundrie actions of life, sense, motion, vnderstanding, we doe it onely by
the power and vertue of the soule. Hence ariseth the difference betweene
the soules of men, and beasts. The soules of men are substances: but the
soules of other creatures seeme not to be substances; because they haue no
beeing out of the bodies in which they are."--WILLIAM PERKINS: _Theol.
Works, folio_, p. 155.
28. _Examples written about the beginning of Elizabeth's reign.--1558_.
"Who can perswade, when treason is aboue reason; and mighte ruleth righte;
and it is had for lawfull, whatsoever is lustfull; and commotioners are
better than commissioners; and common woe is named common weale?"--SIR JOHN
CHEKE. "If a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of
ruffians, it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners,
thoughts, taulke, and dedes, will verie sone be over like."--ROGER ASCHAM.
29. _Reign of Mary the Bigot, 1558 to 1553.--Example written about 1555_.
"And after that Philosophy had spoken these wordes the said companye of the
musys poeticall beynge rebukyd and sad, caste downe their countenaunce to
the grounde, and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes, and went out of
the dores. But I (that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng, so that I
knew not what woman this was hauyng soo great aucthoritie) was amasyd or
astonyed, and lokyng downeward, towarde the ground, I began pryvyle to look
what thyng she would save ferther."--COLVILLE: _Version from Boethius:
Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 29.
30. _Example referred by Dr. Johnson to the year 1553_.
"Pronunciation is an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce, countenaunce, and
all the whole bodye, accordynge to the worthinea of such woordes and mater
as by speache are declared. The vse hereof is suche for anye one that
liketh to haue prayse for tellynge his tale in open assemblie, that hauing
a good tongue, and a comelye countenaunce, he shal be thought to passe all
other that haue not the like vtteraunce: thoughe they have muche better
learning."--DR. WILSON: _Johnson's Hist. E. L._, p. 45.
31. _Reign of Edward VI, 1553 to 1547.--Example written about 1550._
"Who that will followe the graces manyfolde
Which are in vertue, shall finde auauncement:
Wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde,
Ensue ye wisdome, and leaue your lewde intent,
Wisdome is the way of men most excellent:
Therefore haue done, and shortly spede your pace,
To quaynt your self and company with grace."
ALEXANDER BARCLAY: _Johnson's Hist. E. L._, p. 44.
32. _Reign of Henry VIII, 1547 to 1509.--Example dated 1541_.
"Let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges,
that like as he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and
therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym: and if he
so be, than shall that anger be to hym displeasant, and stere hym more to
be angrye."--SIR THOMAS ELLIOTT: _Castel of Helthe_.
33. _Example of the earliest English Blank Verse; written about 1540_.
The supposed author died in 1541, aged 38. The piece from which these lines
are taken describes the death of _Zoroas_, an Egyptian astronomer, slain in
Alexander's first battle with the Persians.
"The Persians waild such sapience to foregoe;
And very sone the Macedonians wisht
He would have lived; king Alexander selfe
Demde him a man unmete to dye at all;
Who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre,
As for stoute men in field that day subdued,
Who princes taught how to discerne a man,
That in his head so rare a jewel beares;
But over all those same Camenes,[49] those same
Divine Camenes, whose honour he procurde,
As tender parent doth his daughters weale,
Lamented, and for thankes, all that they can,
Do cherish hym deceast, and sett hym free,
From dark oblivion of devouring death."
_Probably written by SIR THOMAS WYAT._
34. _A Letter written from prison, with a coal._ The writer, _Sir Thomas
More_, whose works, both in prose and verse, were considered models of pure
and elegant style, had been Chancellor of England, and the familiar
confidant of Henry VIII, by whose order he was beheaded in 1535.
"Myne own good doughter, our Lorde be thanked I am in good helthe of bodye,
and in good quiet of minde: and of worldly thynges I no more desyer then I
haue. I beseche hym make you all mery in the hope of heauen. And such
thynges as I somewhat longed to talke with you all, concerning the worlde
to come, our Lorde put theim into your myndes, as I truste he doth and
better to by hys holy spirite: who blesse you and preserue you all. Written
wyth a cole by your tender louing father, who in hys pore prayers
forgetteth none of you all, nor your babes, nor your nources, nor your good
husbandes, nor your good husbandes shrewde wyues, nor your fathers shrewde
wyfe neither, nor our other frendes. And thus fare ye hartely well for
lacke of paper. THOMAS MORE, knight."--_Johnson's Hist. E. Lang._, p. 42.
35. _From More's Description of Richard III.--Probably written about 1520._
"Richarde the third sonne, of whom we nowe entreate, was in witte and
courage egall with either of them, in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them
bothe, little of stature, ill fetured of limmes, croke backed, his left
shoulder much higher than his right, hard fauoured of visage, and such as
is in states called warlye, in other menne otherwise, he was malicious,
wrathfull, enuious, and from afore his birth euer frowarde. * * * Hee was
close and secrete, a deep dissimuler, lowlye of counteynaunce, arrogant of
heart--dispitious and cruell, not for euill will alway, but after for
ambicion, and either for the suretie and encrease of his estate. Frende and
foo was muche what indifferent, where his aduauntage grew, he spared no
mans deathe, whose life withstoode his purpose. He slew with his owne
handes king Henry the sixt, being prisoner in the Tower."--SIR THOMAS MORE:
_Johnson's History of the English Language_, p. 39.
36. _From his description of Fortune, written about the year 1500._
"Fortune is stately, solemne, prowde, and hye:
And rychesse geueth, to haue seruyce therefore.
The nedy begger catcheth an half peny:
Some manne a thousaude pounde, some lesse some more.
But for all that she kepeth euer in store,
From euery manne some parcell of his wyll,
That he may pray therefore and serve her styll.
Some manne hath good, but chyldren hath he none.
Some manne hath both, but he can get none health.
Some hath al thre, but vp to honours trone,
Can he not crepe, by no maner of stelth.
To some she sendeth chyldren, ryches, welthe,
Honour, woorshyp, and reuerence all hys lyfe:
But yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewde wife."
SIR THOMAS MORE.
V. ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
37. _Example for the reign of Henry VII, who was crowned on Bosworth field,
1485, and who died in 1509._
"Wherefor and forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif, and for our
derrest moder, to come unto us, and that we wold have your advis and
counsail also in soche matters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the
rebelles, we praie you, that, yeving your due attendaunce vppon our said
derrest wif and lady moder, ye come with thaym unto us; not failing herof
as ye purpose to doo us plaisir. Yeven undre our signett, at our Castell of
Kenelworth, the xiii daie of Maye."--HENRY VII: _Letter to the Earl of
Ormond: Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 147.
38. _Example for the short reign of Richard III,--from 1485 to 1483._
"Right reverend fader in God, right trusty and right wel-beloved, we grete
yow wele, and wol and charge you that under oure greate seale, being in
your warde, ye do make in all haist our lettres of proclamation severally
to be directed unto the shirrefs of everie countie within this oure
royaume."--RICHARD III: _Letter to his Chancellor._
39. _Reign of Edward IV,--from 1483 to 1461.--Example written in 1463._
"Forasmoche as we by divers meanes bene credebly enformed and undarstand
for certyne, that owr greate adversary Henry, naminge hym selfe kynge of
England, by the maliceous counseyle and exitacion of Margaret his wife,
namynge hir selfe queane of England, have conspired," &c.--EDWARD IV:
_Letter of Privy Seal_.
40. _Examples for the reign of Henry VI,--from 1461 back to 1422._
"When Nembroth [i.e. _Nimrod_] by Might, for his own Glorye, made and
incorporate the first Realme, and subduyd it to hymself by Tyrannye, he
would not have it governyd by any other Rule or Lawe, but by his own Will;
by which and for th' accomplishment thereof he made it. And therefor,
though he had thus made a Realme, holy Scripture denyd to cal hym a Kyng,
_Quia Rex dicitur a Regendo_; Whych thyng he did not, but oppressyd the
People by Myght."--SIR JOHN FORTESCUE.
41. _Example from Lydgate, a poetical Monk, who died in 1440._
"Our life here short of wit the great dulnes
The heuy soule troubled with trauayle,
And of memorye the glasyng brotelnes,
Drede and vncunning haue made a strong batail
With werines my spirite to assayle,
And with their subtil creping in most queint
Hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint."
JOHN LYDGATE: _Fall of Princes_, Book III, Prol.
42. _Example for the reign of Henry V,--from 1422 back to 1413._
"I wolle that the Duc of Orliance be kept stille withyn the Castil of
Pontefret, with owte goyng to Robertis place, or to any other disport, it
is better he lak his disport then we were disceyved. Of all the remanant
dothe as ye thenketh."--_Letter of_ HENRY V.
43. _Example for the reign of Henry IV,--from 1413 back to 1400._
"Right heigh and myghty Prynce, my goode and gracious Lorde,--I recommaund
me to you as lowly as I kan or may with all my pouer hert, desiryng to hier
goode and gracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare."--LORD
GREY: _Letter to the Prince of Wales: Bucke's Classical Gram._, p. 145.
VI. ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
44. _Reign of Richard II, 1400 back to 1377.--Example written in 1391._
"Lytel Lowys my sonne, I perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte
to lerne scyences, touching nombres and proporcions, and also well consydre
I thy besye prayer in especyal to lerne the tretyse of the _astrolabye_.
Than for as moche as a philosopher saithe, he wrapeth hym in his frende,
that condiscendeth to the ryghtfull prayers of his frende: therefore I have
given the a sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont, compowned after the
latitude of Oxenforde: vpon the whiche by meditacion of this lytell
tretise, I purpose to teche the a certame nombre of conclusions,
pertainynge to this same instrument."--GEOFFREY CHAUCER: _Of the
Astrolabe_.
45. _Example written about 1385--to be compared with that of 1555, on p.
87_.
"And thus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward
to the yerth, and shewing by rednesse their shame, thei passeden sorowfully
the thresholde. And I of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked, so
that I ne might not know what that woman was, of so Imperial aucthoritie, I
woxe all abashed and stonied, and cast my sight doune to the yerth, and
began still for to abide what she would doen afterward."--CHAUCER: _Version
from Boethius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 29.
46. _Poetical Example--probably written before 1380_.
"O Socrates, thou stedfast champion;
She ne might nevir be thy turmentour,
Thou nevir dreddist her oppression,
Ne in her chere foundin thou no favour,
Thou knewe wele the disceipt of her colour,
And that her moste worship is for to lie,
I knowe her eke a false dissimulour,
For finally Fortune I doe defie."--CHAUCER.
47. _Reign of Edward III, 1377 to 1327.--Example written about 1360_.
"And eke full ofte a littell skare
Vpon a banke, er men be ware,
Let in the streme, whiche with gret peine,
If any man it shall restreine.
Where lawe failleth, errour groweth;
He is not wise, who that ne troweth."--SIR JOHN GOWER.
48. _Example from Mandeville, the English traveller--written in 1356_.
"And this sterre that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the lode
sterre, ne apperethe not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve,
that the lond and the see ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of
the firmament schewethe in o contree, that schewethe not in another
contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle compassement of
wytt, that zif a man fond passages be schippes, that wolde go to serchen
the world, men mighte go be schippe all aboute the world, and aboven and
benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have seyn. * * * Be
the whiche I seye zou certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the erthe of
alle the world, as wel undre as aboven, and turnen azen to his contree,
that hadde companye and schippynge and conduyt: and alle weyes he scholde
fynde men, londes, and yles, als wel as in this contree."--SIR JOHN
MANDEVILLE; _Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 26.
49. _Example from Rob. Langland's "Vision of Pierce Ploughman," 1350_.
"In the somer season,
When hot was the Sun,
I shope me into shroubs,
As I a shepe were;
In habit as an harmet,
Vnholy of werkes,
Went wyde in this world
Wonders to heare."
50. _Description of a Ship--referred to the reign of Edward II: 1327-1307_.
"Such ne saw they never none,
For it was so gay begone,
Every nayle with gold ygrave,
Of pure gold was his sklave,
Her mast was of ivory,
Of samyte her sayle wytly,
Her robes all of whyte sylk,
As whyte as ever was ony mylke.
The noble ship was without
With clothes of gold spread about
And her loft and her wyndlace
All of gold depaynted was."
ANONYMOUS: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 143.
51. _From an Elegy on Edward I, who reigned till 1307 from 1272_.
"Thah mi tonge were made of stel,
Ant min herte yzote of bras,
The goodness myht y never telle,
That with kyng Edward was:
Kyng, as thou art cleped conquerour,
In uch battaille thou hadest prys;
God bringe thi soule to the honour,
That ever wes ant ever ys.
Now is Edward of Carnavan
Kyng of Engelond al aplyght;
God lete him never be worse man
Then his fader, ne lasse myht,
To holden his pore men to ryht,
Ant understonde good counsail,
Al Engelond for to wysse and dyht;
Of gode knyhtes darh him nout fail."
ANON.: _Percy's Reliques_, Vol. ii, p. 10.
VII. ENGLISH OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
52. _Reign of Henry III, 1272 to 1216.--Example from an old ballad entitled
Richard of Almaigne_; which Percy says was "made by one of the adherents of
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, soon after the battle of Lewes, which
was fought, May 14, 1264."--_Percy's Reliques_, Vol. ii.
"Sitteth alle stille, and herkneth to me;
The kyng of Almaigne, bi mi leaute,
Thritti thousent pound askede he
For te make the pees in the countre,
Ant so he dude more.
Richard, thah thou be ever trichard,
Trichten shalt thou never more."
53. In the following examples, I substitute Roman letters for the Saxon. At
this period, we find the characters mixed. The style here is that which
Johnson calls "a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English."
Of these historical rhymes, by _Robert of Gloucester_, the Doctor gives us
more than two hundred lines; but he dates them no further than to say,
that the author "is placed by the criticks in the thirteenth
century."--_Hist. of Eng. Lang._, p. 24.
"Alfred thys noble man, as in the ger of grace he nom
Eygte hondred and syxty and tuelue the kyndom.
Arst he adde at Rome ybe, and, vor ys grete wysdom,
The pope Leo hym blessede, tho he thuder com,
And the kynges croune of hys lond, that in this lond gut ys:
And he led hym to be kyng, ar he kyng were y wys.
An he was kyng of Engelond, of alle that ther come,
That vorst thus ylad was of the pope of Rome,
An suththe other after hym of the erchebyssopes echon."
"Clere he was god ynou, and gut, as me telleth me,
He was more than ten ger old, ar he couthe ys abece.
Ac ys gode moder ofte smale gyftes hym tok,
Vor to byleue other pie, and loky on ys boke.
So that by por clergye ys rygt lawes he wonde,
That neuere er nere y mad to gouerny ys lond."
ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER: _Johnson's Hist. of E. L._, p. 25.
54. _Reign of John_, 1216 _back to_ 1199.--_Subject of Christ's
Crucifixion_.
"I syke when y singe for sorewe that y se
When y with wypinge bihold upon the tre,
Ant se Jhesu the suete ys hert blod for-lete
For the love of me;
Ys woundes waxen wete, thei wepen, still and mete,
Marie reweth me."
ANON.: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 142.
VIII. ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON, OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY.
55. _Reign of Richard I, 1199 back to 1189.--Owl and Nightingale_.
"Ich was in one sumere dale,
In one snive digele pale,
I herde ich hold grete tale,
An hule and one nightingale.
That plait was stif I stare and strong,
Sum wile softe I lud among.
An other again other sval
I let that wole mod ut al.
I either seide of otheres custe,
That alere worste that hi wuste
I hure and I hure of others songe
Hi hold plaidung futhe stronge."
ANON.: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 142.
56. _Reign of Henry II, 1189 back to 1154.--Example dated 1180_.
"And of alle than folke
The wuneden ther on folde,
Wes thisses landes folke
Leodene hendest itald;
And alswa the wimmen
Wunliche on heowen."
GODRIC: _Bucke's Gram._, p. 141.
57. _Example from the Saxon Chronicle, written about 1160_.
"Micel hadde Henri king gadered gold & syluer, and na god ne dide me for
his saule thar of. Tha the king Stephne to Engla-land com, tha macod he his
gadering aet Oxene-ford, & thar he nam the biscop Roger of Seres-beri, and
Alexander biscop of Lincoln, & te Canceler Roger hife neues, & dide aelle in
prisun, til hi jafen up here castles. Tha the suikes undergaeton that he
milde man was & softe & god, & na justise ne dide; tha diden hi alle
wunder." See _Johnson's Hist. of the Eng. Language_, p. 22.
58. _Reign of Stephen, 1154 to 1135.--Example written about this time_.
"Fur in see bi west Spaygne.
Is a lond ihone Cokaygne.
There nis lond under heuenriche.
Of wel of godnis hit iliche.
Thoy paradis be miri and briyt.
Cokaygne is of fairer siyt.
What is ther in paradis.
Bot grasse and flure and greneris.
Thoy ther be ioi and gret dute.
Ther nis met bot aenlic frute.
Ther nis halle bure no bench.
Bot watir manis thurst to quench."
ANON.: _Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang._, p. 23.
59. _Reign of Henry I, 1135 to 1100.--Part of an Anglo-Saxon Hymn_.
"Heuene & erthe & all that is,
Biloken is on his honde.
He deth al that his wille is,
On sea and ec on londe.
He is orde albuten orde.
And ende albuten ende.
He one is eure on eche stede,
Wende wer thu wende.
He is buuen us and binethen,
Biuoren and ec bihind.
Se man that Godes wille deth,
He mai hine aihwar uinde.
Eche rune he iherth,
And wot eche dede.
He durh sighth eches ithanc,
Wai hwat sel us to rede.
Se man neure nele don god,
Ne neure god lif leden,
Er deth & dom come to his dure,
He mai him sore adreden.
Hunger & thurst, hete & chele,
Ecthe and all unhelthe,
Durh deth com on this midelard,
And other uniselthe.
Ne mai non herte hit ithenche,
Ne no tunge telle,
Hu muchele pinum and hu uele,
Bieth inne helle.
Louie God mid ure hierte,
And mid all ure mihte,
And ure emcristene swo us self,
Swo us lereth drihte."
ANON.: _Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang._, p. 21.
IX. ANGLO-SAXON OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, COMPARED WITH ENGLISH.
60. _Saxon,--11th Century_.[50]
LUCAE, CAP. I.
"5. On Herodes dagum Iudea cynincges, waes sum sacred on naman Zacharias, of
Abian tune: and his wif waes of Aarones dohtrum, and hyre nama waas
Elizabeth.
6. Sothlice hig waeron butu rihtwise beforan Gode, gangende on eallum his
bebodum and rihtwisnessum, butan wrohte.
7. And hig naefdon nan bearn, fortham the Elizabeth waes unberende; and hy on
hyra dagum butu forth-eodun.
8. Sothlice waes geworden tha Zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on his
gewrixles endebyrdnesse beforan Gode,
9. AEfter gewunan thaes sacerdhades hlotes, he eode that he his offrunge
sette, tha he on Godes tempel eode.
10. Eall werod thaes folces waes ute gebiddende on thaere offrunge timan.
11. Tha aetywde him Drihtnes engel standende on thaes weofodes swithran
healfe.
12. Tha weard Zacharias gedrefed that geseonde, and him ege onhreas.
13. Tha cwaeth se engel him to, Ne ondraed thu the Zacharias; fortham thin
ben is gehyred, and thin wif Elizabeth the sunu centh, and thu nemst hys
naman Johannes."--_Saxon Gospels_.
_English.--14th Century_.
LUK, CHAP. I.
"5. In the dayes of Eroude kyng of Judee ther was a prest Zacarye by name,
of the sort of Abia: and his wyf was of the doughtris of Aaron, and hir
name was Elizabeth.
6. And bothe weren juste bifore God, goynge in alle the maundementis and
justifyingis of the Lord, withouten playnt.
7. And thei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn; and bothe weren of
greet age in her dayes.
8. And it befel that whanne Zacarye schould do the office of presthod in
the ordir of his course to fore God,
9. Aftir the custom of the presthood, he wente forth by lot, and entride
into the temple to encensen.
10. And al the multitude of the puple was without forth and preyede in the
our of encensying.
11. And an aungel of the Lord apperide to him, and stood on the right half
of the auter of encense. 12. And Zacarye seyinge was afrayed, and drede fel
upon him.
13. And the aungel sayde to him, Zacarye, drede thou not; for thy preier is
herd, and Elizabeth thi wif schal bere to thee a sone, and his name schal
be clepid Jon."
_Wickliffe's Bible_, 1380.
_English.--17th Century_.
LUKE, CHAP. I.
"5. There was in the days of Herod the king of Judea, a certain priest
named Zacharias, of the course of Abia: and his wife was of the daughters
of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth.
6. And they were both righteous before God, walking in all the commandments
and ordinances of the Lord, blameless.
7. And they had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren; and they both
were now well stricken in years.
8. And it came to pass, that while he executed the priest's office before
God in the order of his course,
9. According to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn
incense when he went into the temple of the Lord.
10. And the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time
of incense.
11. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord, standing on the right
side of the altar of incense.
12. And when Zacharias saw him, he was troubled, and fear fell upon him.
13. But the angel said unto him, Fear not, Zacharias; for thy prayer is
heard, and thy wife Elisabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shall call
his name John."
_Common Bible_, 1610.
See Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, in his Quarto
Dictionary.
X. ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KING ALFRED.
61. Alfred the Great, who was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the
West Saxons, succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred,
in the year 871, being then twenty-two years old. He had scarcely time to
attend the funeral of his brother, before he was called to the field to
defend his country against the Danes. After a reign of more than
twenty-eight years, rendered singularly glorious by great achievements
under difficult circumstances, he died universally lamented, on the 28th of
October, A. D. 900. By this prince the university of Oxford was founded,
and provided with able teachers from the continent. His own great
proficiency in learning, and his earnest efforts for its promotion, form a
striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailed before. "In the ninth
century, throughout the whole kingdom of the West Saxons, no man could be
found who was scholar enough to instruct the young king Alfred, then a
child, even in the first elements of reading: so that he was in his twelfth
year before he could name the letters of the alphabet. When that renowned
prince ascended the throne, he made it his study to draw his people out of
the sloth and stupidity in which they lay; and became, as much by his own
example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men, the great restorer
of arts in his dominions."--_Life of Bacon_.
62. The language of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement: it does
not usually present things in their due proportions. How far the foregoing
quotation is true, I will not pretend to say; but what is called "the
revival of learning," must not be supposed to have begun at so early a
period as that of Alfred. The following is a brief specimen of the language
in which that great man wrote; but, printed in Saxon characters, it would
appear still less like English.
"On thaere tide the Gotan of Siththiu maegthe with Romana rice gewin
upahofon. and mith heora cyningum. Raedgota and Eallerica waeron hatne.
Romane burig abraecon. and eall Italia rice that is betwux tham muntum and
Sicilia tham ealonde in anwald gerehton. and tha aegter tham foresprecenan
cyningum Theodric feng to tham ilcan rice se Theodric waes Amulinga. he wass
Cristen. theah he on tham Arrianiscan gedwolan durhwunode. He gehet Romanum
his freondscype. swa that hi mostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon."--KING
ALFRED: _Johnson's Hist. of E. L., 4to Dict._, p. 17.
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
"Grammatica quid est? ars recte scribendi recteque loquendi; poetarum
enarrationem continens; omnium Scientiarum fons uberrimus. * * * Nostra
aetas parum perita rerum veterum, nimis brevi gyro grammaticum sepsit; at
apud antiques olim tantum auctoritatis hic ordo habuit, ut censores essent
et judices scriptorum omnium soli grammatici; quos ob id etiam Criticos
vocabant."--DESPAUTER. _Praef. ad Synt_, fol. 1.
1. Such is the peculiar power of language, that there is scarcely any
subject so trifling, that it may not thereby be plausibly magnified into
something great; nor are there many things which cannot be ingeniously
disparaged till they shall seem contemptible. Cicero goes further: "Nihil
est tam incredibile quod non dicendo fiat probabile;"--"There is nothing so
incredible that it may not by the power of language be made probable." The
study of grammar has been often overrated, and still oftener injuriously
decried. I shall neither join with those who would lessen in the public
esteem that general system of doctrines, which from time immemorial has
been taught as grammar; nor attempt, either by magnifying its practical
results, or by decking it out with my own imaginings, to invest it with any
artificial or extraneous importance.
2. I shall not follow the footsteps of _Neef_, who avers that, "Grammar and
incongruity are identical things," and who, under pretence of reaching the
same end by better means, scornfully rejects as nonsense every thing that
others have taught under that name; because I am convinced, that, of all
methods of teaching, none goes farther than his, to prove the reproachful
assertion true. Nor shall I imitate the declamation of _Cardell_; who, at
the commencement of his Essay, recommends the general study of language on
earth, from the consideration that, "The faculty of speech is the medium of
social bliss for superior intelligences in an eternal world;" [51] and who,
when he has exhausted censure in condemning the practical instruction of
others, thus lavishes praise, in both his grammars, upon that formless,
void, and incomprehensible theory of his own: "This application of words,"
says he, "in their endless use, by one plain rule, to all things which
nouns can name, instead of being the fit subject of blind cavil, _is the
most sublime theme presented to the intellect on earth. It is the practical
intercourse of the soul at once with its God, and with all parts of his
works!_"--_Cardell's Gram._, 12mo, p. 87; _Gram._, 18mo, p. 49.
3. Here, indeed, a wide prospect opens before us; but he who traces
science, and teaches what is practically useful, must check imagination,
and be content with sober truth.
"For apt the mind or fancy is to rove
Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end."--MILTON.
Restricted within its proper limits, and viewed in its true light, the
practical science of grammar has an intrinsic dignity and merit sufficient
to throw back upon any man who dares openly assail it, the lasting stigma
of folly and self-conceit. It is true, the judgements of men are fallible,
and many opinions are liable to be reversed by better knowledge: but what
has been long established by the unanimous concurrence of the learned, it
can hardly be the part of a wise instructor now to dispute. The literary
reformer who, with the last named gentleman, imagines "that the persons to
whom the civilized world have looked up to for instruction in language were
all wrong alike in the main points," [52] intends no middle course of
reformation, and must needs be a man either of great merit, or of little
modesty.
4. The English language may now be regarded as the common inheritance of
about fifty millions of people; who are at least as highly distinguished
for virtue, intelligence, and enterprise, as any other equal portion of the
earth's population. All these are more or less interested in the purity,
permanency, and right use of that language; inasmuch as it is to be, not
only the medium of mental intercourse with others for them and their
children, but the vehicle of all they value, in the reversion of ancestral
honour, or in the transmission of their own. It is even impertinent, to
tell a man of any respectability, that the study of this his native
language is an object of great importance and interest: if he does not,
from these most obvious considerations, feel it to be so, the suggestion
will be less likely to convince him, than to give offence, as conveying an
implicit censure.
5. Every person who has any ambition to appear respectable among people of
education, whether in conversation, in correspondence, in public speaking,
or in print, must be aware of the absolute necessity of a competent
knowledge of the language in which he attempts to express his thoughts.
Many a ludicrous anecdote is told, of persons venturing to use words of
which they did not know the proper application; many a ridiculous blunder
has been published to the lasting disgrace of the writer; and so intimately
does every man's reputation for sense depend upon his skill in the use of
language, that it is scarcely possible to acquire the one without the
other. Who can tell how much of his own good or ill success, how much of
the favour or disregard with which he himself has been treated, may have
depended upon that skill or deficiency in grammar, of which, as often as he
has either spoken or written, he must have afforded a certain and constant
evidence.[53]
6. I have before said, that to excel in grammar, is but to know better than
others wherein grammatical excellence consists; and, as this excellence,
whether in the thing itself, or in him that attains to it, is merely
comparative, there seems to be no fixed point of perfection beyond which
such learning may not be carried. In speaking or writing to different
persons, and on different subjects, it is necessary to vary one's style
with great nicety of address; and in nothing does true genius more
conspicuously appear, than in the facility with which it adopts the most
appropriate expressions, leaving the critic no fault to expose, no word to
amend. Such facility of course supposes an intimate knowledge of all words
in common use, and also of the principles on which they are to be combined.
7. With a language which we are daily in the practice of hearing, speaking,
reading, and writing, we may certainly acquire no inconsiderable
acquaintance, without the formal study of its rules. All the true
principles of grammar were presumed to be known to the learned, before they
were written for the aid of learners; nor have they acquired any
independent authority, by being recorded in a book, and denominated
grammar. The teaching of them, however, has tended in no small degree to
settle and establish the construction of the language, to improve the style
of our English writers, and to enable us to ascertain with more clearness
the true standard of grammatical purity. He who learns only by rote, may
speak the words or phrases which he has thus acquired; and he who has the
genius to discern intuitively what is regular and proper, may have further
aid from the analogies which he thus discovers; but he who would add to
such acquisitions the satisfaction of knowing what is right, must make the
principles of language his study.
8. To produce an able and elegant writer, may require something more than a
knowledge of grammar rules; yet it is argument enough in favour of those
rules, that without a knowledge of them no elegant and able writer is
produced. Who that considers the infinite number of phrases which words in
their various combinations may form, and the utter impossibility that they
should ever be recognized individually for the purposes of instruction and
criticism, but must see the absolute necessity of dividing words into
classes, and of showing, by general rules of formation and construction,
the laws to which custom commonly subjects them, or from which she allows
them in particular instances to deviate? Grammar, or the art of writing and
speaking, must continue to be learned by some persons; because it is of
indispensable use to society. And the only question is, whether children
and youth shall acquire it by a regular process of study and method of
instruction, or be left to glean it solely from their own occasional
observation of the manner in which other people speak and write.
9. The practical solution of this question belongs chiefly to parents and
guardians. The opinions of teachers, to whose discretion the decision will
sometimes be left, must have a certain degree of influence upon the public
mind; and the popular notions of the age, in respect to the relative value
of different studies, will doubtless bias many to the adoption or the
rejection of this. A consideration of the point seems to be appropriate
here, and I cannot forbear to commend the study to the favour of my
readers; leaving every one, of course, to choose how much he will be
influenced by my advice, example, or arguments. If past experience and the
history of education be taken for guides, the study of English grammar will
not be neglected; and the method of its inculcation will become an object
of particular inquiry and solicitude. The English language ought to be
learned at school or in colleges, as other languages usually are; by the
study of its grammar, accompanied with regular exercises of parsing,
correcting, pointing, and scanning; and by the perusal of some of its most
accurate writers, accompanied with stated exercises in composition and
elocution. In books of criticism, our language is already more abundant
than any other. Some of the best of these the student should peruse, as
soon as he can understand and relish them. Such a course, pursued with
regularity and diligence, will be found the most direct way of acquiring an
English style at once pure, correct, and elegant.
10. If any intelligent man will represent English grammar otherwise than as
one of the most useful branches of study, he may well be suspected of
having formed his conceptions of the science, not from what it really is in
itself, but from some of those miserable treatises which only caricature
the subject, and of which it is rather an advantage to be ignorant. But who
is so destitute of good sense as to deny, that a graceful and easy
conversation in the private circle, a fluent and agreeable delivery in
public speaking, a ready and natural utterance in reading, a pure and
elegant style in composition, are accomplishments of a very high order? And
yet of all these, the proper study of English grammar is the true
foundation. This would never be denied or doubted, if young people did not
find, under some other name, better models and more efficient instruction,
than what was practised on them for grammar in the school-room. No disciple
of an able grammarian can ever speak ill of grammar, unless he belong to
that class of knaves who vilify what they despair to reach.
11. By taking
proper advantage of the ductility of childhood, intelligent parents and
judicious teachers may exercise over the studies, opinions, and habits of
youth a strong and salutary control; and it will seldom be found in
experience, that those who have been early taught to consider grammatical
learning as worthy and manly, will change their opinion in after life. But
the study of grammar is not so enticing that it may be disparaged in the
hearing of the young, without injury. What would be the natural effect of
the following sentence, which I quote from a late well-written religious
homily? "The pedagogue and his dunce may exercise their wits correctly
enough, in the way of grammatical analysis, on some splendid argument, or
burst of eloquence, or thrilling descant, or poetic rapture, to the strain
and soul of which not a fibre in their nature would yield a
vibration."--_New-York Observer_, Vol. ix, p. 73.
12. Would not the bright boy who heard this from the lips of his reverend
minister, be apt the next day to grow weary of the parsing lesson required
by his schoolmaster? And yet what truth is there in the passage? One can no
more judge of the fitness of language, without regard to the meaning
conveyed by it, than of the fitness of a suit of clothes, without knowing
for whom they were intended. The grand clew to the proper application of
all syntactical rules, is _the sense_; and as any composition is faulty
which does not rightly deliver the author's meaning, so every solution of a
word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not
carefully noticed and literally preserved. To parse rightly and fully, is
nothing else than to understand rightly and explain fully; and whatsoever
is well expressed, it is a shame either to misunderstand or to
misinterpret.
13. This study, when properly conducted and liberally pursued, has an
obvious tendency to dignify the whole character. How can he be a man of
refined literary taste, who cannot speak and write his native language
grammatically? And who will deny that every degree of improvement in
literary taste tends to brighten and embellish the whole intellectual
nature? The several powers of the mind are not so many distinct and
separable agents, which are usually brought into exercise one by one; and
even if they were, there might be found, in a judicious prosecution of this
study, a healthful employment for them all. The _imagination_, indeed, has
nothing to do with the elements of grammar; but in the exercise of
composition, young fancy may spread her wings as soon as they are fledged;
and for this exercise the previous course of discipline will have furnished
both language and taste, as well as sentiment.
14. The regular grammatical study of our language is a thing of recent
origin. Fifty or sixty years ago, such an exercise was scarcely attempted
in any of the schools, either in this country or in England.[54] Of this
fact we have abundant evidence both from books, and from the testimony of
our venerable fathers yet living. How often have these presented this as an
apology for their own deficiencies, and endeavoured to excite us to greater
diligence, by contrasting our opportunities with theirs! Is there not
truth, is there not power, in the appeal? And are we not bound to avail
ourselves of the privileges which they have provided, to build upon the
foundations which their wisdom has laid, and to carry forward the work of
improvement? Institutions can do nothing for us, unless the love of
learning preside over and prevail in them. The discipline of our schools
can never approach perfection, till those who conduct, and those who
frequent them, are strongly actuated by that disposition of mind, which
generously aspires to all attainable excellence.
15. To rouse this laudable spirit in the minds of our youth, and to satisfy
its demands whenever it appears, ought to be the leading objects with those
to whom is committed the important business of instruction. A dull teacher,
wasting time in a school-room with a parcel of stupid or indolent boys,
knows nothing of the satisfaction either of doing his own duty, or of
exciting others to the performance of theirs. He settles down in a regular
routine of humdrum exercises, dreading as an inconvenience even such change
as proficiency in his pupils must bring on; and is well content to do
little good for little money, in a profession which he honours with his
services merely to escape starvation. He has, however, one merit: he
pleases his patrons, and is perhaps the only man that can; for they must
needs be of that class to whom moral restraint is tyranny, disobedience to
teachers, as often right as wrong; and who, dreading the expense, even of a
school-book, always judge those things to be cheapest, which cost the least
and last the longest. What such a man, or such a neighbourhood, may think
of English grammar, I shall not stop to ask.
16. To the following opinion from a writer of great merit, I am inclined to
afford room here, because it deserves refutation, and, I am persuaded, is
not so well founded as the generality of the doctrines with which it is
presented to the public. "Since human knowledge is so much more extensive
than the opportunity of individuals for acquiring it, it becomes of the
greatest importance so to economize the opportunity as to make it
subservient to the acquisition of as large and as valuable a portion as we
can. It is not enough to show that a given branch of education is useful:
you must show that it is the most useful that can be selected. Remembering
this, I think it would be expedient to dispense with the formal study of
English grammar,--a proposition which I doubt not many a teacher will hear
with wonder and disapprobation. We learn the grammar in order that we may
learn English; and we learn English whether we study grammars or not.
Especially we _shall_ acquire a competent knowledge of our own language, if
other departments of our education were improved."
17. "A boy learns more English grammar by joining in an hour's conversation
with educated people, than in poring for an hour over Murray or Horne
Tooke. If he is accustomed to such society and to the perusal of
well-written books, he will learn English grammar, though he never sees a
word about syntax; and if he is not accustomed to such society and such
reading, the 'grammar books' at a boarding-school will not teach it. Men
learn their own language by habit, and not by rules: and this is just what
we might expect; for the grammar of a language is itself formed from the
prevalent habits of speech and writing. A compiler of grammar first
observes these habits, and then makes his rules: but if a person is himself
familiar with the habits, why study the rules? I say nothing of grammar as
a general science; because, although the philosophy of language be a
valuable branch of human knowledge, it were idle to expect that school-boys
should understand it. The objection is, to the system of attempting to
teach children formally that which they will learn practically without
teaching."--JONATHAN DYMOND: _Essays on Morality_, p. 195.
18. This opinion, proceeding from a man who has written upon human affairs
with so much ability and practical good sense, is perhaps entitled to as
much respect as any that has ever been urged against the study in question.
And so far as the objection bears upon those defective methods of
instruction which experience has shown to be inefficient, or of little use,
I am in no wise concerned to remove it. The reader of this treatise will
find their faults not only admitted, but to a great extent purposely
exposed; while an attempt is here made, as well as in my earlier grammars,
to introduce a method which it is hoped will better reach the end proposed.
But it may easily be perceived that this author's proposition to dispense
with the formal study of English grammar is founded upon an untenable
assumption. Whatever may be the advantages of those purer habits of speech,
which the young naturally acquire from conversation with educated people,
it is not true, that, without instruction directed to this end, they will
of themselves become so well educated as to speak and write grammatically.
Their language may indeed be comparatively accurate and genteel, because
it is learned of those who have paid some attention to the study; but, as
they cannot always be preserved from hearing vulgar and improper
phraseology, or from seeing it in books, they cannot otherwise be guarded
from improprieties of diction, than by a knowledge of the rules of grammar.
One might easily back this position by the citation of some scores of
faulty sentences from the pen of this very able writer himself.
19. I imagine there can be no mistake in the opinion, that in exact
proportion as the rules of grammar are unknown or neglected in any country,
will corruptions and improprieties of language be there multiplied. The
"general science" of grammar, or "the philosophy of language," the author
seems to exempt, and in some sort to commend; and at the same time his
proposition of exclusion is applied not merely to the school-grammars, but
_a fortiori_ to this science, under the notion that it is unintelligible to
school-boys. But why should any principle of grammar be the less
intelligible on account of the extent of its application? Will a boy
pretend that he cannot understand a rule of English grammar, because he is
told that it holds good in all languages? Ancient etymologies, and other
facts in literary history, must be taken by the young upon the credit of
him who states them; but the doctrines of general grammar are to the
learner the easiest and the most important principles of the science. And I
know of nothing in the true philosophy of language, which, by proper
definitions and examples, may not be made as intelligible to a boy, as are
the principles of most other sciences. The difficulty of instructing youth
in any thing that pertains to language, lies not so much in the fact that
its philosophy is above their comprehension, as in our own ignorance of
certain parts of so vast an inquiry;--in the great multiplicity of verbal
signs; the frequent contrariety of practice; the inadequacy of memory; the
inveteracy of ill habits; and the little interest that is felt when we
speak merely of words.
20. The grammatical study of our language was early and strongly
recommended by Locke,[55] and other writers on education, whose character
gave additional weight to an opinion which they enforced by the clearest
arguments. But either for want of a good grammar, or for lack of teachers
skilled in the subject and sensible of its importance, the general neglect
so long complained of as a grievous imperfection in our methods of
education, has been but recently and partially obviated. "The attainment of
a correct and elegant style," says Dr. Blair, "is an object which demands
application and labour. If any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear,
or acquire it by the slight perusal of some of our good authors, they will
find themselves much disappointed. The many errors, even in point of
grammar, the many offences against purity of language, which are committed
by writers who are far from being contemptible, demonstrate, that a
_careful study_ of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at
writing it properly."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. ix, p. 91.
21. "To think justly, to write well, to speak agreeably, are the three
great ends of academic instruction. The Universities will excuse me, if I
observe, that both are, in one respect or other, defective in these three
capital points of education. While in Cambridge the general application is
turned altogether on speculative knowledge, with little regard to polite
letters, taste, or style; in Oxford the whole attention is directed towards
classical correctness, without any sound foundation laid in severe
reasoning and philosophy. In Cambridge and in Oxford, the art of speaking
agreeably is so far from being taught, that it is hardly talked or thought
of. _These defects_ naturally produce dry unaffecting compositions in the
one; superficial taste and puerile elegance in the other; ungracious or
affected speech in both."--DR. BROWN, 1757: _Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 44.
22. "A grammatical study of our own language makes no part of the ordinary
method of instruction, which we pass through in our childhood; and it is
very seldom we apply ourselves to it afterward. Yet the want of it will not
be effectually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever. Much practice
in the polite world, and a general acquaintance with the best authors, are
good helps; but alone [they] will hardly be sufficient: We have writers,
who have enjoyed these advantages in their full extent, and yet cannot be
recommended as models of an accurate style. Much less then will, what is
commonly called learning, serve the purpose; that is, a critical knowledge
of ancient languages, and much reading of ancient authors: The greatest
critic and most able grammarian of the last age, when he came to apply his
learning and criticism to an English author, was frequently at a loss in
matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own vernacular
idiom."--DR. LOWTH, 1763: _Pref. to Gram._, p. vi.
23. "To the pupils of our public schools the acquisition of their own
language, whenever it is undertaken, is an easy task. For he who is
acquainted with several grammars already, finds no difficulty in adding one
more to the number. And this, no doubt, is one of the reasons why English
engages so small a proportion of their time and attention. It is not
frequently read, and is still less frequently written. Its supposed
facility, however, or some other cause, seems to have drawn upon it such a
degree of neglect as certainly cannot be praised. The students in those
schools are often distinguished by their compositions in the learned
languages, before they can speak or write their own with correctness,
elegance, or fluency. A classical scholar too often has his English style
to form, when he should communicate his acquisitions to the world. In some
instances it is never formed with success; and the defects of his
expression either deter him from appearing before the public at all, or at
least counteract in a great degree the influence of his work, and bring
ridicule upon the author. Surely these evils might easily be prevented or
diminished."--DR. BARROW: _Essays on Education_, London, 1804; Philad.,
1825, p. 87.
24. "It is also said that those who know Latin and Greek generally express
themselves with more clearness than those who do not receive a liberal
education. It is indeed natural that those who cultivate their mental
powers, write with more clearness than the uncultivated individual. The
mental cultivation, however, may take place in the mother tongue as well as
in Latin or Greek. Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is
declared to be superior to that of the modern. I allow this to be the case;
but I do not find that the English style is improved by learning Greek. It
is known that literal translations are miserably bad, and yet young
scholars are taught to translate, word for word, faithful to their
dictionaries. Hence those who do not make a peculiar study of their own
language, will not improve in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and
Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the managers of
one of the first institutions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten
teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the English language, though
they proposed double the salary to the latter? Who can assure us that the
Greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquaintance with foreign
languages; or, is it not obvious, on the other hand, that they learned
ideas and expressed them in their mother tongue?"--DR. SPURZHEIM: _Treatise
on Education_, 1832, p. 107.
25. "Dictionaries were compiled, which comprised all the words, together
with their several definitions, or the sense each one expresses and conveys
to the mind. These words were analyzed and classed according to their
essence, attributes, and functions. Grammar was made a rudiment leading to
the principles of all thoughts, and teaching by simple examples, the
general classification of words and their subdivisions in expressing the
various conceptions of the mind. Grammar is then the key to the perfect
understanding of languages; without which we are left to wander all our
lives in an intricate labyrinth, without being able to trace back again any
part of our way."--_Chazotte's Essay on the Teaching of Languages_, p. 45.
Again: "Had it not been for his dictionary and his grammar, which taught
him the essence of all languages, and the natural subdivision of their
component parts, he might have spent a life as long as Methuselah's, in
learning words, without being able to attain to a degree of perfection in
any of the languages."--_Ib._, p. 50. "Indeed, it is not easy to say, to
what degree, and in how many different ways, both memory and judgement may
be improved by an intimate acquaintance with grammar; which is therefore,
with good reason, made the first and fundamental part of literary
education. The greatest orators, the most elegant scholars, and the most
accomplished men of business, that have appeared in the world, of whom I
need only mention Caesar and Cicero, were not only studious of grammar, but
most learned grammarians."--DR. BEATTIE: _Moral Science_, Vol. i, p. 107.
26. Here, as in many other parts of my work, I have chosen to be liberal of
quotations; not to show my reading, or to save the labour of composition,
but to give the reader the satisfaction of some other authority than my
own. In commending the study of English grammar, I do not mean to
discountenance that degree of attention which in this country is paid to
other languages; but merely to use my feeble influence to carry forward a
work of improvement, which, in my opinion, has been wisely begun, but not
sufficiently sustained. In consequence of this improvement, the study of
grammar, which was once prosecuted chiefly through the medium of the dead
languages, and was regarded as the proper business of those only who were
to be instructed in Latin and Greek, is now thought to be an appropriate
exercise for children in elementary schools. And the sentiment is now
generally admitted, that even those who are afterwards to learn other
languages, may best acquire a knowledge of the common principles of speech
from the grammar of their vernacular tongue. This opinion appears to be
confirmed by that experience which is at once the most satisfactory proof
of what is feasible, and the only proper test of what is useful.
27. It must, however, be confessed, that an acquaintance with ancient and
foreign literature is absolutely necessary for him who would become a
thorough philologist or an accomplished scholar; and that the Latin
language, the source of several of the modern tongues of Europe, being
remarkably regular in its inflections and systematic in its construction,
is in itself the most complete exemplar of the structure of speech, and the
best foundation for the study of grammar in general. But, as the general
principles of grammar are common to all languages, and as the only
successful method of learning them, is, to commit to memory the definitions
and rules which embrace them, it is reasonable to suppose that the language
most intelligible to the learner, is the most suitable for the commencement
of his grammatical studies. A competent knowledge of English grammar is
also in itself a valuable attainment, which is within the easy reach of
many young persons whose situation in life debars them from the pursuit of
general literature.
28. The attention which has lately been given to the culture of the English
language, by some who, in the character of critics or lexicographers, have
laboured purposely to improve it, and by many others who, in various
branches of knowledge, have tastefully adorned it with the works of their
genius, has in a great measure redeemed it from that contempt in which it
was formerly held in the halls of learning. But, as I have before
suggested, it does not yet appear to be sufficiently attended to in the
course of what is called a _liberal education_. Compared with, other
languages, the English exhibits both excellences and defects; but its
flexibility, or power of accommodation to the tastes of different writers,
is great; and when it is used with that mastership which belongs to
learning and genius, it must be acknowledged there are few, if any, to
which it ought on the whole to be considered inferior. But above all, it is
_our own_; and, whatever we may know or think of other tongues, it can
never be either patriotic or wise, for the learned men of the United States
or of England to pride themselves chiefly upon them.
29. Our language is worthy to be assiduously studied by all who reside
where it is spoken, and who have the means and the opportunity to become
critically acquainted with it. To every such student it is vastly more
important to be able to speak and write well in English, than to be
distinguished for proficiency in the learned languages and yet ignorant of
his own. It is certain that many from whom better things might be expected,
are found miserably deficient in this respect. And their neglect of so
desirable an accomplishment is the more remarkable and the more censurable
on account of the facility with which those who are acquainted with the
ancient languages may attain to excellence in their English style.
"Whatever the advantages or defects of the English language be, as it is
our own language, it deserves a high degree of our study and attention. * *
* Whatever knowledge may be acquired by the study of other languages, it
can never be communicated with advantage, unless by such as can write and
speak their own language well."--DR. BLAIR: _Rhetoric_, Lect. ix, p. 91.
30. I am not of opinion that it is expedient to press this study to much
extent, if at all, on those whom poverty or incapacity may have destined to
situations in which they will never hear or think of it afterwards. The
course of nature cannot be controlled; and fortune does not permit us to
prescribe the same course of discipline for all. To speak the language
which they have learned without study, and to read and write for the most
common purposes of life, may be education enough for those who can be
raised no higher. But it must be the desire of every benevolent and
intelligent man, to see the advantages of literary, as well as of moral
culture, extended as far as possible among the people. And it is manifest,
that in proportion as the precepts of the divine Redeemer are obeyed by the
nations that profess his name, will all distinctions arising merely from
the inequality of fortune be lessened or done away, and better
opportunities be offered for the children of indigence to adorn themselves
with the treasures of knowledge.
31. We may not be able to effect all that is desirable; but, favoured as
our country is, with great facilities for carrying forward the work of
improvement, in every thing which can contribute to national glory and
prosperity, I would, in conclusion of this topic, submit--that a critical
knowledge of our common language is a subject worthy of the particular
attention of all who have the genius and the opportunity to attain
it;--that on the purity and propriety with which American authors write
this language, the reputation of our national literature greatly
depends;--that in the preservation of it from all changes which ignorance
may admit or affectation invent, we ought to unite as having one common
interest;--that a fixed and settled orthography is of great importance, as
a means of preserving the etymology, history, and identity of words;--that
a grammar freed from errors and defects, and embracing a complete code of
definitions and illustrations, rules and exercises, is of primary
importance to every student and a great aid to teachers;--that as the vices
of speech as well as of manners are contagious, it becomes those who have
the care of youth, to be masters of the language in its purity and
elegance, and to avoid as much as possible every thing that is
reprehensible either in thought or expression.
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR.
"Quomodo differunt grammaticus et grammatista? Grammaticus est qui
diligenter, acute, scienterque possit aut dicere aut scribere, et poetas
enarrare: idem literatus dicitur. Grammatista est qui barbaris literis
obstrepit, cui abusus pro usu est; Graecis Latinam dat etymologiam, et totus
in nugis est: Latine dicitur literator."--DESPAUTER. _Synt._, fol. 1.
1. It is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear
conviction of the best method of doing a thing, who shall not at first have
acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done. Arts
must be taught by artists; sciences, by learned men; and, if Grammar is the
science of words, the art of writing and speaking well, the best speakers
and writers will be the best teachers of it, if they choose to direct their
attention to so humble an employment. For, without disparagement of the
many worthy men whom choice or necessity has made schoolmasters, it may be
admitted that the low estimation in which school-keeping is commonly held,
does mostly exclude from it the first order of talents, and the highest
acquirements of scholarship. It is one strong proof of this, that we have
heretofore been content to receive our digests of English grammar, either
from men who had had no practical experience in the labours of a
school-room, or from miserable modifiers and abridgers, destitute alike of
learning and of industry, of judgement and of skill.
2. But, to have a correct and adequate notion of English grammar, and of
the best method of learning or teaching it, is no light attainment. The
critical knowledge of this subject lies in no narrow circle of observation;
nor are there any precise limits to possible improvement. The simple
definition in which the general idea of the art is embraced, "Grammar is
the art of writing and speaking correctly," however useful in order to fix
the learner's conception, can scarcely give him a better knowledge of the
thing itself, than he would have of the art of painting, when he had
learned from Dr. Webster, that it is "the art of representing to the eye,
by means of figures and colors, any object of sight, and sometimes emotions
of the mind." The first would no more enable him to write a sonnet, than
the second, to take his master's likeness. The force of this remark extends
to all the technical divisions, definitions, rules, and arrangements of
grammar; the learner may commit them all to memory, and know but very
little about the art.
3. This fact, too frequently illustrated in
practice, has been made the basis of the strongest argument ever raised
against the study of grammar; and has been particularly urged against the
ordinary technical method of teaching it, as if the whole of that laborious
process were useless. It has led some men, even of the highest talents, to
doubt the expediency of that method, under any circumstances, and either to
discountenance the whole matter, or invent other schemes by which they
hoped to be more successful. The utter futility of the old accidence has
been inferred from it, and urged, even in some well-written books, with all
the plausibility of a fair and legitimate deduction. The hardships of
children, compelled to learn what they did not understand, have been
bewailed in prefaces and reviews; incredible things boasted by literary
jugglers, have been believed by men of sense; and the sympathies of nature,
with accumulated prejudices, have been excited against that method of
teaching grammar, which after all will be found in experience to be at once
the easiest, the shortest, and the best. I mean, essentially, the ancient
positive method, which aims directly at the inculcation of principles.
4. It has been already admitted, that definitions and rules committed to
memory and not reduced to practice, will never enable any one to speak and
write correctly. But it does not follow, that to study grammar by learning
its principles, or to teach it technically by formal lessons, is of no real
utility. Surely not. For the same admission must be made with respect to
the definitions and rules of every practical science in the world; and the
technology of grammar is even more essential to a true knowledge of the
subject, than that of almost any other art. "To proceed upon principles at
first," says Dr. Barrow, "is the most compendious method of attaining every
branch of knowledge; and the truths impressed upon the mind in the years of
childhood, are ever afterwards the most firmly remembered, and the most
readily applied."--_Essays_, p. 84. Reading, as I have said, is a part of
grammar; and it is a part which must of course precede what is commonly
called in the schools the study of grammar. Any person who can read, can
learn from a book such simple facts as are within his comprehension; and we
have it on the authority of Dr. Adam, that, "The principles of grammar are
the first abstract truths which a young mind can comprehend."--_Pref. to
Lat. Gram._, p. 4.
5. It is manifest, that, with respect to this branch of knowledge, the
duties of the teacher will vary considerably, according to the age and
attainments of his pupils, or according to each student's ability or
inclination to profit by his printed guide. The business lies partly
between the master and his scholar, and partly between the boy and his
book. Among these it may be partitioned variously, and of course unwisely;
for no general rule can precisely determine for all occasions what may be
expected from each. The deficiencies of any one of the three must either be
supplied by the extraordinary readiness of an other, or the attainment of
the purpose be proportionably imperfect. What one fails to do, must either
be done by an other, or left undone. After much observation, it seems to
me, that the most proper mode of treating this science in schools, is, to
throw the labour of its acquisition almost entirely upon the students; to
require from them very accurate rehearsals as the only condition on which
they shall be listened to; and to refer them to their books for the
information which they need, and in general for the solution of all their
doubts. But then the teacher must see that he does not set them to grope
their way through a wilderness of absurdities. He must know that they have
a book, which not only contains the requisite information, but arranges it
so that every item of it may be readily found. That knowledge may
reasonably be required at their recitations, which culpable negligence
alone could have prevented them from obtaining.
6. Most grammars, and especially those which are designed for the senior
class of students, to whom a well-written book is a sufficient instructor,
contain a large proportion of matter which is merely to be read by the
learner. This is commonly distinguished in type from those more important
doctrines which constitute the frame of the edifice. It is expected that
the latter will receive a greater degree of attention. The only successful
method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and
rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever afterwards
be readily applied. Oral instruction may smoothe the way, and facilitate
the labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent
knowledge of grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal
experience. Nor will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse
definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In
etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small
portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is
rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great
nor difficult; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory
and strengthen all the faculties of the mind.
7. The objection drawn from the alleged inefficiency of this method, lies
solely against the practice of those teachers who disjoin the principles
and the exercises of the art; and who, either through ignorance or
negligence, impose only such tasks as leave the pupil to suppose, that the
committing to memory of definitions and rules, constitutes the whole
business of grammar.[56] Such a method is no less absurd in itself, than
contrary to the practice of the best teachers from the very origin of the
study. The epistle prefixed to King Henry's Grammar almost three centuries
ago, and the very sensible preface to the old British Grammar, an octavo
reprinted at Boston in 1784, give evidence enough that a better method of
teaching has long been known. Nay, in my opinion, the very best method
cannot be essentially different from that which has been longest in use,
and is probably most known. But there is everywhere ample room for
improvement. Perfection was never attained by the most learned of our
ancestors, nor is it found in any of our schemes. English grammar can be
better taught than it is now, or ever has been. Better scholarship would
naturally produce this improvement, and it is easy to suppose a race of
teachers more erudite and more zealous, than either we or they.
8. Where invention and discovery are precluded, there is little room for
novelty. I have not laboured to introduce a system of grammar essentially
new, but to improve the old and free it from abuses. The mode of
instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful
experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities
will find it difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic
method of definition and example, rule and praxis; which no man who means
to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other
more rational or more easy. This book itself will make any one a
grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise what it
teaches; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest means
of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to
instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. A hope is also
indulged, that this work will be particularly useful to many who have
passed the ordinary period allotted to education. Whoever is acquainted
with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in
teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own
instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of
reference. And perhaps there are few, however learned, who, on a perusal of
the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts
which had not before occurred to their own observation.
9. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to
speak or write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should
constantly remember that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well;
an art which can no more be acquired without practice, than that of dancing
or swimming. And each should ever be careful to perform his part
handsomely--without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering,
miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing,
misquoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render
utterance disagreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is
to be improved; and the system will be found well calculated to effect
that object; because it demands of him, not only to answer questions on
grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has
just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, and have learned the art
of attention, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much; and in
general he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however,
carefully superintend their rehearsals; give the word to the next when any
one errs; and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own
voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually correct the ill
habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness,
understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others.
10. Without oral instruction and oral exercises, a correct habit of
speaking our language can never be acquired; but written rules, and
exercises in writing, are perhaps quite as necessary, for the formation of
a good style. All these should therefore be combined in our course of
English grammar. And, in order to accomplish two objects at once, the
written doctrines, or the definitions and rules of grammar, should statedly
be made the subject of a critical exercise in utterance; so that the boy
who is parsing a word, or correcting a sentence, in the hearing of others,
may impressively realize, that he is then and there exhibiting his own
skill or deficiency in oral discourse. Perfect forms of parsing and
correcting should be given him as models, with the understanding that the
text before him is his only guide to their right application. It should be
shown, that in parsing any particular word, or part of speech, there are
just so many things to be said of it, and no more, and that these are to be
said in the best manner: so that whoever tells fewer, omits something
requisite; whoever says more, inserts something irrelevant; and whoever
proceeds otherwise, either blunders in point of fact, or impairs the beauty
of the expression. I rely not upon what are called "_Parsing Tables_" but
upon the precise forms of expression which are given in the book for the
parsing of the several sorts of words. Because the questions, or abstract
directions, which constitute the common parsing tables, are less
intelligible to the learner than a practical example; and more time must
needs be consumed on them, in order to impress upon his memory the number
and the sequence of the facts to be stated.
11. If a pupil happen to be naturally timid, there should certainly be no
austerity of manner to embarrass his diffidence; for no one can speak well,
who feels afraid. But a far more common impediment to the true use of
speech, is carelessness. He who speaks before a school, in an exercise of
this kind, should be made to feel that he is bound by every consideration
of respect for himself, or for those who hear him, to proceed with his
explanation or rehearsal, in a ready, clear, and intelligible manner. It
should be strongly impressed upon him, that the grand object of the whole
business, is his own practical improvement; that a habit of speaking
clearly and agreeably, is itself one half of the great art of grammar; that
to be slow and awkward in parsing, is unpardonable negligence, and a
culpable waste of time; that to commit blunders in rehearsing grammar, is
to speak badly about the art of speaking well; that his recitations must be
limited to such things as he perfectly knows; that he must apply himself to
his book, till he can proceed without mistake; finally, that he must watch
and imitate the utterance of those who speak well, ever taking that for the
best manner, in which there are the fewest things that could be
_mimicked_.[57]
12. The exercise of parsing should be commenced immediately after the first
lesson of etymology--the lesson in which are contained the definitions of
the ten parts of speech; and should be carried on progressively, till it
embraces all the doctrines which are applicable to it. If it be performed
according to the order prescribed in the following work, it will soon make
the student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules
of grammar. It asks no aid from a dictionary, if the performer knows the
meaning of the words he is parsing; and very little from the teacher, if
the forms in the grammar have received any tolerable share of attention. It
requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the
lips are uttering; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant
repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know
what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by
rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy's conversation, and more ease
than a formal recitation, or declamation; and is therefore an exercise well
calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in
ordinary speech--a species of elocution as valuable as any other.[58]
13. Thus would I unite the practice with the theory of grammar;
endeavouring to express its principles with all possible perspicuity,
purity, and propriety of diction; retaining, as necessary parts of the
subject, those technicalities which the pupil must needs learn in order to
understand the disquisitions of grammarians in general; adopting every
important feature of that system of doctrines which appears to have been
longest and most generally taught; rejecting the multitudinous errors and
inconsistencies with which unskillful hands have disgraced the science and
perplexed the schools; remodelling every ancient definition and rule which
it is possible to amend, in respect to style, or grammatical correctness;
supplying the numerous and great deficiencies with which the most
comprehensive treatises published by earlier writers, are chargeable;
adapting the code of instruction to the present state of English
literature, without giving countenance to any innovation not sanctioned by
reputable use; labouring at once to extend and to facilitate the study,
without forgetting the proper limits of the science, or debasing its style
by puerilities.
14. These general views, it is hoped, will be found to have been steadily
adhered to throughout the following work. The author has not deviated much
from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use;
nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design to
introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules.
He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from
time immemorial; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our
tongue. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be
desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can
better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance afford
greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those
doctrines which are already best known; and has contented himself with
attempting little more than to supply the deficiencies of the system, and
to free it from the reproach of being itself ungrammatical. This indeed was
task enough; for, to him, all the performances of his predecessors seemed
meagre and greatly deficient, compared with what he thought needful to be
done. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify
those doctrines anew; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to
offer, on that authority, some further contributions to the stock of
grammatical knowledge.
15. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being
conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published, the
author conceived that the objects above referred to, might be better
effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he
persuades himself, that, however this work may yet fall short of possible
completeness, the improvements here offered are neither few nor
inconsiderable. He does not mean to conceal in any degree his obligations
to others, or to indulge in censure without discrimination. He has no
disposition to depreciate the labours, or to detract from the merits, of
those who have written ably upon this topic. He has studiously endeavoured
to avail himself of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. With a
view to further improvements in the science, he has also resorted to the
original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically
considered what he has seen or heard of our vernacular tongue, but has
sought with some diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of
several other languages. If, therefore, the work now furnished be thought
worthy of preference, as exhibiting the best method of teaching grammar; he
trusts it will be because it deviates least from sound doctrine, while, by
fair criticism upon others, it best supplies the means of choosing
judiciously.
16. Of all methods of teaching grammar, that which has come nearest to what
is recommended above, has doubtless been the most successful; and whatever
objections may have been raised against it, it will probably be found on
examination to be the most analogous to nature. It is analytic in respect
to the doctrines of grammar, synthetic in respect to the practice, and
logical in respect to both. It assumes the language as an object which the
learner is capable of conceiving to be one whole; begins with the
classification of all its words, according to certain grand differences
which make the several parts of speech; then proceeds to divide further,
according to specific differences and qualities, till all the classes,
properties, and relations, of the words in any intelligible sentence,
become obvious and determinate: and he to whom these things are known, so
that he can see at a glance what is the construction of each word, and
whether it is right or not, is a good grammarian. The disposition of the
human mind to generalize the objects of thought, and to follow broad
analogies in the use of words, discovers itself early, and seems to be an
inherent principle of our nature. Hence, in the language of children and
illiterate people, many words are regularly inflected even in opposition to
the most common usage.
17. It has unfortunately become fashionable to inveigh against the
necessary labour of learning by heart the essential principles of grammar,
as a useless and intolerable drudgery. And this notion, with the vain hope
of effecting the same purpose in an easier way, is giving countenance to
modes of teaching well calculated to make superficial scholars. When those
principles are properly defined, disposed, and exemplified, the labour of
learning them is far less than has been represented; and the habits of
application induced by such a method of studying grammar, are of the utmost
importance to the learner. Experience shows, that the task may be achieved
during the years of childhood; and that, by an early habit of study, the
memory is so improved, as to render those exercises easy and familiar,
which, at a later period, would be found very difficult and irksome. Upon
this plan, and perhaps upon every other, some words will be learned before
the ideas represented by them are fully comprehended, or the things spoken
of are fully understood. But this seems necessarily to arise from the order
of nature in the development of the mental faculties; and an acquisition
cannot be lightly esteemed, which has signally augmented and improved that
faculty on which the pupil's future progress in knowledge depends.
18. The memory, indeed, should never be cultivated at the expense of the
understanding; as is the case, when the former is tasked with ill-devised
lessons by which the latter is misled and bewildered. But truth, whether
fully comprehended or not, has no perplexing inconsistencies. And it is
manifest that that which does not in some respect surpass the
understanding, can never enlighten it--can never awaken the spirit of
inquiry or satisfy research. How often have men of observation profited by
the remembrance of words which, at the time they heard them, they did not
"_perfectly understand!_" We never study any thing of which we imagine our
knowledge to be perfect. To learn, and, to understand, are, with respect to
any science or art, one and the same thing. With respect to difficult or
unintelligible phraseology alone, are they different. He who by study has
once stored his memory with the sound and appropriate language of any
important doctrine, can never, without some folly or conceit akin to
madness, repent of the acquisition. Milton, in his academy, professed to
teach things rather than words; and many others have made plausible
profession of the same thing since. But it does not appear, that even in
the hands of Milton, the attempt was crowned with any remarkable success.
See _Dr. Barrow's Essays_, p. 85.
19. The vain pretensions of several
modern simplifiers, contrivers of machines, charts, tables, diagrams,
vincula, pictures, dialogues, familiar lectures, ocular analyses, tabular
compendiums, inductive exercises, productive systems, intellectual methods,
and various new theories, for the purpose of teaching grammar, may serve to
deceive the ignorant, to amuse the visionary, and to excite the admiration
of the credulous; but none of these things has any favourable relation to
that improvement which may justly be boasted as having taken place within
the memory of the present generation. The definitions and rules which
constitute the doctrines of grammar, may be variously expressed, arranged,
illustrated, and applied; and in the expression, arrangement, illustration,
and application of them, there may be room for some amendment; but no
contrivance can ever relieve the pupil from the necessity of committing
them thoroughly to memory. The experience of all antiquity is added to our
own, in confirmation of this; and the judicious teacher, though he will not
shut his eyes to a real improvement, will be cautious of renouncing the
practical lessons of hoary experience, for the futile notions of a vain
projector.
20. Some have been beguiled with the idea, that great proficiency in
grammar was to be made by means of a certain fanciful method of
_induction._ But if the scheme does not communicate to those who are
instructed by it, a better knowledge of grammar than the contrivers
themselves seem to have possessed, it will be found of little use.[59] By
the happy method of Bacon, to lead philosophy into the common walks of
life, into the ordinary business and language of men, is to improve the
condition of humanity; but, in teaching grammar, to desert the plain
didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis, and pretend to
lead children by philosophic induction into a knowledge of words, is to
throw down the ladder of learning, that boys may imagine themselves to
ascend it, while they are merely stilting over the low level upon which its
fragments are cast.
21. The chief argument of these inductive grammarians is founded on the
principle, that children cannot be instructed by means of any words which
they do not perfectly understand. If this principle were strictly true,
children could never be instructed by words at all. For no child ever fully
understands a word the first time he hears or sees it; and it is rather by
frequent repetition and use, than by any other process, that the meaning of
words is commonly learned. Hence most people make use of many terms which
they cannot very accurately explain, just as they do of many _things_, the
real nature of which they do not comprehend. The first perception we have
of any word, or other thing, when presented to the ear or the eye, gives us
some knowledge of it. So, to the signs of thought, as older persons use
them, we soon attach some notion of what is meant; and the difference
between this knowledge, and that which we call an understanding of the word
or thing, is, for the most part, only in degree. Definitions and
explanations are doubtless highly useful, but induction is not definition,
and an understanding of words may be acquired without either; else no man
could ever have made a dictionary. But, granting the principle to be true,
it makes nothing for this puerile method of induction; because the regular
process by definitions and examples is both shorter and easier, as well as
more effectual. In a word, this whole scheme of inductive grammar is
nothing else than a series of _leading_ questions and _manufactured_
answers; the former being generally as unfair as the latter are silly. It
is a remarkable tissue of ill-laid premises and of forced illogical
sequences.
22. Of a similar character is a certain work, entitled, "English Grammar on
the _Productive System_: a method of instruction recently adopted in
Germany and Switzerland." It is a work which certainly will be
"_productive_" of no good to any body but the author and his publishers.
The book is as destitute of taste, as of method; of authority, as of
originality. It commences with "the _inductive_ process," and after forty
pages of such matter as is described above, becomes a "_productive_
system," by means of a misnamed "RECAPITULATION;" which jumbles together
the etymology and the syntax of the language, through seventy-six pages
more. It is then made still more "_productive_" by the appropriation of a
like space to a reprint of Murray's Syntax and Exercises, under the
inappropriate title, "GENERAL OBSERVATIONS." To Prosody, including
punctuation and the use of capitals, there are allotted six pages, at the
end; and to Orthography, four lines, in the middle of the volume! (See p.
41.) It is but just, to regard the _title_ of this book, as being at once a
libel and a lie; a libel upon the learning and good sense of
Woodbridge;[60] and a practical lie, as conveying a false notion of the
origin of what the volume contains.
23. What there is in Germany or Switzerland, that bears _any resemblance_
to this misnamed system of English Grammar, remains to be shown. It would
be prodigal of the reader's time, and inconsistent with the studied brevity
of this work, to expose the fallacy of what is pretended in regard to the
origin of this new method. Suffice it to say, that the anonymous and
questionable account of the "Productive System of Instruction," which the
author has borrowed from a "valuable periodical," to save himself the
trouble of writing a preface, and, as he says, to "_assist_ [the reader] in
forming an opinion of the comparative merits of _the system_" is not only
destitute of all authority, but is totally irrelevant, except to the
whimsical _name_ of his book. If every word of it be true, it is
insufficient to give us even the slightest reason to suppose, that any
thing analogous to his production ever had existence in either of those
countries; and yet it is set forth on purpose to convey the idea that such
a system "_now predominates_" in the schools of both. (See _Pref._, p. 5.)
The infidel _Neef_, whose new method of education has been tried in our
country, and with its promulgator forgot, was an accredited disciple of
this boasted "productive school;" a zealous coadjutor with Pestalozzi
himself, from whose halls he emanated to "teach the offspring of a free
people"--to teach them the nature of things sensible, and a contempt for
all the wisdom of _books_. And what similarity is there between his method
of teaching and that of _Roswell C. Smith_, except their pretence to a
common parentage, and that both are worthless?
24. The success of Smith's Inductive and Productive Grammars, and the fame
perhaps of a certain "Grammar in Familiar Lectures," produced in 1836 a
rival work from the hands of a gentleman in New Hampshire, entitled, "An
Analytical Grammar of the English Language, embracing the _Inductive and
Productive Methods of Teaching_, with _Familiar Explanations in the Lecture
Style_" &c. This is a fair-looking duodecimo volume of three hundred pages,
the character and pretensions of which, if they could be clearly stated,
would throw further light upon the two fallacious schemes of teaching
mentioned above. For the writer says, "This grammar professes _to combine_
both the _Inductive_ and _Productive_ methods of imparting instruction, of
which much has been said within a few years _past_"--_Preface_, p. iv. And
again: "The inductive and productive methods of instruction contain the
essence of modern improvements."--_Gram._, p. 139. In what these modern
improvements consist, he does not inform us; but, it will be seen, that he
himself claims the _copyright_ of _all_ the improvements which he allows to
_English grammar_ since the appearance of Murray in 1795. More than two
hundred pretenders to such improvements, appear however within the time;
nor is the grammarian of Holdgate the least positive of the claimants. This
new purveyor for the public taste, dislikes the catering of his
predecessor, who poached in the fields of Murray; and, with a tacit censure
upon _his productions_, has _honestly bought_ the rareties which he has
served up. In this he has the advantage. He is a better writer too than
some who make grammars; though no adept at composition, and a total
stranger to method. To call his work a "_system_" is a palpable misnomer;
to tell what it is, an impossibility. It is a grammatical chaos, bearing
such a resemblance to Smith's or Kirkham's as one mass of confusion
naturally bears to an other, yet differing from both in almost every thing
that looks like order in any of the three.
25. The claimant of the combination says, "this new system of English
grammar now offered to the public, embraces _the principles_ of a
'Systematic Introduction to English Grammar,' by John L. Parkhurst; and the
_present author_ is indebted to Mr. Parkhurst for a knowledge of _the
manner_ of applying the principles involved in _his peculiar method_ of
teaching grammatical science. He is also under obligations to Mr.
Parkhurst for many useful hints received several years since while under
his instruction.--The _copy right_ of Parkhurst's Grammar has been
purchased by the writer of this, who alone is responsible for the present
application of _its definitions._ Parkhurst's Systematic Introduction to
English Grammar has passed through two editions, and is _the first improved
system_ of English grammar that has appeared before the public _since the
first introduction_ of Lindley Murray's English Grammar."--_Sanborn's
Gram., Preface_, p. iii. What, then, is "THE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM?" and with
whom did it originate? The thousands of gross blunders committed by its
professors, prove at least that it is no system of writing grammatically;
and, whether it originated with Parkhurst or with Pestalozzi, with Sanborn
or with Smith, as it is confessedly a method but "recently adopted," and,
so far as appears, never fairly tested, so is it a method that needs only
to be _known_, to be immediately and forever exploded.
26. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest
facility and skill in practice; and grammar is best taught by that process
which brings its doctrines most directly home to the habits as well as to
the thoughts of the pupil--which the most effectually conquers inattention,
and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering ignorance. In the
language of some men, there is a vividness, an energy, a power of
expression, which penetrates even the soul of dullness, and leaves an
impression both of words unknown and of sentiments unfelt before. Such men
can teach; but he who kindly or indolently accommodates himself to
ignorance, shall never be greatly instrumental in removing it. "The
colloquial barbarisms of boys," says Dr. Barrow, "should never be suffered
to pass without notice and censure. Provincial tones and accents, and all
defects in articulation, should be corrected whenever they are heard; lest
they grow into established habits, unknown, from their familiarity, to him
who is guilty of them, and adopted by others, from the imitation of his
manner, or their respect for his authority."--_Barrow's Essays on
Education_, p. 88.
27. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater
importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in
general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of
instruction, is the practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular
and logical forms of argument; nor does this appear to have been more ably
directed towards the purposes of discipline. There is so much to be done,
in order to effect what is desirable in the management of these things; and
so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just
appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to
habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the
science at the present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the
author cannot but sympathize, in some degree, with the sadness of the
learned Sanctius; who tells us, that he had "always lamented, and often
with tears, that while other branches of learning were excellently taught,
grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much neglected, and
that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy."--_Pref. to
Minerva_. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the
moral; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following
exclamation of the Christian poet:
"Sacred Interpreter of human thought,
How few respect or use thee as they ought!"--COWPER.
28. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and
the unthinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable
book, which can attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness
the true meaning of words, raise vulgarity from its fondness for low
examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, and
cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers
themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may be
effected by means of better books, if better can be introduced. And what
withstands?--Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the
premises. And is it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this,
as well as to many a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, _Multa non
sunt sicut multis videntur_--Many things are not as they seem to many.
Common errors are apt to conceal themselves from the common mind; and the
appeal to reason and just authority is often frustrated, because a wrong
head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficulties:
multiplicity perplexes choice; inconvenience attends change; improvement
requires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles of
the science are unprofitably disputed; the end is often divorced from the
means; and much that belies the title, has been published under the name.
29. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for
the important exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly
written or so negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of
our juvenile orators, little else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray
evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used
with his grammar; but he made the examples in the former so dull and
prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series
agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume,
has probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his
grammar without them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author
furnishes, are also misplaced; and when found by the learner, are of little
use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil
must be either a dull boy or utterly ignorant of grammar, if he cannot
express the facts extemporaneously in better English. They are also very
meagre as a whole, and altogether inadequate to their purpose; many things
that frequently occur in the language, not being at all exemplified in
them, or even explained in the grammar itself. When we consider how
exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school should proceed
without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, each
pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully,
we cannot think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be
repeated, are so badly written. Nor does the objection lie against this
writer only: "_Ab uno disce omnes_." But the reader may demand some
illustrations.[61]
30. First--from his etymological parsing: "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!"
Here his form for the word _Virtue_ is--"_Virtue_ is a _common substantive,
of_ the _neuter_ gender, _of the third_ person, _in the_ singular number,
_and the_ nominative case."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 2. It
should have been--"_Virtue_ is a common _noun_, personified _proper_, of
the _second_ person, singular number, _feminine_ gender, and nominative
case." And then the definitions of all these things should have followed in
regular numerical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong, for virtue
addressed becomes an individual; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct
contradiction to what he says of the word in his section on gender; he
gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun _thou_, which
represents it; he repeats the definite article three times unnecessarily,
and inserts two needless prepositions, making them different where the
relation is precisely the same: and all this, in a sentence of two lines,
to tell the properties of the noun _Virtue!_--But further: in etymological
parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech,
ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them
become perfectly familiar; and till he can discern, with the quickness of
thought, what alone will be true for the full description of any word in
any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits; and, on account of
this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is, miserably
deficient.[62]
31. Secondly--from his syntactical parsing: "_Vice_ degrades us." Here his
form for the word _Vice_ is--"_Vice_ is a common substantive, _of_ the
third person, _in the_ singular number, _and the_ nominative
case."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 9. Now, when the learner is told
that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the
etymological, he will of course conclude, that to advance from the
etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely, _to omit the
gender_--this being the only difference between the two forms. But even
this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in
preparing his octavo book of exercises--the gender being inserted in the
duodecimo. And what then? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be
precisely the same as the etymological? Never. But Murray, and all who
admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by
halves--making, or pretending to make, a necessary distinction, and yet
often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, every thing which
constitutes the difference. He should here have said--"_Vice_ is a common
noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative
case: and is the subject of _degrades_; according to the rule which says,
'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the
nominative case.' Because the meaning is--_vice degrades_." This is the
whole description of the word, with its construction; and to say less, is
to leave the matter unfinished.
32. Thirdly--from his "Mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences:"
Take his first example: "The man is prudent which speaks little." (How far
silence is prudence, depends upon circumstances: I waive that question.)
The learner is here taught to say, "This sentence is incorrect; because
_which_ is a pronoun _of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender_
with its antecedent _man_, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree
with its antecedent in gender, &c. according to the fifth rule of syntax.
_Which_ should _therefore_ be _who_, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its
antecedent _man_; and the sentence should stand thus: 'The man is prudent
_who_ speaks little.'"--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, Vol. ii, p. 18;
_Exercises_, 12mo, p. xii. Again: "'After I visited Europe, I returned to
America.' This sentence," says Murray, "_is not correct_; because the verb
_visited_ is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an
action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb
_returned_, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, when
verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of
time should be observed. The imperfect tense _visited_ should therefore
have been _had visited_, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action
of _visiting_, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of
_returning_. _The sentence corrected would stand thus_: 'After I _had
visited_ Europe, I returned to America.'"--_Gr._, ii, p. 19; _and Ex._
12mo, p. xii. These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal
corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, in his _improved,
recopy-righted edition_ of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the
argumentation palpably false! In the former, truly, _which_ should be
_who_; but not because _which_ is "of the _neuter gender_;" but because the
application of that relative to _persons_, is now nearly obsolete. Can any
grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we
commonly use _which_, and never _who_? But if _which_ must needs be
_neuter_, the world is wrong in this.--As for the latter example, it is
right as it stands; and the correction is, in some sort, tautological. The
conjunctive adverb _after_ makes one of the actions subsequent to the
other, and gives to the _visiting_ all the priority that is signified by
the pluperfect tense. "_After_ I _visited_ Europe," is equivalent to
"_When_ I _had visited_ Europe." The whole argument is therefore void.[63]
33. These few brief illustrations, out of thousands that might be adduced
in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has
reluctantly introduced, to show that even in the most popular books, with
all the pretended improvements of revisers, the grammar of our language has
never been treated with that care and ability which its importance demands.
It is hardly to be supposed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be
qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours.
Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in respect to grammar,
the consciousness of failure is constantly inducing changes from one system
to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly
to end in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an
experienced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may
approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance
which they require.
34. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They
consist of details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no
embellishment. A writer may express them with neatness and
perspicuity--their importance alone can commend them to notice. Yet, in
drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian may
select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy
sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples
have been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the
following pages. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the
utmost importance, it is especially incumbent on all those who are
endeavouring to confer the benefits of intellectual culture, to guard
against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may have an
improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they
instruct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been
solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most
delicate and scrupulous reader; and of the several thousands of quotations
introduced for the illustration or application of the principles of the
science, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on
account of the sentiments they contain.
35. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The
author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality which are
to be commended in works of this sort. What these are, according to his
view, he has sufficiently explained in a preceding chapter. And, though he
has taken the liberty of a grammarian, to think for himself and write in a
style of his own, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him
in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of
that authority which gives law to language. In criticising the critics and
grammatists of the schools, he has taken them upon their own
ground--showing their errors, for the most part, in contrast with the
common principles which they themselves have taught; and has hoped to
escape censure, in his turn, not by sheltering himself under the name of a
popular master, but by a diligence which should secure to his writings at
least the humble merit of self-consistency. His progress in composing this
work has been slow, and not unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst
the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises already
before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a
subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and
explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the
most compatible with his ultimate object--the production of a work which
should show, both extensively and accurately, what is, and what is not,
good English.
36. The great art of meritorious authorship lies chiefly in the
condensation of much valuable thought into few words. Although the author
has here allowed himself ampler room than before, he has still been no less
careful to store it with such information as he trusted would prevent the
ingenious reader from wishing its compass less. He has compressed into this
volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials in comparison with
which the book is still exceedingly small. The effort to do this, has
greatly multiplied his own labour and long delayed the promised
publication; but in proportion as this object has been reached, the time
and patience of the student must have been saved. Adequate compensation for
this long toil, has never been expected. Whether from this performance any
profit shall accrue to the author or not, is a matter of little
consequence; he has neither written for bread, nor on the credit of its
proceeds built castles in the air. His ambition was, to make an acceptable
book, by which the higher class of students might be thoroughly instructed,
and in which the eyes of the critical would find little to condemn. He is
too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the
precarious fortune of authors, to indulge in any confident anticipations of
extraordinary success: yet he will not deny that his hopes are large, being
conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which
cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a
thorough perusal of these pages.
37. A grammar should speak for itself. In a work of this nature, every word
or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and
taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet
if some small errors shall have escaped detection, let it be recollected
that it is almost impossible to compose and print, with perfect accuracy, a
work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed,
remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance
which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness sometimes
elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject; but there
is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason
alluring. "Quo difficilius, hoc praeclarius," says Cicero; "The more
difficult, the more honourable." The merit of casting up a high-way in a
rugged land, is proportionate not merely to the utility of the achievement,
but to the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome. The difficulties
encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome and the deep
impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the
author a fondness for grammar; circumstances having since favoured this
turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity
which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense.
CHAPTER X.
OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS.
"Scientiam autem nusquam esse censebant, nisi in animi motionibus atque
rationibus: qua de causa _definitiones_ rerum probabant, et has ad omnia,
de quibus disceptabatur, adhibebant."--CICERONIS _Academica_, Lib. i, 9.
1. "The first and highest philosophy," says Puffendorf, "is that which
delivers the most accurate and comprehensive _definitions_ of things." Had
all the writers on English grammar been adepts in this philosophy, there
would have been much less complaint of the difficulty and uncertainty of
the study. "It is easy," says Murray, "to advance plausible objections
against almost every definition, rule, and arrangement of
grammar."--_Gram._, 8vo, p. 59. But, if this is true, as regards his, or
any other work, the reason, I am persuaded, is far less inherent in the
nature of the subject than many have supposed.[64] Objectionable
definitions and rules are but evidences of the ignorance and incapacity of
him who frames them. And if the science of grammar has been so unskillfully
treated that almost all its positions may be plausibly impugned, it is time
for some attempt at a reformation of the code. The language is before us,
and he who knows most about it, can best prescribe the rules which we ought
to observe in the use of it. But how can we expect children to deduce from
a few particulars an accurate notion of general principles and their
exceptions, where learned doctors have so often faltered? Let the abettors
of grammatical "_induction_" answer.
2. Nor let it be supposed a light
matter to prescribe with certainty the principles of grammar. For, what is
requisite to the performance? To know certainly, in the first place, what
is the _best usage_. Nor is this all. Sense and memory must be keen, and
tempered to retain their edge and hold, in spite of any difficulties which
the subject may present. To understand things exactly as they are; to
discern the differences by which they may be distinguished, and the
resemblances by which they ought to be classified; to know, through the
proper evidences of truth, that our ideas, or conceptions, are rightly
conformable to the nature, properties, and relations, of the objects of
which we think; to see how that which is complex may be resolved into its
elements, and that which is simple may enter into combination; to observe
how that which is consequent may be traced to its cause, and that which is
regular be taught by rule; to learn from the custom of speech the proper
connexion between words and ideas, so as to give to the former a just
application, to the latter an adequate expression, and to things a just
description; to have that penetration which discerns what terms, ideas, or
things, are definable, and therefore capable of being taught, and what must
be left to the teaching of nature: these are the essential qualifications
for him who would form good definitions; these are the elements of that
accuracy and comprehensiveness of thought, to which allusion has been made,
and which are characteristic of "the first and highest philosophy."
3. Again, with reference to the cultivation of the mind, I would add: To
observe accurately the appearances of things, and the significations of
words; to learn first principles first, and proceed onward in such a manner
that every new truth may help to enlighten and strengthen the
understanding; and thus to comprehend gradually, according to our capacity,
whatsoever may be brought within the scope of human intellect:--to do these
things, I say, is, to ascend by sure steps, so far as we may, from the
simplest elements of science--which, in fact, are our own, original,
undefinable notices of things--towards the very topmost height of human
wisdom and knowledge. The ancient saying, that truth lies hid, or in the
bottom of a well, must not be taken without qualification; for "the first
and highest philosophy" has many principles which even a child may
understand. These several suggestions, the first of which the Baron de
Puffendorf thought not unworthy to introduce his great work on the Law of
Nature and of Nations, the reader, if he please, may bear in mind, as he
peruses the following digest of the laws and usages of speech.
4. "Definitions," says Duncan, in his Elements of Logic, "are intended to
make known the meaning of words standing for _complex ideas_;[65] and were
we always careful to form those ideas exactly in our minds, and copy our
definitions from that appearance, much of the confusion and obscurity
complained of in languages might be prevented."--P. 70. Again he says: "The
writings of the mathematicians are a clear proof, how much the advancement
of human knowledge depends upon a right use of definitions."--P. 72.
Mathematical science has been supposed to be, in its own nature, that which
is best calculated to develop and strengthen the reasoning faculty; but, as
speech is emphatically _the discourse of reason_, I am persuaded, that had
the grammarians been equally clear and logical in their instructions, their
science would never have been accounted inferior in this respect. Grammar
is perhaps the most comprehensive of all studies; but it is chiefly owing
to the unskillfulness of instructors, and to the errors and defects of the
systems in use, that it is commonly regarded as the most dry and difficult.
5. "Poor Scaliger (who well knew what a definition should be) from his own
melancholy experience exclaimed--'_Nihil infelicius grammatico
definitore!_' Nothing is more unhappy than the grammatical
definer."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 238. Nor do our later teachers
appear to have been more fortunate in this matter. A majority of all the
definitions and rules contained in the great multitude of English grammars
which I have examined, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. The nature
of their multitudinous faults, I must in general leave to the discernment
of the reader, except the passages be such as may be suitably selected for
examples of false syntax. Enough, however, will be exhibited, in the course
of this volume, to make the foregoing allegation credible; and of the rest
a more accurate judgement may perhaps be formed, when they shall have been
compared with what this work will present as substitutes. The importance of
giving correct definitions to philological terms, and of stating with
perfect accuracy whatsoever is to be learned as doctrine, has never been
duly appreciated. The grand source of the disheartening difficulties
encountered by boys in the study of grammar, lies in their ignorance of the
meaning of words. This cause of embarrassment is not to be shunned and left
untouched; but, as far as possible, it ought to be removed. In teaching
grammar, or indeed any other science, we cannot avoid the use of many terms
to which young learners may have attached no ideas. Being little inclined
or accustomed to reflection, they often hear, read, or even rehearse from
memory, the plainest language that can be uttered, and yet have no very
distinct apprehension of what it means. What marvel then, that in a study
abounding with terms taken in a peculiar or technical sense, many of which,
in the common manuals, are either left undefined, or are explained but
loosely or erroneously, they should often be greatly puzzled, and sometimes
totally discouraged?
6. _Simple ideas_ are derived, not from teaching, but from sensation or
consciousness; but _complex ideas_, or the notions which we have of such
things as consist of various parts, or such as stand in any known
relations, are definable. A person can have no better definition of _heat_,
or of _motion_, than what he will naturally get by _moving_ towards a
_fire_. Not so of our complex or general ideas, which constitute science.
The proper objects of scientific instruction consist in those genuine
perceptions of pure mind, which form the true meaning of generic names, or
common nouns; and he who is properly qualified to teach, can for the most
part readily tell what should be understood by such words. But are not many
teachers too careless here? For instance: a boy commencing the process of
calculation, is first told, that, "Arithmetic is the art of computing by
numbers," which sentence he partly understands; but should he ask his
teacher, "What is a _number_, in arithmetic?" what answer will he get? Were
Goold Brown so asked, he would simply say, "_A number, in arithmetic, is an
expression that tells how many_;" for every expression that tells how many,
is a number in arithmetic, and nothing else is. But as no such definition
is contained in _the books_,[66] there are ten chances to one, that, simple
as the matter is, the readiest master you shall find, will give an
erroneous answer. Suppose the teacher should say, "That is a question which
I have not thought of; turn to your dictionary." The boy reads from Dr.
Webster: "NUMBER--the designation of a unit in reference to other units, or
in reckoning, counting, enumerating."--"Yes," replies the master, "that is
it; Dr. Webster is unrivalled in giving definitions." Now, has the boy been
instructed, or only puzzled? Can he conceive how the number _five_ can be a
_unit_? or how the word _five_, the figure 5, or the numeral letter V, is
"the designation of a _unit_?" He knows that each of these is a number, and
that the oral monosyllable _five_ is the same number, in an other form; but
is still as much at a loss for a proper answer to his question, as if he
had never seen either schoolmaster or dictionary. So is it with a vast
number of the simplest things in grammar.
7. Since what we denominate scientific terms, are seldom, if ever, such as
stand for ideas simple and undefinable; and since many of those which
represent general ideas, or classes of objects, may be made to stand for
more or fewer things, according to the author's notion of classification;
it is sufficiently manifest that the only process by which instruction can
effectually reach the understanding of the pupil and remove the
difficulties spoken of, is that of delivering accurate definitions. These
are requisite for the information and direction of the learner; and these
must be thoroughly impressed upon his mind, as the only means by which he
can know exactly how much and what he is to understand by our words. The
power which we possess, of making known all our complex or general ideas of
things by means of definitions, is a faculty wisely contrived in the nature
of language, for the increase and spread of science; and, in the hands of
the skillful, it is of vast avail to these ends. It is "the first and
highest philosophy," instructing mankind, to think clearly and speak
accurately; as well as to know definitely, in the unity and permanence of a
general nature, those things which never could be known or spoken of as the
individuals of an infinite and fleeting multitude.
8. And, without contradiction, the shortest and most successful way of
teaching the young mind to distinguish things according to their proper
differences, and to name or describe them aright, is, to tell in direct
terms what they severally are. Cicero intimates that all instruction
appealing to reason ought to proceed in this manner: "Omnis enim quse a
ratione suscipitur de re aliqua institutio, debet a _definitione_
proficisci, ut intelligatur quid sit id, de quo disputetur."--_Off_. Lib.
i, p. 4. Literally thus: "For all instruction which from reason is
undertaken concerning any thing, ought to proceed from a _definition_, that
it may be understood what the thing is, about which the speaker is
arguing." Little advantage, however, will be derived from any definition,
which is not, as Quintilian would have it, "Lucida et succincta rei
descriptio,"--"a clear and brief description of the thing."
9. Let it here be observed that scientific definitions are of _things_, and
not merely of _words_; or if equally of words _and_ things, they are rather
of nouns than of the other parts of speech. For a definition, in the proper
sense of the term, consists not in a mere change or explanation of the
verbal sign, but in a direct and true answer to the question, What is such
or such a thing? In respect to its extent, it must with equal exactness
include every thing which comes under the name, and exclude every thing
which does not come under the name: then will it perfectly serve the
purpose for which it is intended. To furnish such definitions, (as I have
suggested,) is work for those who are capable of great accuracy both of
thought and expression. Those who would qualify themselves for teaching any
particular branch of knowledge, should make it their first concern to
acquire clear and accurate ideas of all things that ought to be embraced in
their instructions. These ideas are to be gained, either by contemplation
upon the things themselves as they are presented naturally, or by the study
of those books in which they are rationally and clearly explained. Nor will
such study ever be irksome to him whose generous desire after knowledge, is
thus deservedly gratified.
10. But it must be understood, that although scientific definitions are
said to be _of things_, they are not copied immediately from the real
essence of the things, but are formed from the conceptions of the author's
mind concerning that essence. Hence, as Duncan justly remarks, "A mistaken
idea never fails to occasion a mistake also in the definition." Hence, too,
the common distinction of the logicians, between definitions of the _name_
and definitions of the _thing_, seems to have little or no foundation. The
former term they applied to those definitions which describe the objects of
pure intellection, such as triangles, and other geometrical figures; the
latter, to those which define objects actually existing in external nature.
The mathematical definitions, so noted for their certainty and
completeness, have been supposed to have some peculiar preeminence, as
belonging to the former class. But, in fact the idea of a triangle exists
as substantively in the mind, as that of a tree, if not indeed more so; and
if I define these two objects, my description will, in either case, be
equally a definition both of the name and of the thing; but in neither, is
it copied from any thing else than that notion which I have conceived, of
the common properties of all triangles or of all trees.
11. Infinitives, and some other terms not called nouns, may be taken
abstractly or substantively, so as to admit of what may be considered a
regular definition; thus the question, "What is it _to read?_" is nearly
the same as, "What is _reading?_" "What is it _to be wise?_" is little
different from, "What is _wisdom?_" and a true answer might be, in either
case, a true definition. Nor are those mere translations or explanations of
words, with which our dictionaries and vocabularies abound, to be dispensed
with in teaching: they prepare the student to read various authors with
facility, and furnish him with a better choice of terms, when he attempts
to write. And in making such choice, let him remember, that as affectation
of _hard_ words makes composition ridiculous, so the affectation of _easy_
and _common_ ones may make it unmanly. But not to digress. With respect to
grammar, we must sometimes content ourselves with such explications of its
customary terms, as cannot claim to be perfect definitions; for the most
common and familiar things are not always those which it is the most easy
to define. When Dr. Johnson was asked, "What is _poetry_?" he replied,
"Why, sir, it is easier to tell what it is not. We all know what _light_
is: but it is not easy _to tell what it is_."--_Boswell's Life of Johnson_,
Vol. iii, p. 402. This was thought by the biographer to have been well and
ingeniously said.
12. But whenever we encounter difficulties of this sort, it may be worth
while to seek for their _cause_. If we find it, the understanding is no
longer puzzled. Dr. Johnson seemed to his biographer, to show, by this
ready answer, the acuteness of his wit and discernment. But did not the wit
consist in adroitly excusing himself, by an illusory comparison? What
analogy is there between the things which he compares? Of the difficulty of
defining _poetry_, and the difficulty of defining _light_, the reasons are
as different as are the two things themselves, _poetry_ and _light_. The
former is something so various and complex that it is hard to distinguish
its essence from its accidents; the latter presents an idea so perfectly
simple and unique that all men conceive of it exactly in the same way,
while none can show wherein it essentially consists. But is it true, that,
"We all know _what light is_?" Is it not rather true, that we know nothing
at all about it, but what it is just as easy to tell as to think? We know
it is that reflexible medium which enables us to see; and this is
definition enough for all but the natively blind, to whom no definition
perhaps can ever convey an adequate notion of its use in respect to sight.
13. If a person cannot tell what a thing is, it is commonly considered to
be a fair inference, that he does not know. Will any grammarian say, "I
know well enough what the thing is, but I cannot tell?" Yet, taken upon
this common principle, the authors of our English grammars, (if in framing
their definitions they have not been grossly wanting to themselves in the
exercise of their own art,) may be charged, I think, with great ignorance,
or great indistinctness of apprehension; and that, too, in relation to many
things among the very simplest elements of their science. For example: Is
it not a disgrace to a man of letters, to be unable to tell accurately what
a letter is? Yet to say, with Lowth, Murray, Churchill, and a hundred
others of inferior name, that, "_A letter_ is _the first principle_ or
_least part_ of a word," is to utter what is neither good English nor true
doctrine. The two articles _a_ and _the_ are here inconsistent with each
other. "_A_ letter" is _one_ letter, _any_ letter; but "_the first
principle_ of a word" is, surely, not one or any principle taken
_indefinitely_. Equivocal as the phrase is, it must mean either _some
particular principle_, or some particular _first_ principle, of a word;
and, taken either way, the assertion is false. For it is manifest, that in
_no sense_ can we affirm of _each_ of the letters of a word, that it is
"_the first principle_" of that word. Take, for instance, the word _man_.
Is _m_ the first principle of this word? You may answer, "Yes; for it is
the first _letter_." Is _a_ the first principle? "No; it is the _second_."
But _n_ too is a letter; and is _n_ the first principle? "No; it is the
_last_!" This grammatical error might have been avoided by saying,
"_Letters_ are the first principles, or least parts, of words." But still
the definition would not be true, nor would it answer the question, What is
a letter? The true answer to which is: "A letter is an alphabetic
_character_, which commonly represents some elementary sound of human
articulation, or speech."
14. This true definition sufficiently
distinguishes letters from the marks used in punctuation, because the
latter are not alphabetic, and they represent silence, rather than sound;
and also from the Arabic figures used for numbers, because these are no
part of any alphabet, and they represent certain entire words, no one of
which consists only of one letter, or of a single element of articulation.
The same may be said of all the characters used for abbreviation; as, & for
_and_, $ for _dollars_, or the marks peculiar to mathematicians, to
astronomers, to druggists, &c. None of these are alphabetic, and they
represent significant words, and not single elementary sounds: it would be
great dullness, to assume that a word and an elementary sound are one and
the same thing. But the reader will observe that this definition embraces
_no idea_ contained in the faulty one to which I am objecting; neither
indeed could it, without a blunder. So wide from the mark is that notion of
a letter, which the popularity of Dr. Lowth and his copyists has made a
hundred-fold more common than any other![67] According to an other
erroneous definition given by these same gentlemen, "_Words_ are articulate
_sounds_, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 22; _Kirkham's_, 20; _Ingersoll's_, 7; _Alger's_, 12;
_Russell's_, 7; _Merchant's_, 9; _Fisk's_, 11; _Greenleaf's_, 20; and many
others. See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 6; from which almost all authors have taken
the notion, that words consist of "_sounds_" only. But letters are no
principles or parts of _sounds_ at all; unless you will either have visible
marks to be sounds, or the sign to be a principle or part of the thing
signified. Nor are they always principles or parts of _words_: we sometimes
write what is _not a word_; as when, by letters, we denote pronunciation
alone, or imitate brute voices. If words were formed of articulate sounds
only, they could not exist in books, or be in any wise known to the deaf
and dumb. These two primary definitions, then, are both false; and, taken
together, they involve the absurdity of dividing things acknowledged to be
indivisible. In utterance, we cannot divide consonants from their vowels;
on paper, we can. Hence letters are the least parts of written language
only; but the least parts of spoken words are syllables, and not letters.
Every definition of a consonant implies this.
15. They who cannot define a letter or a word, may be expected to err in
explaining other grammatical terms. In my opinion, nothing is well written,
that can possibly be misunderstood; and if any definition be likely to
_suggest_ a wrong idea, this alone is enough to condemn it: nor does it
justify the phraseology, to say, that a more reasonable construction can be
put upon it. By Murray and others, the young learner is told, that, "A
_vowel_ is an articulate _sound_, that can be perfectly _uttered by
itself_;" as if a vowel were nothing but a sound, and that a sort of echo,
which can _utter itself_; and next, that, "A _consonant_ is an articulate
_sound_, which cannot be perfectly uttered _without the help of_ a vowel."
Now, by their own showing, every letter is either a vowel or a consonant;
hence, according to these definitions, all the letters are articulate
_sounds_. And, if so, what is a "silent letter?" It is a _silent articulate
sound!_ Again: ask a boy, "What is a _triphthong?_" He answers in the words
of Murray, Weld, Pond, Smith, Adams, Kirkham, Merchant, Ingersoll, Bacon,
Alger, Worcester, and others: "A triphthong is the union of three vowels,
_pronounced in like manner_: as _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view." He
accurately cites an entire paragraph from his grammar, but does he well
conceive how the three vowels in _beau_ or _view_ are "pronounced _in like
manner?_" Again: "A _syllable_ is a _sound_, either simple or _compound_,
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p.
22. This definition resolves syllables into _sounds_; whereas their true
elements are _letters_. It also mistakes the participle _compounded_ for
the adjective _compound_; whereas the latter only is the true reverse of
_simple_. A _compound sound_ is a sound composed of others which may be
separated; a _sound compounded_ is properly that which is made an
ingredient with others, but which may itself be simple.
16. It is observable, that in their attempts to explain these prime
elements of grammar, Murray, and many others who have copied him, overlook
all _written_ language; whereas their very science itself took its origin,
name, and nature, from the invention of writing; and has consequently no
bearing upon any dialect which has not been written. Their definitions
absurdly resolve letters, vowels, consonants, syllables, and words, all
into _sounds_; as if none of these things had any existence on paper, or
any significance to those who read in silence. Hence, their explanations
of all these elements, as well as of many other things equally essential to
the study, are palpably erroneous. I attribute this to the carelessness
with which men have compiled or made up books of grammar; and that
carelessness to those various circumstances, already described, which have
left diligence in a grammarian no hope of praise or reward. Without
alluding here to my own books, no one being obliged to accuse himself, I
doubt whether we have any school grammar that is much less objectionable in
this respect, than Murray's; and yet I am greatly mistaken, if nine tenths
of all the definitions in Murray's system are not faulty. "It was this sort
of definitions, which made _Scaliger_ say, _'Nihil infelicius definitore
grammatico_.'"--See _Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 351; also _Paragraph_ 5th,
above.
17. Nor can this objection be neutralized by saying, it is a mere matter of
opinion--a mere prejudice originating in rivalry. For, though we have ample
choice of terms, and may frequently assign to particular words a meaning
and an explanation which are in some degree arbitrary; yet whenever we
attempt to define things under the name which custom has positively fixed
upon them, we are no longer left to arbitrary explications; but are bound
to think and to say that only which shall commend itself to the
understanding of others, as being altogether true to nature. When a word is
well understood to denote a particular object or class of objects, the
definition of it ought to be in strict conformity to what is known of the
real being and properties of the thing or things contemplated. A definition
of this kind is a proposition susceptible of proof and illustration; and
therefore whatsoever is erroneously assumed to be the proper meaning of
such a term, may be refuted. But those persons who take every thing upon
trust, and choose both to learn and to teach mechanically, often become so
slavishly habituated to the peculiar phraseology of their text-books, that,
be the absurdity of a particular expression what it may, they can neither
discover nor suspect any inaccuracy in it. It is also very natural even for
minds more independent and acute, to regard with some reverence whatsoever
was gravely impressed upon them in childhood. Hence the necessity that all
school-books should proceed from skillful hands. Instruction should tell
things as they are, and never falter through negligence.
18. I have admitted that definitions are not the only means by which a
general knowledge of the import of language may be acquired; nor are they
the only means by which the acquisition of such knowledge may be aided. To
exhibit or point out _things_ and tell their names, constitutes a large
part of that instruction by which the meaning of words is conveyed to the
young mind; and, in many cases, a mere change or apposition of terms may
sufficiently explain our idea. But when we would guard against the
possibility of misapprehension, and show precisely what is meant by a word,
we must fairly define it. There are, however, in every language, many words
which do not admit of a formal definition. The import of all definitive and
connecting particles must be learned from usage, translation, or
derivation; and nature reserves to herself the power of explaining the
objects of our simple original perceptions. "All words standing for complex
ideas are definable; but those by which we denote simple ideas, are not.
For the perceptions of this latter class, having no other entrance into the
mind, than by sensation or reflection, can be acquired only by
experience."--_Duncan's Logic_, p. 63. "And thus we see, that as our simple
ideas are the materials and foundation of knowledge, so the names of simple
ideas may be considered as the elementary parts of language, beyond which
we cannot trace the meaning and signification of words. When we come to
them, we suppose the ideas for which they stand to be already known; or, if
they are not, experience alone must be consulted, and not definitions or
explications."--_Ibid._, p. 69.
19. But this is no apology for the defectiveness of any definition which
might be made correct, or for the effectiveness of our English grammars, in
the frequent omission of all explanation, and the more frequent adoption of
some indirect form of expression. It is often much easier to make some
loose observation upon what is meant by a given word or term in science,
than to frame a faultless definition of the thing; because it is easier to
refer to some of the relations, qualities, offices, or attributes of
things, than to discern wherein their essence consists, so as to be able to
tell directly and clearly what they are. The improvement of our grammatical
code in this respect, was one of the principal objects which I thought it
needful to attempt, when I first took up the pen as a grammarian. I cannot
pretend to have seen, of course, every definition and rule which has been
published on this subject; but, if I do not misjudge a service too humble
for boasting, I have myself framed a greater number of new or improved
ones, than all other English grammarians together. And not a few of them
have, since their first publication in 1823, been complimented to a place
in other grammars than my own. This is in good keeping with the authorship
which has been spoken of in an other chapter; but I am constrained to say,
it affords no proof that they were well written. If it did, the definitions
and rules in Murray's grammar must undoubtedly be thought the most correct
that ever have been given: they have been more frequently copied than any
others.
20. But I have ventured to suggest, that nine tenths of this author's
definitions are bad, or at least susceptible of some amendment. If this can
be shown to the satisfaction of the reader, will he hope to find an other
English grammar in which the eye of criticism may not detect errors and
deficiencies with the same ease? My object is, to enforce attention to the
proprieties of speech; and this is the very purpose of all grammar. To
exhibit here all Murray's definitions, with criticisms upon them, would
detain us too long. We must therefore be content to take a part of them as
a sample. And, not to be accused of fixing only upon the worst, we will
take a _series_. Let us then consider in their order his definitions of the
nine parts of speech;--for, calling the participle a verb, he reduces the
sorts of words to that number. And though not one of his nine definitions
now stands exactly as it did in his early editions, I think it may be said,
that not one of them is now, if it ever has been, expressed grammatically.
21. FIRST DEFINITION:--"An Article is a word _prefixed_ to substantives,
_to point them out_, and to show how far their[68] signification
extends."--_Murray, and others, from, Lowth's Gram._, p. 10. This is
obscure. In what manner, or in what respect, does an article point out
substantives? To point them out _as such_, or to show which words are
substantives, seems at first view to be the meaning intended; but it is
said soon after, "_A_ or _an_ is used in a vague sense, to _point out_ one
single _thing_ of the kind, in other respects _indeterminate_; as, 'Give me
_a_ book;' 'Bring me _an_ apple.'"--_Lowth_, p. 11; _Murray_, p. 31. And
again: "It is _of the nature_ of both the articles to determine or limit
_the thing_ spoken of."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 170. Now to point out
_nouns_ among the parts of speech, and to point out _things_ as individuals
of their class, are very different matters; and which of these is the
purpose for which articles are used, according to Lowth and Murray? Their
definition says the former, their explanations imply the latter; and I am
unable to determine which they really meant. The term _placed before_ would
have been better than "_prefixed_;" because the latter commonly implies
junction, as well as location. The word "_indeterminate_" is not a very
easy one for a boy; and, when he has found out what it means, he may
possibly not know to which of the four preceding nouns it ought to be
referred:--"in a vague _sense_, to point out one single _thing_ of the
_kind_, in other _respects_ indeterminate." What is this "vague sense?" and
what is it, that is "indeterminate?"
22. SECOND DEFINITION:--"A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing
_that_ exists, or of _which_ we have any notion."--_Murray, and others_.
According to his own syntax, this sentence of Murray's is wrong; for he
himself suggests, that when two or more relative clauses refer to the same
antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each. Of clauses connected
like these, this is true. He should therefore have said, "A Substantive, or
Noun, is the name of any thing _which_ exists, or of _which_ we have any
notion." His rule, however, though good against a text like this, is
utterly wrong in regard to many others, and not very accurate in taking
_two_ for a "_series_" thus: "Whatever relative is used, in one of a
_series_ of clauses relating to the same antecedent, the same relative
ought, generally to be used in _them all_. In the following sentence, _this
rule is violated_: 'It is remarkable, that Holland, against _which_ the war
was undertaken, and _that_, in the very beginning, was reduced to the
brink of destruction, lost nothing.' The clause ought to have been, 'and
_which_ in the very beginning.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 155. But both
the rule and the example, badly as they correspond, were borrowed from
Priestley's Grammar, p. 102, where the text stands thus: "Whatever relative
_be_ used, in one of a _series_ of clauses, relating to the same
antecedent, the same ought to be used in _them all_. 'It is remarkable,
that Holland,'" &c.
23. THIRD DEFINITION:--"An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to
express _its_ quality."--_Lowth, Murray, Bullions, Pond, and others_. Here
we have the choice of two meanings; but neither of them is according to
truth. It seems doubtful whether "_its_ quality" is the _adjective's_
quality, or the _substantive's_; but in either sense, the phrase is false;
for an adjective is added to a noun, not to express any quality either of
the adjective or of the noun, but to express some quality of the _thing
signified_ by the noun. But the definition is too much restricted; for
adjectives may be added to pronouns as well as to nouns, nor do they always
express _quality_.
24. FOURTH DEFINITION:--"A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to
_avoid the too frequent_ repetition of _the same word_."--_Dr. Ash's
Gram._, p. 25; _Murray's_, 28 and 50; _Felton's_, 18; _Alger's_, 13;
_Bacon's_, 10; _and others_. The latter part of this sentence is needless,
and also contains several errors. 1. The verb _avoid_ is certainly very
ill-chosen; because it implies intelligent agency, and not that which is
merely instrumental. 2. The article _the_ is misemployed for _a_; for,
"_the_ too frequent repetition," should mean _some particular_ too frequent
repetition--an idea not intended here, and in itself not far from
absurdity. 3. The phrase, "_the same word_" may apply to the pronoun itself
as well as to the noun: in saying, "_I_ came, _I_ saw, _I_ conquered,"
there is as frequent a repetition of _the same word_, as in saying,
"_Caesar_ came, _Caesar_ saw, _Caesar_ conquered." If, therefore, the latter
part of this definition must be retained, the whole should be written thus:
"A Pronoun is a word used _in stead_ of a noun, to _prevent_ too frequent
_a_ repetition of _it_."
25. FIFTH DEFINITION:--"A Verb is a word which signifies _to be, to do_, or
_to suffer_"--_Lowth, Murray, and others_. NOTE:--"A verb may generally be
distinguished by _its making sense_ with any of the personal pronouns, or
the word _to_ before it."--_Murray, and others_. It is confessedly
difficult to give a perfect definition of a _verb_; and if, with Murray, we
will have the participles to be verbs, there must be no small difficulty in
forming one that shall be tolerable. Against the foregoing old explanation,
it may be objected, that the phrase _to suffer_, being now understood in a
more limited sense than formerly, does not well express the nature or
import of a passive verb. I have said, "A Verb is a word that signifies _to
be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_." Children cannot readily understand,
how every thing that is in any way _acted upon_, may be said _to suffer_.
The participle, I think, should be taken as a distinct part of speech, and
have its own definition. The note added by Murray to his definition of a
verb, would prove the participle not to be included in this part of speech,
and thus practically contradict his scheme. It is also objectionable in
respect to construction. The phrase "_by its making sense_" is at least
very questionable English; for "_its making_" supposes _making_ to be a
noun, and "_making sense_" supposes it to be an active participle. But
Lowth says, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its own
construction." Nay, the author himself, though he therein contradicts an
other note of his own, virtually condemns the phrase, by his caution to the
learner against treating words in _ing_, "as if they were of an _amphibious
species_, partly nouns and partly verbs."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 193.
26. SIXTH DEFINITION:--"_An_ Adverb is _a part of speech joined_ to a verb,
an adjective, _and sometimes to_ another adverb, to express some _quality_
or _circumstance_ respecting _it_."--_Murray's Gram._, pp. 28 and 114. See
_Dr. Ash's Gram._, p. 47. This definition contains many errors; some of
which are gross blunders. 1. The first word, "_An_," is erroneously put for
_The: an_ adverb is _one_ adverb, not the whole class; and, if, "_An_
adverb is a part of speech," any and every adverb is a _part of speech_;
then, how many parts of speech are there? 2. The word "_joined_" is not
well chosen; for, with the exception of _not_ in _cannot_, the adverb is
very rarely _joined_ to the word to which it relates. 3. The want of a
comma before _joined_, perverts the construction; for the phrase, "_speech
joined_ to a verb," is nonsense; and to suppose _joined_ to relate to the
noun _part_, is not much better. 4. The word "_and_" should be _or_;
because no adverb is ever added to three or four different terms at once.
5. The word "_sometimes_" should be omitted; because it is needless, and
because it is inconsistent with the only conjunction which will make the
definition true. 6. The preposition "_to_" should either be inserted before
"_an adjective_," or suppressed before the term which follows; for when
several words occur in the same construction, uniformity of expression is
desirable. 7. For the same reason, (if custom may be thus far conformed to
analogy,) the article "_an_" ought, in cases like this, if not always, to
be separated from the word _other_; thus, "An adverb is a word added to _a_
verb, _a_ participle, _an_ adjective, or _an_ other adverb." Were the eye
not familiar with it, _another_ would be thought as irregular as
_theother_. 8. The word "_quality_" is wrong; for no adverb ever expresses
any _quality_, as such; qualities are expressed by _adjectives_, and never,
in any direct manner, by adverbs. 9. The "_circumstances_" which we express
by adverbs never belong to the _words_, as this definition avers that they
do, but always to the _actions_ or _qualities_ which the words signify. 10.
The pronoun _it_, according to Murray's second rule of syntax, ought to be
_them_, and so it stands in his own early editions; but if _and_ be changed
to _or_, as I have said it should be, the pronoun _it_ will be right.
27. SEVENTH DEFINITION:--"Prepositions serve to connect words with _one
another_, and to show the relation _between them_."--_Lowth, Murray, and
others_. This is only an observation, not a definition, as it ought to have
been; nor does it at all distinguish the preposition from the conjunction.
It does not reach the thing in question. Besides, it contains an actual
solecism in the expression. The word "_between_" implies but _two_ things;
and the phrase "_one another_" is not applicable where there are but two.
It should be, "to connect words with _each other_, and to show the
_relation between_ them;"--or else, "to connect words with _one an other_,
and to show the _relations among_ them." But the latter mode of expression
would not apply to prepositions considered severally, but only to the whole
class.
28. EIGHTH DEFINITION:--"A Conjunction is _a part of speech_ that is
_chiefly_ used to connect sentences; so as, out of two _or more_ sentences,
to make but one: it sometimes connects only words."--_Murray, and others_.
Here are more than thirty words, awkwardly and loosely strung together; and
all that is said in them, might be much better expressed in half the
number. For example: "A Conjunction is a word which connects other terms,
and commonly of two sentences makes but one." But verbosity and want of
unity are not the worst faults of this definition. We have three others to
point out. 1. "A conjunction is" not "_a part of speech_;" because _a_
conjunction is _one_ conjunction, and a part of speech is a whole class, or
sort, of words. A similar error was noticed in Murray's definition of an
adverb; and so common has this blunder become, that by a comparison of the
definitions which different authors have given of the parts of speech,
probably it will be found, that, by some hand or other, every one of the
ten has been commenced in this way. 2. The words "_or more_" are erroneous,
and ought to be omitted; for no one conjunction can connect more than two
terms, in that consecutive order which the sense requires. Three or more
simple sentences may indeed form a compound sentence; but, as they cannot
be joined in a _cluster_, they must have two or more connectives. 3. The
last clause erroneously suggests, that any or every conjunction "_sometimes
connects only words_;" but the conjunctions which may connect only words,
are not more than five, whereas those which connect only sentences are four
times as many.
29. NINTH DEFINITION:--"Interjections are words _thrown in between the
parts of a sentence_, to express the passions or emotions of the _speaker_;
as, 'O Virtue! how amiable thou art!'"--_Murray, and many others_. This
definition, which has been copied from grammar to grammar, and committed to
memory millions of times, is obviously erroneous, and directly contradicted
by the example. Interjections, though often enough thrown in between the
parts of a _discourse_, are very rarely "thrown in between the parts of a
_sentence_." They more frequently occur at the beginning of a sentence than
any where else; and, in such cases, they do not come under this narrow
definition. The author, at the head of his chapter on interjections,
appends to this definition two other examples; both of which contradict it
in like manner: "_Oh_! I have alienated my friend."--"_Alas_! I fear for
life." Again: Interjections are used occasionally, in _written_, as well as
in _oral_ discourse; nor are they less indicative of the emotions of the
_writer_, than of those "of the _speaker_."
30. I have thus exhibited, with all intentional fairness of criticism, the
entire series of these nine primary definitions; and the reader may judge
whether they sustain the praises which have been bestowed on the book,[69]
or confirm the allegations which I have made against it. He will understand
that my design is, here, as well as in the body of this work, to teach
grammar practically, by _rectifying_, so far as I may, all sorts of
mistakes either in it or respecting it; to compose a book which, by a
condensed exposition of such errors as are commonly found in other
grammars, will at once show the need we have of a better, and be itself a
fit substitute for the principal treatises which it censures. Grammatical
errors are universally considered to be small game for critics. They must
therefore be very closely grouped together, to be worth their room in this
work. Of the tens of thousands who have learned for grammar a multitude of
ungrammatical definitions and rules, comparatively few will ever know what
I have to say of their acquisitions. But this I cannot help. To the readers
of the present volume it is due, that its averments should be clearly
illustrated by particular examples; and it is reasonable that these should
be taken from the most accredited sources, whether they do honour to their
framers or not. My argument is only made so much the stronger, as the works
which furnish its proofs, are the more esteemed, the more praised, or the
more overrated.
31. Murray tells us, "There is no necessary connexion between words and
ideas."--_Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 139. Though this, as I before observed,
is not altogether true, he doubtless had very good reason to distinguish,
in his teaching, "between _the sign_ and _the thing signified_." Yet, in
his own definitions and explanations, he frequently _confounds_ these very
things which he declares to be so widely different as not even to have a
"necessary connexion." Errors of this kind are very common in all our
English grammars. Two instances occur in the following sentence; which also
contains an error in doctrine, and is moreover obscure, or rather, in its
literal sense, palpably absurd: "To substantives belong gender, number, and
case; and _they_ are _all of_ the third person _when spoken of_, and of the
second person _when spoken to_."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 38; _Alger's
Murray_, 16; _Merchant's_, 23; _Bacon's_, 12; _Maltby's_, 12; _Lyon's_, 7;
_Guy's_, 4; _Ingersoll's_, 26; _S. Putnam's_, 13; _T. H. Miller's_, 17;
_Rev. T. Smith's_, 13. Who, but a child taught by language like this, would
ever think of _speaking to a noun_? or, that a noun of the second person
_could not be spoken of_? or, that a noun cannot be put in the _first
person_, so as to agree with _I_ or _we_? Murray himself once taught, that,
"Pronouns _must always agree_ with their antecedents, _and_ the nouns for
which they stand, in gender, number, and _person_;" and he departed from a
true and important principle of syntax, when he altered his rule to its
present form. But I have said that the sentence above is obscure, or its
meaning absurd. What does the pronoun "_they_" represent? "_Substantives_,"
according to the author's intent; but "_gender, number_, and _case_,"
according to the obvious construction of the words. Let us try a parallel:"
To scriveners belong pen, ink, and paper; and _they_ are all of primary
importance when there is occasion to use them, and of none at all when they
are not needed." Now, if this sentence is _obscure_, the other is not less
so; but, if this is perfectly _clear_, so that what is said is obviously
and only what is intended, then it is equally clear, that what is said in
the former, is gross absurdity, and that the words cannot reasonably be
construed into the sense which the writer, and his copyists, designed.
32. All Murray's grammars, not excepting the two volumes octavo, are as
_incomplete_ as they are _inaccurate_; being deficient in many things which
are of so great importance that they should not be excluded from the very
smallest epitome. For example: On the subject of the _numbers_, he
attempted but one definition, and that is a fourfold solecism. Ho speaks of
the _persons_, but gives neither definitions nor explanations. In treating
of the _genders_, he gives but one formal definition. His section on the
_cases_ contains no regular definition. On the _comparison_ of adjectives,
and on the _moods_ and _tenses_ of verbs, he is also satisfied with a very
loose mode of teaching. The work as a whole exhibits more industry than
literary taste, more benevolence of heart than distinctness of
apprehension; and, like all its kindred and progeny, fails to give to the
principles of grammar that degree of clearness of which they are easily
susceptible. The student does not know this, but he feels the effects of
it, in the obscurity of his own views on the subject, and in the conscious
uncertainty with which he applies those principles. In grammar, the terms
_person, number, gender, case, mood, tense_, and many others, are used in a
technical and peculiar sense; and, in all scientific works, the sense of
technical terms should be clearly and precisely defined. Nothing can be
gained by substituting other names of modern invention; for these also
would need definitions as much as the old. We want to know the things
themselves, and what they are most appropriately called. We want a book
which will tell us, in proper order, and in the plainest manner, what all
the elements of the science are.
33. What does he know of grammar, who cannot directly and properly answer
such questions as these?--"What are numbers, in grammar? What is the
singular number? What is the plural number? What are persons, in grammar?
What is the first person? What is the second person? What is the third
person? What are genders, in grammar? What is the masculine gender? What is
the feminine gender? What is the neuter gender? What are cases, in grammar?
What is the nominative case? What is the possessive case? What is the
objective case?"--And yet the most complete acquaintance with every
sentence or word of Murray's tedious compilation, may leave the student at
a loss for a proper answer, not only to each of these questions, but also
to many others equally simple and elementary! A boy may learn by heart all
that Murray ever published on the subject of grammar, and still be left to
confound the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic, or the persons
in grammar with persons in civil life! Nay, there are among the professed
_improvers_ of this system of grammar, _men_ who have actually confounded
these things, which are so totally different in their natures! In "Smith's
New Grammar on the Productive System," a work in which Murray is largely
copied and strangely metamorphosed, there is an abundance of such
confusion. For instance: "What is the meaning of the word _number_? Number
means _a sum that may be counted_."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._, p. 7. From
this, by a tissue of half a dozen similar absurdities, called _inductions_,
the novice is brought to the conclusion that the numbers are _two_--as if
there were in nature but two sums that might be counted! There is no end to
the sickening detail of such blunders. How many grammars tell us, that,
"The first person is the _person who speaks_;" that, "The second person is
the _person spoken to_;" and that, "the third person is the _person spoken
of_!" As if the three persons of a verb, or other part of speech, were so
many _intelligent beings_! As if, by exhibiting a word in the three
persons, (as _go, goest, goes_,) we put it first _into the speaker_, then
_into the hearer_, and then _into somebody else_! Nothing can be more
abhorrent to grammar, or to sense, than such confusion. The things which
are identified in each of these three definitions, are as unlike as
Socrates and moonshine! The one is a thinking being; the other, a mere form
peculiar to certain words. But Chandler, of Philadelphia, ("the Grammar
King," forsooth!) without mistaking the grammatical persons for rational
souls, has contrived to crowd into his definition of _person_ more errors
of conception and of language,--more insult to common sense,--than one
could have believed it possible to put together in such space. And this
ridiculous old twaddle, after six and twenty years, he has deliberately
re-written and lately republished as something "adapted to the schools of
America." It stands thus: "_Person is a distinction which is made in a noun
between its representation of its object, either as spoken to, or spoken
of_."--Chandler's E. Grammar; Edition of 1821, p. 16; Ed. 1847, p. 21.
34. Grammarians have often failed in their definitions, because it is
impossible to define certain terms in the way in which the description has
been commonly attempted. He who undertakes what is impossible must
necessarily fail; and fail too, to the discredit of his ingenuity. It is
manifest that whenever a generic name in the singular number is to be
defined, the definition must be founded upon some property or properties
common to all the particular things included under the term. Thus, if I
would define a _globe_, a _wheel_, or a _pyramid_, my description must be
taken, not from what is peculiar to one or an other of these things, but
from those properties only which are common to all globes, all wheels, or
all pyramids. But what property has _unity_ in common with _plurality_, on
which a definition of _number_ may be founded? What common property have
the _three cases_, by which we can clearly define _case_? What have the
_three persons_ in common, which, in a definition of _person_, could be
made evident to a child? Thus all the great classes of grammatical
modifications, namely, _persons, numbers, genders, cases, moods_, and
_tenses_, though they admit of easy, accurate, and obvious definitions in
the plural, can scarcely be defined at all in the singular. I do not say,
that the terms _person, number, gender, case, mood_, and _tense_, ia their
technical application to grammar, are all of them equally and absolutely
undefinable in the singular; but I say, that no definition, just in sense
and suitable for a child, can ever be framed for any one of them. Among the
thousand varied attempts of grammarians to explain them so, there are a
hundred gross solecisms for every tolerable definition. For this, as I have
shown, there is a very simple reason in the nature of the things.
35. But this reason, as well as many other truths equally important and
equally clear, our common grammarians, have, so far as I know, every man of
them, overlooked. Consequently, even when they were aiming at the right
thing, they frequently fell into gross errors of expression; and, what is
still more surprising, such errors have been entailed upon the very art of
grammar, and the art of authorship itself, by the prevalence of an absurd
notion, that modern writers on this subject can be meritorious authors
without originality. Hence many a school-boy is daily rehearsing from his
grammar-book what he might well be ashamed to have written. For example,
the following definition from Murray's grammar, is found in perhaps a dozen
other compends, all professing to teach the art of speaking and writing
with propriety: "_Number_ is the _consideration of an object_, as _one_ or
_more_." [70] Yet this short sentence, as I have before suggested, is a
fourfold solecism. _First_, the word "_number_" is wrong; because those
modifications of language, which distinguish unity and plurality, cannot be
jointly signified by it. _Secondly_, the word "_consideration_" is wrong;
because _number_ is not _consideration_, in any sense which can be put upon
the terms: _condition, constitution, configuration_, or any other word
beginning with _con_, would have done just as well. _Thirdly_, "the
consideration of _an_ object as _one_," is but idle waste of thought; for,
that one thing is one,--that _an_ object is _one_ object,--every child
knows by _intuition_, and not by "_consideration_." _Lastly_, to consider
"_an_ object as _more_" than one, is impossible; unless this admirable
definition lead us into a misconception in so plain a case! So much for the
art of "the grammatical definer."
36. Many other examples, equally faulty and equally common, might, be
quoted and criticised for the further proof and illustration of what I have
alleged. But the reader will perhaps judge the foregoing to be sufficient.
I have wished to be brief, and yet to give my arguments, and the neglected
facts upon which they rest, their proper force upon the mind. Against such
prejudices as may possibly arise from the authorship of rival publications,
or from any interest in the success of one book rather than of an other,
let both my judges and me be on our guard. I have intended to be fair; for
captiousness is not criticism. If the reader perceives in these strictures
any improper bias, he has a sort of discernment which it is my misfortune
to lack. Against the compilers of grammars, I urge no conclusions at which
any man can hesitate, who accedes to my preliminary remarks upon them; and
these may be summed up in the following couplet of the poet Churchill:
"To copy beauties, forfeits all pretence
To fame;--to copy faults, is want of sense."
CHAPTER XI.
BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS.
"Sed ut perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest: ita, procedente
jam opere, minima incipiunt esse quae prima sunt."--QUINTILIAN. _De Inst.
Orat._, Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 560.
1. The _history_ of grammar, in the proper sense of the term, has
heretofore been made no part of the study. I have imagined that many of its
details might be profitable, not only to teachers, but to that class of
learners for whose use this work is designed. Accordingly, in the preceding
pages, there have been stated numerous facts properly historical, relating
either to particular grammars, or to the changes and progress of this
branch of instruction. These various details it is hoped will be more
entertaining, and perhaps for that reason not less useful, than those
explanations which belong merely to the construction and resolution of
sentences. The attentive reader must have gathered from the foregoing
chapters some idea of what the science owes to many individuals whose names
are connected with it. But it seems proper to devote to this subject a few
pages more, in order to give some further account of the origin and
character of certain books.
2. The manuals by which grammar was first
taught in English, were not properly English Grammars. They were
translations of the Latin Accidence; and were designed to aid British youth
in acquiring a knowledge of the Latin language, rather than accuracy in the
use of their own. The two languages were often combined in one book, for
the purpose of teaching sometimes both together, and sometimes one through
the medium of the other. The study of such works doubtless had a tendency
to modify, and perhaps at that time to improve, the English style of those
who used them. For not only must variety of knowledge have led to
copiousness of expression, but the most cultivated minds would naturally be
most apt to observe what was orderly in the use of speech. A language,
indeed, after its proper form is well fixed by letters, must resist all
introduction of foreign idioms, or become corrupted. Hence it is, that Dr.
Johnson avers, "The great pest of speech is frequency of translation. No
book was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting
something of its native idiom; this is the most mischievous and
comprehensive innovation."--_Preface to Joh. Dict._, 4to, p. 14. Without
expressly controverting this opinion, or offering any justification of mere
metaphrases, or literal translations, we may well assert, that the practice
of comparing different languages, and seeking the most appropriate terms
for a free version of what is ably written, is an exercise admirably
calculated to familiarize and extend grammatical knowledge.
3. Of the class of books here referrred [sic--KTH] to, that which I have
mentioned in an other chapter, as Lily's or King Henry's Grammar, has been
by far the most celebrated and the most influential. Concerning this
treatise, it is stated, that its parts were not put together in the present
form, until eighteen or twenty years after Lily's death. "The time when
this work was completed," says the preface of 1793, "has been differently
related by writers. Thomas Hayne places it in the year 1543, and Anthony
Wood, in 1545. But neither of these accounts can be right; for I have seen
a beautiful copy, printed upon vellum, and illuminated, anno 1542, in
quarto. And it may be doubted whether this was the first edition."--_John
Ward, Pref._, p. vii. In an Introductory Lecture, read before the
University of London in 1828, by Thomas Dale, professor of English
literature, I find the following statement: "In this reign,"--the reign of
Henry VIII,--"the study of grammar was reduced to a system, by the
promulgation of many grammatical treatises; one of which was esteemed of
sufficient importance to be honoured with a royal name. It was called, 'The
Grammar of King Henry the Eighth;' and to this, 'with other works, the
young Shakspeare was probably indebted for some learning and much loyalty.'
But the honour of producing the first English grammar is claimed by William
Bullokar, who published, in the year 1586, 'A Bref Grammar for English,'
being, to use his own words, 'the first Grammar for English that ever waz,
except my Grammar at large.'"
4. Ward's preface to Lily commences thus: "If we look back to the origin of
our common _Latin Grammar_, we shall find it was no hasty performance, nor
the work of a single person; but composed at different times by several
eminent and learned men, till the whole was at length finished, and by the
order of _King Henry_ VIII.[,] brought into that form in which it has ever
since continued. The _English introduction_ was written by the reverend and
learned Dr. _John Colet_, Dean of St. _Paul's_, for the use of the school
he had lately founded there; and was dedicated by him to _William Lily_,
the first high master of that school, in the year 1510; for which reason it
has usually gone by the name of _Paul's Accidence_. The substance of it
remains the same, as at first; though it has been much altered in the
manner of expression, and sometimes the order, with other improvements. The
_English syntax_ was the work of _Lily_, as appears by the title in the
most ancient editions, which runs thus: _Gulielmi Lilii Angli Rudimenta_.
But it has been greatly improved since his time, both with, regard to the
method, and an enlargement of double the quantity."
5. Paul's Accidence is
therefore probably the oldest grammar that can now be found in our
language. It is not, however, an English grammar; because, though written
in antique English, and embracing many things which are as true of our
language as of any other, it was particularly designed for the teaching of
_Latin_. It begins thus: "In speech be these eight parts following: Noun,
Pronoun, Verb, Participle, declined; Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition,
Interjection, undeclined." This is the old platform of the Latin
grammarians; which differs from that of the Greek grammars, only in having
no Article, and in separating the Interjection from the class of Adverbs.
Some Greek grammarians, however, separate the Adjective from the Noun, and
include the Participle with the Verb: thus, "There are in Greek eight
species of words, called Parts of Speech; viz. Article, Noun, Adjective,
Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."--_Anthon's Valpy_, p.
18. With respect to our language, the plan of the Latin Accidence is
manifestly inaccurate; nor can it be applied, without some variation, to
the Greek. In both, as well as in all other languages that have _Articles_,
the best amendment of it, and the nearest adherence to it, is, to make the
Parts of Speech _ten_; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the
Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the
Preposition, and the Interjection.
6. The best Latin grammarians admit that the Adjective ought not to be
called a Noun; and the best Greek grammarians, that the Interjections ought
not to be included among Adverbs. With respect to Participles, a vast
majority of grammarians in general, make them a distinct species, or part
of speech; but, on this point, the English grammarians are about equally
divided: nearly one half include them with the verbs, and a few call them
adjectives. In grammar, it is wrong to deviate from the old groundwork,
except for the sake of truth and improvement; and, in this case, to vary
the series of parts, by suppressing one and substituting an other, is in
fact a greater innovation, than to make the terms ten, by adding one and
dividing an other. But our men of nine parts of speech innovated yet more:
they added the Article, as did the Greeks; divided the Noun into
Substantive and Adjective; and, without good reason, suppressed the
Participle. And, of latter time, not a few have thrown the whole into
confusion, to show the world "the order of [their] understanding." What was
grammar fifty years ago, some of these have not thought it worth their
while to inquire! And the reader has seen, that, after all this, they can
complacently talk of "the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to
_unfortunate innovators_."--KIRKHAM'S _Gram._, p. 10.
7. The old scheme of the Latin grammarians has seldom, if ever, been
_literally_ followed in English; because its distribution of the parts of
speech, as declined and undeclined, would not be true with respect to the
English participle. With the omission of this unimportant distinction, it
was, however, scrupulously retained by Dilworth, by the author of the
British Grammar, by William Ward, by Buchanan, and by some others now
little known, who chose to include both the article and the adjective with
the noun, rather than to increase the number of the parts of speech beyond
eight. Dr. Priestley says, "I shall adopt the _usual distribution_ of words
into eight classes; viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.[71] I do this in compliance
with the practice of most Grammarians; and because, _if any number, in a
thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon_, this seems to be as comprehensive
and distinct as any. All the innovation I have made hath been to throw out
the _Participle_, and substitute the _Adjective_, as more evidently a
distinct part of speech."--_Rudiments of English Gram._, p. 3. All this
comports well enough with Dr. Priestley's haste and carelessness; but it is
not true, that he either adopted, "the usual distribution of words," or
made an other "as comprehensive and distinct as any." His "_innovation_,"
too, which has since been countenanced by many other writers, I have
already shown to be greater, than if, by a promotion of the article and the
adjective, he had made the parts of speech ten. Dr. Beattie, who was
Priestley's coeval, and a much better scholar, adopted this number without
hesitation, and called every one of them by what is still its right name:
"In English there are _ten_ sorts of words, which are all found in the
following short sentence; 'I now see the good man coming; but, alas! he
walks with difficulty.' _I_ and _he_ are pronouns; _now_ is an adverb;
_see_ and _walks_ are verbs; _the_ is an article; _good_, an adjective;
_man_ and _difficulty_ are nouns, the former substantive, the latter
abstract; _coming_ is a participle; _but_, a conjunction; _alas!_ an
interjection; _with_, a preposition. That no other sorts of words are
necessary in language, will appear, when we have seen in what respects
these are necessary."--_Beattie's Moral Science_, Vol. i, p. 30. This
distribution is precisely that which the best _French_ grammarians have
_usually_ adopted.
8. Dr. Johnson professes to adopt the division, the order, and the terms,
"of the common grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution
might not be found."--_Gram. before 4to Dict._, p. 1. But, in the Etymology
of his Grammar, he makes no enumeration of the parts of speech, and treats
only of articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs; to which if we
add the others, according to the common grammarians, or according to his
own Dictionary, the number will be _ten_. And this distribution, which was
adopted by Dr. Ash about 1765, by Murray the schoolmaster about 1790, by
Caleb Alexander in 1795, and approved by Dr. Adam in 1793, has since been
very extensively followed; as may be seen in Dr. Crombie's treatise, in the
Rev. Matt. Harrison's, in Dr. Mandeville's reading-books, and in the
grammars of Harrison, Staniford, Alden, Coar, John Peirce, E. Devis, C.
Adams, D. Adams, Chandler, Comly, Jaudon, Ingersoll, Hull, Fuller,
Greenleaf, Kirkham, Ferd. H. Miller, Merchant, Mack, Nutting, Bucke, Beck,
Barrett, Barnard, Maunder, Webber, Emmons, Hazen, Bingham, Sanders, and
many others. Dr. Lowth's distribution is the same, except that he placed
the adjective after the pronoun, the conjunction after the preposition,
and, like Priestley, called the participle a verb, thus making the parts of
speech _nine_. He also has been followed by many; among whom are Bicknell,
Burn, Lennie, Mennye, Lindley Murray, W. Allen, Guy, Churchill, Wilson,
Cobbett, Davis, David Blair, Davenport, Mendenhall, Wilcox, Picket, Pond,
Russell, Bacon, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Lyon, Tob. H. Miller, Alger, A.
Flint, Folker, S. Putnam, Cooper, Frost, Goldsbury, Hamlin, T. Smith, R. C.
Smith, and Woodworth. But a third part of these, and as many more in the
preceding list, are confessedly mere modifiers of Murray's compilation; and
perhaps, in such a case, those have done best who have deviated least from
the track of him whom they professed to follow.[72]
9. Some seem to have supposed, that by reducing the number of the parts of
speech, and of the rules for their construction, the study of grammar would
be rendered more easy and more profitable to the learner. But this, as
would appear from the history of the science, is a mere retrogression
towards the rudeness of its earlier stages. It is hardly worth while to
dispute, whether there shall be nine parts of speech or ten; and perhaps
enough has already been stated, to establish the expediency of assuming the
latter number. Every word in the language must be included in some class,
and nothing is gained by making the classes larger and less numerous. In
all the artificial arrangements of science, distinctions are to be made
according to the differences in things; and the simple question here is,
what differences among words shall be at first regarded. To overlook, in
our primary division, the difference between a verb and a participle, is
merely to reserve for a subdivision, or subsequent explanation, a species
of words which most grammarians have recognized as a distinct sort in their
original classification.
10. It should be observed that the early period of grammatical science was
far remote from the days in which _English_ grammar originated. Many things
which we now teach and defend as grammar, were taught and defended two
thousand years ago, by the philosophers of Greece and Rome. Of the parts of
speech, Quintilian, who lived in the first century of our era, gives the
following account: "For the ancients, among whom were Aristotle[73] and
Theodectes, treated only of verbs, nouns, and conjunctions: as the verb is
what we say, and the noun, that of which we say it, they judged the power
of discourse to be in _verbs_, and the matter in _nouns_, but the connexion
in _conjunctions_. Little by little, the philosophers, and especially the
Stoics, increased the number: first, to the conjunctions were added
_articles_; afterwards, _prepositions_; to nouns, was added the
_appellation_; then the _pronoun_; afterwards, as belonging to each verb,
the _participle_; and, to verbs in common, _adverbs_. Our language [i. e.,
the _Latin_] does not require articles, wherefore they are scattered among
the other parts of speech; but there is added to the foregoing the
_interjection_. But some, on the authority of good authors, make the parts
only eight; as Aristarchus, and, in our day, Palaemon; who have included the
vocable, or appellation, with the noun, as a species of it. But they who
make the noun one and the vocable an other, reckon nine. But there are also
some who divide the vocable from the appellation; making the former to
signify any thing manifest to sight or touch, as _house, bed_; and the
latter, any thing to which either or both are wanting, as _wind, heaven,
god, virtue_. They have also added the _asseveration_ and the
_attrectation_, which I do not approve. Whether the vocable or appellation
should be included with the noun or not, as it is a matter of little
consequence, I leave to the decision of others."--See QUINTIL. _de Inst.
Orat._, Lib. i, Cap. 4, Sec.24.
11. Several writers on English grammar,
indulging a strange unsettlement of plan, seem not to have determined in
their own minds, how many parts of speech there are, or ought to be. Among
these are Horne Tooke, Webster, Dalton, Cardell, Green, and Cobb; and
perhaps, from what he says above, we may add the name of Priestley. The
present disputation about the sorts of words, has been chiefly owing to the
writings of Horne Tooke, who explains the minor parts of speech as mere
abbreviations, and rejects, with needless acrimony, the common
classification. But many have mistaken the nature of his instructions, no
less than that of the common grammarians. This author, in his third
chapter, supposes his auditor to say, "But you have not all this while
informed me _how many parts of speech_ you mean to lay down." To whom he
replies, "That shall be as you please. Either _two_, or _twenty_, or
_more_." Such looseness comported well enough with his particular purpose;
because he meant to teach the derivation of words, and not to meddle at all
with their construction. But who does not see that it is impossible to lay
down rules for the _construction_ of words, without first dividing them
into the classes to which such rules apply? For example: if a man means to
teach, that, "A verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person
and number," must he not first show the learner _what words are verbs?_ and
ought he not to see in this rule a reason for not calling the participle a
verb? Let the careless followers of Lowth and Priestley answer. Tooke did
not care to preserve any parts of speech at all. His work is not a system
of grammar; nor can it be made the basis of any regular scheme of
grammatical instruction. He who will not grant that the same words may
possibly be used as different parts of speech, must make his parts of
speech either very few or very many. This author says, "I do not allow that
_any_ words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes
to one part of speech, and sometimes to another, from the different ways of
using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word
whatever."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 68.
12. From his own positive language, I imagine this ingenious author never
well considered what constitutes the sameness of words, or wherein lies the
difference of the parts of speech; and, without understanding these things,
a grammarian cannot but fall into errors, unless he will follow somebody
that knows them. But Tooke confessedly contradicts, and outfaces "_all
other Grammarians_" in the passage just cited. Yet it is plain, that the
whole science of grammar--or at least the whole of etymology and syntax,
which are its two principal parts--is based upon a division of words into
the parts of speech; a division which necessarily refers, in many
instances, the same words to different sections according to the manner in
which they are used. "Certains mots repondent, ainsi au meme temps, a
diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie
diversement."--_Buffier_, Art. 150. "Some words, from the different ways in
which they are used, belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to
another."--_M'Culloch's Gram._, p. 37. "And so say all other
Grammarians."--_Tooke, as above_.
13. The history of _Dr. Webster_, as a grammarian, is singular. He is
remarkable for his changeableness, yet always positive; for his
inconsistency, yet very learned; for his zeal "to correct popular errors,"
yet often himself erroneous; for his fertility in resources, yet sometimes
meagre; for his success as an author, yet never satisfied; for his boldness
of innovation, yet fond of appealing to antiquity. His grammars are the
least judicious, and at present the least popular, of his works. They
consist of four or five different treatises, which for their mutual credit
should never be compared: it is impossible to place any firm reliance upon
the authority of a man who contradicts himself so much. Those who imagine
that the last opinions of so learned a man must needs be right, will do
well to wait, and see what will be his last: they cannot otherwise know to
what his instructions will finally lead: Experience has already taught him
the folly of many of his pretended improvements, and it is probable his
last opinions of English grammar will be most conformable to that just
authority with which he has ever been tampering. I do not say that he has
not exhibited ingenuity as well as learning, or that he is always wrong
when he contradicts a majority of the English grammarians; but I may
venture to say, he was wrong when he undertook to disturb the common scheme
of the parts of speech, as well as when he resolved to spell all words
exactly as they are pronounced.
14. It is not commonly known with how rash a hand this celebrated author
has sometimes touched the most settled usages of our language. In 1790,
which was seven years after the appearance of his first grammar, he
published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, consisting of
Essays, moral, historical, political, and literary, which might have done
him credit, had he not spoiled his book by a grammatical whim about the
reformation of orthography. Not perceiving that English literature,
multiplied as it had been within two or three centuries, had acquired a
stability in some degree corresponding to its growth, he foolishly imagined
it was still as susceptible of change and improvement as in the days of its
infancy. Let the reader pardon the length of this digression, if for the
sake of any future schemer who may chance to adopt a similar conceit, I
cite from the preface to this volume a specimen of the author's practice
and reasoning. The ingenious attorney had the good sense quickly to abandon
this project, and content himself with less glaring innovations; else he
had never stood as he now does, in the estimation of the public. But there
is the more need to record the example, because in one of the southern
states the experiment has recently been tried again. A still abler member
of the same profession, has renewed it but lately; and it is said there are
yet remaining some converts to this notion of improvement. I copy
literally, leaving all my readers and his to guess for themselves why he
spelled "_writers_" with a _w_ and "_riting_" without.
15. "During the course of ten or twelv yeers, I hav been laboring to
correct popular errors, and to assist my yung brethren in the road to truth
and virtue; my publications for theze purposes hav been numerous; much time
haz been spent, which I do not regret, and much censure incurred, which my
hart tells me I do not dezerv." * * * "The reeder wil observ that the
_orthography_ of the volum iz not uniform. The reezon iz, that many of the
essays hav been published before, in the common orthography, and it would
hav been a laborious task to copy the whole, for the sake of changing the
spelling. In the essays, ritten within the last yeer, a considerable change
of spelling iz introduced by way of experiment. This liberty waz taken by
the writers before the age of queen Elizabeth, and to this we are indeted
for the preference of modern spelling over that of Gower and Chaucer. The
man who admits that the change of _hoasbonde, mynde, ygone, moneth_ into
_husband, mind, gone, month_, iz an improovment, must acknowlege also the
riting of _helth, breth, rong, tung, munth_, to be an improovment. There iz
no alternativ. Every possible reezon that could ever be offered for
altering the spelling of wurds, stil exists in full force; and if a gradual
reform should not be made in our language, it wil proov that we are less
under the influence of reezon than our ancestors."--_Noah Webster's Essays,
Preface_, p. xi.
16. But let us return, with our author, to the question of the parts of
speech. I have shown that if we do not mean to adopt some less convenient
scheme, we must count them _ten_, and preserve their ancient order as well
as their ancient names.[74] And, after all his vacillation in consequence
of reading Horne Tooke, it would not be strange if Dr. Webster should come
at last to the same conclusion. He was not very far from it in 1828, as may
be shown by his own testimony, which he then took occasion to record. I
will give his own words on the point: "There is great difficulty in
devising a correct classification of the several sorts of words; and
probably no classification that shall be simple and at the same time
philosophically correct, can be invented. There are some words that do not
strictly fall under any description of any class yet devised. Many attempts
have been made and are still making to remedy this evil; but such schemes
as I have seen, do not, in my apprehension, correct the defects of the old
schemes, nor simplify the subject. On the other hand, all that I have seen,
serve only to obscure and embarrass the subject, by substituting new
arrangements and new terms which are as incorrect as the old ones, and less
intelligible. I have attentively viewed these subjects, in all the lights
which my opportunities have afforded, and am convinced that the
distribution of words, most generally received, _is the best that can be
formed_, with some slight alterations adapted to the particular
construction of the English language."
17. This passage is taken from the advertisement, or preface, to the
Grammar which accompanies the author's edition of his great quarto
Dictionary. Now the several schemes which bear his own name, were doubtless
all of them among those which he had that he had "_seen_;" so that he here
condemns them all collectively, as he had previously condemned some of them
at each reformation. Nor is the last exempted. For although he here plainly
gives his vote for that common scheme which he first condemned, he does not
adopt it without "some slight alterations;" and in contriving these
alterations he is inconsistent with his own professions. He makes the parts
of speech _eight_, thus: "1. The name or noun; 2. The pronoun or
substitute; 3. The adjective, attribute, or attributive; 4. The verb; 5.
The adverb; 6. The preposition; 7. The connective or conjunction; 8. The
exclamation or interjection." In his Rudiments of English Grammar,
published in 1811, "to unfold the _true principles_ of the language," his
parts of speech were _seven_; "viz. 1. Names or nouns; 2. Substitutes or
pronouns; 3. Attributes or adjectives; 4. Verbs, with their participles; 5.
Modifiers or adverbs; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives or conjunctions." In
his Philosophical and Practical Grammar, published in 1807, a book which
professes to teach "the _only legitimate principles_, and established
usages," of the language, a twofold division of words is adopted; first,
into two general classes, primary and secondary; then into "_seven species_
or parts of speech," the first two belonging to the former class, the other
five to the latter; thus: "1. Names or nouns; 2. Verbs; 3. Substitutes; 4.
Attributes; 5. Modifiers; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives." In his
"Improved Grammar of the English Language," published in 1831, the same
scheme is retained, but the usual names are preferred.
18. How many different schemes of classification this author invented, I
know not; but he might well have saved himself the trouble of inventing
any; for, so far as appears, none of his last three grammars ever came to a
second edition. In the sixth edition of his "Plain and Comprehensive
Grammar, grounded on the _true principles_ and idioms of the language," a
work which his last grammatical preface affirms to have been originally
fashioned "on the model of Lowth's," the parts of speech are reckoned
"_six_; nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and abbreviations or
particles." This work, which he says "was extensively used in the schools
of this country," and continued to be in demand, he voluntarily suppressed;
because, after a profitable experiment of four and twenty years, he found
it so far from being grounded on "true principles," that the whole scheme
then appeared to him incorrigibly bad. And, judging from this sixth
edition, printed in 1800, the only one which I have seen, I cannot but
concur with him in the opinion. More than one half of the volume is a loose
_Appendix_ composed chiefly of notes taken from Lowth and Priestley; and
there is a great want of method in what was meant for the body of the work.
I imagine his several editions must have been different grammars with the
same title; for such things are of no uncommon occurrence, and I cannot
otherwise account for the assertion that this book was compiled "on _the
model of Lowth's_, and on the same principles as [those on which] Murray
has constructed his."--_Advertisement in Webster's Quarto Dict., 1st Ed._
19. In a treatise on grammar, a bad scheme is necessarily attended with
inconveniences for which no merit in the execution can possibly compensate.
The first thing, therefore, which a skillful teacher will notice in a work
of this kind, is the arrangement. If he find any difficulty in discovering,
at sight, what it is, he will be sure it is bad; for a lucid order is what
he has a right to expect from him who pretends to improve upon all the
English grammarians. Dr. Webster is not the only reader of the EPEA
PTEROENTA, who has been thereby prompted to meddle with the common scheme
of grammar; nor is he the only one who has attempted to simplify the
subject by reducing the parts of speech to _six_. John Dalton of
Manchester, in 1801, in a small grammar which he dedicated to Horne Tooke,
made them six, but not the same six. He would have them to be, nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. This writer, like
Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, and some others, insists on it that the articles
are _adjectives_. Priestley, too, throwing them out of his classification,
and leaving the learner to go almost through his book in ignorance of their
rank, at length assigns them to the same class, in one of his notes. And so
has Dr. Webster fixed them in his late valuable, but not faultless,
dictionaries. But David Booth, an etymologist perhaps equally learned, in
his "Introduction to an Analytical Dictionary of the English Language,"
declares them to be of the same species as the _pronouns_; from which he
thinks it strange that they were ever separated! See _Booth's Introd._, p.
21.
20. Now, what can be more idle, than for teachers to reject the common
classification of words, and puzzle the heads of school-boys with
speculations like these? It is easy to admit all that etymology can show to
be true, and still justify the old arrangement of the elements of grammar.
And if we depart from the common scheme, where shall we stop? Some have
taught that the parts of speech are only _five_; as did the latter stoics,
whose classes, according to Priscian and Harris, were these: articles,
nouns appellative, nouns proper, verbs, and conjunctions. Others have made
them _four_; as did Aristotle and the elder stoics, and, more recently,
Milnes, Brightland, Harris, Ware, Fisher, and the author of a work on
Universal Grammar, entitled Enclytica. Yet, in naming the four, each of
these contrives to differ from _all the rest!_ With Aristotle, they are,
"nouns, verbs, articles, and conjunctions;" with Milnes, "nouns, adnouns,
verbs, and particles;" with Brightland, "names, qualities, affirmations,
and particles;" with Harris, "substantives, attributives, definitives, and
connectives;" with Ware, "the name, the word, the assistant, the
connective;" with Fisher, "names, qualities, verbs, and particles;" with
the author of Enclytica, "names, verbs, modes, and connectives." But why
make the classes so numerous as four? Many of the ancients, Greeks,
Hebrews, and Arabians, according to Quintilian, made them _three_; and
these three, according to Vossius, were nouns, verbs, and particles.
"Veteres Arabes, Hebraei, et Graeci, tres, non amplius, classes faciebant; l.
Nomen, 2. Verbum, 3. Particula seu Dictio."--_Voss. de Anal._, Lib. i, Cap.
1.
21. Nor is this number, _three_, quite destitute of modern supporters;
though most of these come at it in an other way. D. St. Quentin, in his
Rudiments of General Grammar, published in 1812, divides words into the
"three general classes" last mentioned; viz., "1. Nouns, 2. Verbs, 3.
Particles."--P. 5. Booth, who published the second edition of his
etymological work in 1814, examining severally the ten parts of speech, and
finding what he supposed to be the true origin of all the words in some of
the classes, was led to throw one into an other, till he had destroyed
seven of them. Then, resolving that each word ought to be classed according
to the meaning which its etymology fixes upon it, he refers the number of
classes to _nature_, thus: "If, then, each [word] has a _meaning_, and is
capable of raising an idea in the mind, that idea must have its prototype
in nature. It must either denote an _exertion_, and is therefore a _verb_;
or a _quality_, and is, in that case, an _adjective_; or it must express an
_assemblage_ of qualities, such as is observed to belong to some individual
object, and is, on this supposition, the _name_ of such object, or a
_noun_. * * * We have thus given an account of the different divisions of
words, and have found that the whole may be classed under the three heads
of Names, Qualities, and Actions; or Nouns, Adjectives, and
Verbs."--_Introd. to Analyt. Dict._, p. 22.
22. This notion of the parts of speech, as the reader will presently see,
found an advocate also in the author of the popular little story of Jack
Halyard. It appears in his Philosophic Grammar published in Philadelphia in
1827. Whether the writer borrowed it from Booth, or was led into it by the
light of "nature," I am unable to say: he does not appear to have derived
it from the ancients. Now, if either he or the lexicographer has discovered
in "nature" a prototype for this scheme of grammar, the discovery is only
to be proved, and the schemes of all other grammarians, ancient or modern,
must give place to it. For the reader will observe that this triad of parts
is not that which is mentioned by Vossius and Quintilian. But authority may
be found for reducing the number of the parts of speech yet lower. Plato,
according to Harris, and the first inquirers into language, according to
Horne Tooke, made them _two_; nouns and verbs, which Crombie, Dalton,
M'Culloch, and some others, say, are the only parts essentially necessary
for the communication of our thoughts. Those who know nothing about
grammar, regard all words as of _one_ class. To them, a word is simply a
word; and under what other name it may come, is no concern of theirs.
23. Towards this point, tends every attempt to simplify grammar by
suppressing any of the _ten_ parts of speech. Nothing is gained by it; and
it is a departure from the best authority. We see by what steps this kind
of reasoning may descend; and we have an admirable illustration of it in
the several grammatical works of William S. Cardell. I shall mention them
in the order in which they appeared; and the reader may judge whether the
author does not ultimately arrive at the conclusion to which the foregoing
series is conducted. This writer, in his Essay on Language, reckons seven
parts of speech; in his New-York Grammar, six; in his Hartford Grammar,
three principal, with three others subordinate; in his Philadelphia
Grammar, three only--nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here he alleges, "The
unerring plan of _nature_ has established three classes of perceptions, and
consequently three parts of speech."--P. 171. He says this, as if he meant
to abide by it. But, on his twenty-third page, we are told, "Every
adjective is either a noun or a participle." Now, by his own showing, there
are no participles: he makes them all adjectives, in each of his schemes.
It follows, therefore, that all his adjectives, including what others call
participles, are nouns. And this reduces his three parts of speech to two,
in spite of "the unerring plan of _nature!_" But even this number is more
than he well believed in; for, on the twenty-first page of the book, he
affirms, that, "All other terms are but derivative forms and new
applications of _nouns_." So simple a thing is this method of grammar! But
Neef, in his zeal for reformation, carries the anticlimax fairly off the
brink; and declares, "In the grammar which shall be the work of my pupils,
there shall be found no nouns, no pronouns, no articles, no participles, no
verbs, no prepositions, no conjunctions, no adverbs, no interjections, no
gerunds, not even one single supine. Unmercifully shall they be banished
from it."--_Neef's Method of Education_, p. 60.
24. When Cardell's system appeared, several respectable men, convinced by
"his powerful demonstrations," admitted that he had made "many things in
the _established doctrines_ of the expounders of language appear
sufficiently ridiculous;" [75] and willingly lent him the influence of
their names, trusting that his admirable scheme of English grammar, in
which their ignorance saw nothing but new truth, would be speedily
"perfected and generally embraced." [76] Being invited by the author to a
discussion of his principles, I opposed them _in his presence_, both
privately and publicly; defending against him, not unsuccessfully, those
doctrines which time and custom have sanctioned. And, what is remarkable,
that candid opposition which Cardell himself had treated with respect, and
parried in vain, was afterwards, by some of his converts, impeached of all
unfairness, and even accused of wanting common sense. "No one," says
Niebuhr, "ever overthrew a literary idol, without provoking the anger of
its worshipers."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 489. The certificates
given in commendation of this "set of opinions," though they had no
extensive effect on the public, showed full well that the signers knew
little of the history of grammar; and it is the continual repetition of
such things, that induces me now to dwell upon its history, for the
information of those who are so liable to be deceived by exploded errors
republished as novelties. A eulogist says of Cardell, "He had adopted a set
of opinions, which, to most of his readers, appeared _entirely new."_ A
reviewer proved, that all his pretended novelties are to be found in
certain grammars now forgotten, or seldom read. The former replies, Then he
[Cardell,] is right--and the man is no less stupid than abusive, who finds
fault; for here is proof that the former "had highly respectable authority
for almost every thing he has advanced!"--See _The Friend_, Vol. ii, pp.
105 and 116, from which all the quotations in this paragraph, except one,
are taken.
25. The reader may now be curious to know what these doctrines
were. They were summed up by the reviewer, thus: "Our author pretends to
have drawn principally from his own resources, in making up his books; and
many may have supposed there is more _novelty_ in them than there really
is. For instance: 1. He classes the _articles_ with _adjectives_; and so
did Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, Dalton, and Webster. 2. He calls the
_participles, adjectives_; and so did Brightland and Tooke. 3. He make the
_pronouns_, either _nouns_ or _adjectives_; and so did Adam, Dalton, and
others. 4. He distributes the _conjunctions_ among the other parts of
speech; and so did Tooke. 5. He rejects the _interjections_; and so did
Valla, Sanctius, and Tooke. 6. He makes the _possessive case_ an
_adjective_; and so did Brightland. 7. He says our language has _no cases_;
and so did Harris. 8. He calls _case, position_; and so did James Brown. 9.
He reduces the adjectives to two classes, _defining_ and _describing_; and
so did Dalton. 10. He declares all _verbs_ to be _active_; and so did
Harris, (in his Hermes, Book i, Chap. ix,) though he admitted the
_expediency_ of the common division, and left to our author the absurdity
of contending about it. Fisher also rejected the class of _neuter verbs_,
and called them all _active_. 11. He reduces the _moods_ to _three_, and
the _tenses_ to _three_; and so did Dalton, in the very same words. Fisher
also made the _tenses three_, but said there _are no moods_ in English. 12.
He makes the _imperative mood_ always _future_; and so did Harris, in 1751.
Nor did the doctrine originate with him; for Brightland, a hundred years
ago, [about 1706,] ascribed it to some of his predecessors. 13. He reduces
the whole of our _syntax_ to about _thirty lines_; and two thirds of these
are useless; for Dr. Johnson expressed it quite as fully in _ten_. But
their explanations are both good for nothing; and Wallis, more wisely,
omitted it altogether."--_The Friend_, Vol. ii, p. 59.
26. Dr. Webster says, in a marginal note to the preface of his
Philosophical Grammar, "Since the days of _Wallis_, who published a Grammar
of the English Language, in Latin, in the reign of Charles II.[,] from
which Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of their rules, _little improvement_
has been made in English grammar. Lowth supplied some valuable criticisms,
most of which however respect obsolete phrases; but many of his criticisms
are extremely erroneous, and they have had an ill effect, in perverting the
true idioms of our language. Priestley furnished a number of new and useful
observations on the peculiar phrases of the English language. To which may
be added some good remarks of Blair and Campbell, interspersed with many
errors. Murray, not having mounted to the original sources of information,
and professing only to select and arrange the rules and criticisms of
preceding writers, has furnished little or nothing new. Of the numerous
compilations of inferior character, it may be affirmed, that they have
added nothing to the stock of grammatical knowledge." And the concluding
sentence of this work, as well as of his Improved Grammar, published in
1831, extends the censure as follows: "It is not the English language only
whose history and principles are yet to be illustrated; but the grammars
and dictionaries of _all other_ languages, with which I have any
acquaintance, must be revised and corrected, before their elements and true
construction can be fully understood." In an advertisement to the grammar
prefixed to his quarto American Dictionary, the Doctor is yet more severe
upon books of this sort. "I close," says he, "with the single remark, that
from all the observations I have been able to make, I am convinced the
dictionaries and grammars which have been used in our seminaries of
learning for the last forty or fifty years, are _so incorrect and
imperfect_ that they have introduced or sanctioned more errors than they
have amended; in other words, had the people of England and of these States
been left to learn the pronunciation and construction of their vernacular
language solely by tradition, and the reading of good authors, the language
would have been spoken and written with more purity than it has been and
now is, by those who have learned to adjust their language by the rules
which dictionaries prescribe."
27. Little and much are but relative terms; yet when we look back to the
period in which English grammar was taught only in Latin, it seems
extravagant to say, that "little improvement has been made" in it since. I
have elsewhere expressed a more qualified sentiment. "That the grammar of
our language has made considerable progress since the days of Swift, who
wrote a petty treatise on the subject, is sufficiently evident; but whoever
considers what remains to be done, cannot but perceive how ridiculous are
many of the boasts and felicitations which we have heard on that topic."
[77] Some further notice will now be taken of that progress, and of the
writers who have been commonly considered the chief promoters of it, but
especially of such as have not been previously mentioned in a like
connexion. Among these may be noticed _William Walker_, the preceptor of
Sir Isaac Newton, a teacher and grammarian of extraordinary learning, who
died in 1684. He has left us sundry monuments of his taste and critical
skill: one is his "Treatise of English Particles,"--a work of great labour
and merit, but useless to most people now-a-days, because it explains the
English in Latin; an other, his "Art of Teaching Improv'd,"--which is also
an able treatise, and apparently well adapted to its object, "the Grounding
of a Young Scholar in the Latin Tongue." In the latter, are mentioned other
works of his, on "_Rhetorick_, and _Logick_" which I have not seen.
28. In 1706, _Richard Johnson_ published an octavo volume of more than four
hundred pages, entitled, "Grammatical Commentaries; being an Apparatus to a
New National Grammar: by way of animadversion upon the falsities,
obscurities, redundancies and defects of Lily's System now in use." This is
a work of great acuteness, labour, and learning; and might be of signal use
to any one who should undertake to prepare a new or improved Latin grammar:
of which, in my opinion, we have yet urgent need. The English grammarian
may also peruse it with advantage, if he has a good knowledge of Latin--and
without such knowledge he must be ill prepared for his task. This work is
spoken of and quoted by some of the early English grammarians; but the
hopes of the writer do not appear to have been realized. His book was not
calculated to supply the place of the common one; for the author thought it
impracticable to make a new grammar, suitable for boys, and at the same
time to embrace in it proofs sufficient to remove the prejudices of
teachers in favour of the old. King Henry's edict in support of Lily, was
yet in force, backed by all the partiality which long habit creates; and
Johnson's learning, and labour, and zeal, were admired, and praised, and
soon forgot.
29. Near the beginning of the last century, some of the generous wits of
the reign of Queen Anne, seeing the need there was of greater attention to
their vernacular language, and of a grammar more properly English than any
then in use, produced a book with which the later writers on the same
subjects, would have done well to have made themselves better acquainted.
It is entitled "A Grammar of the English Tongue; with the Arts of Logick,
Rhetorick, Poetry, &c. Illustrated with useful Notes; giving the Grounds
and Reasons of Grammar in General. The Whole making a Compleat System of an
English Education. _Published by_ JOHN BRIGHTLAND, for the Use of the
Schools of Great Britain and Ireland." It is ingeniously recommended in a
certificate by Sir Richard Steele, or the Tattler, under the fictitious
name of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., and in a poem of forty-three lines, by
Nahum Tate, poet laureate to her Majesty. It is a duodecimo volume of three
hundred pages; a work of no inconsiderable merit and originality; and
written in a style which, though not faultless, has scarcely been surpassed
by any English grammarian since. I quote it as Brightland's:[78] who were
the real authors, does not appear. It seems to be the work of more than
one, and perhaps the writers of the Tattler were the men. My copy is of the
seventh edition, London, printed for Henry Lintot, 1746. It is evidently
the work of very skillful hands; yet is it not in all respects well planned
or well executed. It unwisely reduces the parts of speech to four; gives
them new names; and rejects more of the old system than the schools could
be made willing to give up. Hence it does not appear to have been very
extensively adopted.
30. It is now about a hundred and thirty years, since _Dr. Swift_, in a
public remonstrance addressed to the Earl of Oxford, complained of the
imperfect state of our language, and alleged in particular, that "in many
instances it offended against every part of grammar." [79] Fifty years
afterward, _Dr. Lowth_ seconded this complaint, and pressed it home upon
the polite and the learned. "Does he mean," says the latter, "that the
English language, as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and
as it stands in the writings of the most approved authors, often offends
against every part of grammar? _Thus far, I am afraid the charge is
true_."--_Lowth's Grammar, Preface_, p. iv. Yet the learned Doctor, to whom
much praise has been justly ascribed for the encouragement which he gave to
this neglected study, attempted nothing more than "A Short Introduction to
English Grammar;" which, he says, "was calculated for the learner _even of
the lowest class_:" and those who would enter more deeply into the subject,
he referred to _Harris_; whose work is not an English grammar, but "A
Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar." Lowth's Grammar was
first published in 1758. At the commencement of his preface, the reverend
author, after acknowledging the enlargement, polish, and refinement, which
the language had received during the preceding two hundred years, ventures
to add, "but, whatever other improvements it may have received, it hath
made _no advances_ in grammatical accuracy." I do not quote this assertion
to affirm it literally true, in all its apparent breadth; but there is less
reason to boast of the correctness even now attained, than to believe that
the writers on grammar are not the authors who have in general come nearest
to it in practice. Nor have the ablest authors always produced the best
compends for the literary instruction of youth.
31. The treatises of the learned doctors Harris, Lowth, Johnson, Ash,
Priestley, Horne Tooke, Crombie, Coote, and Webster, owe their celebrity
not so much to their intrinsic fitness for school instruction, as to the
literary reputation of the writers. Of _Harris's Hermes_, (which, in
comparison with our common grammars, is indeed a work of much ingenuity and
learning, full of interesting speculations, and written with great elegance
both of style and method,) _Dr. Lowth_ says, it is "the most beautiful and
perfect example of analysis, that has been exhibited since the days of
Aristotle."--_Preface to Gram._, p. x. But these two authors, if their
works be taken together, as the latter intended they should be, supply no
sufficient course of English grammar. The instructions of the one are too
limited, and those of the other are not specially directed to the subject.
32. _Dr. Johnson_, who was practically one of the greatest grammarians that
ever lived, and who was very nearly coetaneous with both Harris and Lowth,
speaks of the state of English grammar in the following terms: "I found our
speech copious without order, and energetick _without rules_: wherever I
turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to
be regulated."--_Preface to Dict._, p. 1. Again: "Having therefore _no
assistance but from general grammar_, I applied myself to the perusal of
our writers; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate
any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a
dictionary."--_Ibid._ But it is not given to any one man to do every thing;
else, Johnson had done it. His object was, to compile a dictionary, rather
than to compose a grammar, of our language. To lexicography, grammar is
necessary, as a preparation; but, as a purpose, it is merely incidental.
Dr. Priestley speaks of Johnson thus: "I must not conclude this preface,
without making my acknowledgements to Mr. _Johnson_, whose admirable
dictionary has been of the greatest use to me in the study of our language.
It is pity he had not formed as just, and as extensive an idea of English
grammar. Perhaps this very useful work may still be reserved for his
distinguished abilities in this way."--_Priestley's Grammar, Preface_, p.
xxiii. Dr. Johnson's English Grammar is all comprised in fourteen pages,
and of course it is very deficient. The syntax he seems inclined entirely
to omit, as (he says) Wallis did, and Ben Jonson had better done; but, for
form's sake, he condescends to bestow upon it ten short lines.
33. My point here is, that the best grammarians have left much to be done
by him who may choose to labour for the further improvement of English
grammar; and that a man may well deserve comparative praise, who has not
reached perfection in a science like this. Johnson himself committed many
errors, some of which I shall hereafter expose; yet I cannot conceive that
the following judgement of his works was penned without some bias of
prejudice: "Johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him; but his
dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty, and the least valuable _of
any_[80] of his productions; and that share of merit which it possesses,
makes it by so much the more hurtful. I rejoice, however, that though the
least valuable, he found it the most profitable: for I could never read his
preface without shedding a tear. And yet it must be confessed, that his
_grammar_ and _history_ and _dictionary_ of what _he calls_ the English
language, are in all respects (except the bulk of the _latter_[81]) most
truly contemptible performances; and a reproach to the learning and
industry of a nation which could receive them with the slightest
approbation. Nearly one third of this dictionary is as much the language of
the Hottentots as of the English; and it would be no difficult matter so to
translate any one of the plainest and most popular numbers of the
_Spectator_ into the language of this dictionary, that no mere Englishman,
though well read in his own language, would he able to comprehend one
sentence of it. It appears to be a work of labour, and yet is in truth one
of the most idle performances ever offered to the public; compiled by an
author who possessed not one single requisite for the undertaking, and
(being a publication of a set of booksellers) owing its success to that
very circumstance which alone must make it impossible that it should
deserve success."--_Tooke's Diversions of Purley_, Vol. i, p. 182.
34. _Dr. Ash's_ "Grammatical Institutes, or Easy Introduction to Dr.
Lowth's English Grammar," is a meagre performance, the ease of which
consists in nothing but its brevity. _Dr. Priestley_, who in the preface to
his third edition acknowledges his obligations to Johnson, and also to
Lowth, thought it premature to attempt an English grammar; and contented
himself with publishing a few brief "Rudiments," with a loose appendix
consisting of "Notes and Observations, for the use of those who have made
some proficiency in the language." He says, "With respect to our own
language, there seems to be a kind of claim upon all who make use of it, to
do something for its improvement; and the best thing we can do for this
purpose at present, is, to exhibit its actual structure, and the varieties
with which it is used. When these are once distinctly pointed out, and
generally attended to, the best forms of speech, and those which are most
agreeable to the analogy of the language, will soon recommend themselves,
and come into general use; and when, by this means, the language shall be
written with sufficient uniformity, we may hope to see a complete grammar
of it. At present, _it is by no means ripe for such a work_;[82] but we may
approximate to it very fast, if all persons who are qualified to make
remarks upon it, will give a little attention to the subject. In such a
case, a few years might be sufficient to complete it."--_Priestley's
Grammar, Preface_, p. xv. In point of time, both Ash and Priestley
expressly claim priority to Lowth, for their first editions; but the former
having allowed his work to be afterwards entitled an Introduction to
Lowth's, and the latter having acknowledged some improvements in his from
the same source, they have both been regarded as later authors.
35. The great work of the learned etymologist _John Horne Tooke_, consists
of two octavo volumes, entitled, "EPEA PTEROENTA, or the Diversions of
Purley." This work explains, with admirable sagacity, the origin and
primitive import of many of the most common yet most obscure English words;
and is, for that reason, a valuable performance. But as it contains nothing
respecting the construction of the language, and embraces no proper system
of grammatical doctrines, it is a great error to suppose that the common
principles of practical grammar ought to give place to such instructions,
or even be modelled according to what the author proves to be true in
respect to the origin of particular words. The common grammarians were less
confuted by him, than many of his readers have imagined; and it ought not
to be forgotten that his purpose was as different from theirs, as are their
schemes of Grammar from the plan of his critical "Diversions." In this
connexion may be mentioned an other work of similar size and purpose, but
more comprehensive in design; the "History of European Languages," by that
astonishing linguist the late _Dr. Alexander Murray_. This work was left
unfinished by its lamented author; but it will remain a monument of
erudition never surpassed, acquired in spite of wants and difficulties as
great as diligence ever surmounted. Like Tooke's volumes, it is however of
little use to the mere English scholar. It can be read to advantage only by
those who are acquainted with several other languages. The works of
_Crombie_ and _Coote_ are more properly essays or dissertations, than
elementary systems of grammar.
36. The number of English grammars has now become so very great, that not
even a general idea of the comparative merits or defects of each can here
be given. I have examined with some diligence all that I have had
opportunity to obtain; but have heard of several which I have never yet
seen. Whoever is curious to examine at large what has been published on
this subject, and thus to qualify himself to judge the better of any new
grammar, may easily make a collection of one or two hundred bearing
different names. There are also many works not called grammars, from which
our copyists have taken large portions of their compilations. Thus Murray
confessedly copied from ten authors; five of whom are Beattie, Sheridan,
Walker, Blair, and Campbell. Dr. Beattie, who acquired great celebrity as a
teacher, poet, philosopher, and logician, was well skilled in grammar; but
he treated the subject only in critical disquisitions, and not in any
distinct elementary work adapted to general use. Sheridan and Walker, being
lexicographers, confined themselves chiefly to orthography and
pronunciation. Murray derived sundry principles from the writings of each;
but the English Grammar prepared by the latter, was written, I think,
several years later than Murray's. The learned doctors Blair and Campbell
wrote on rhetoric, and not on the elementary parts of grammar. Of the two,
the latter is by far the more accurate writer. Blair is fluent and easy,
but he furnishes not a little false syntax; Campbell's Philosophy of
Rhetoric is a very valuable treatise. To these, and five or six other
authors whom I have noticed, was Lindley Murray "principally indebted for
his materials." Thus far of the famous contributors to English grammar. The
Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, delivered at Harvard University by John
Quincy Adams, and published in two octavo volumes in 1810, are such as do
credit even to that great man; but they descend less to verbal criticism,
and enter less into the peculiar province of the grammarian, than do most
other works of a similar title.
37. Some of the most respectable authors or compilers of more general
systems of English grammar for the use of schools, are the writer of the
British Grammar, Bicknell, Buchanan, William Ward, Alexander Murray the
schoolmaster, Mennye, Fisher, Lindley Murray, Penning, W. Allen, Grant,
David Blair, Lennie, Guy, Churchill. To attempt any thing like a review or
comparative estimate of these, would protract this introduction beyond all
reasonable bounds; and still others would be excluded, which are perhaps
better entitled to notice. Of mere modifiers and abridgers, the number is
so great, and the merit or fame so little, that I will not trespass upon
the reader's patience by any further mention of them or their works.
Whoever takes an accurate and comprehensive view of the history and present
state of this branch of learning, though he may not conclude, with Dr.
Priestley, that it is premature to attempt a complete grammar of the
language, can scarcely forbear to coincide with Dr. Barrow, in the opinion
that among all the treatises heretofore produced no such grammar is found.
"Some superfluities have been expunged, some mistakes have been rectified,
and some obscurities have been cleared; still, however, that all the
grammars used in our different schools, public as well as private, are
disgraced by errors or defects, is a complaint as just as it is frequent
and loud."--_Barrow's Essays_, p. 83.
38. Whether, in what I have been enabled to do, there will be found a
remedy for this complaint, must be referred to the decision of others. Upon
the probability of effecting this, I have been willing to stake some
labour; how much, and with what merit, let the candid and discerning, when
they shall have examined for themselves, judge. It is certain that we have
hitherto had, of our language, no complete grammar. The need of such a work
I suppose to be at this time in no small degree felt, especially by those
who conduct our higher institutions of learning; and my ambition has been
to produce one which might deservedly stand along side of the Port-Royal
Latin and Greek Grammars, or of the Grammaire des Grammaires of Girault Du
Vivier. If this work is unworthy to aspire to such rank, let the patrons of
English literature remember that the achievement of my design is still a
desideratum. We surely have no other book which might, in any sense, have
been called "_the Grammar of English Grammars_;" none, which, either by
excellence, or on account of the particular direction of its criticism,
might take such a name. I have turned the eyes of Grammar, in an especial
manner, upon the conduct of her own household; and if, from this volume,
the reader acquire a more just idea of _the grammar_ which is displayed in
_English grammars_, he will discover at least one reason for the title
which has been bestowed upon the work. Such as the book is, I present it to
the public, without pride, without self-seeking, and without anxiety:
knowing that most of my readers will be interested in estimating it
_justly_; that no true service, freely rendered to learning, can fail of
its end; and that no achievement merits aught with Him who graciously
supplies all ability. The opinions expressed in it have been formed with
candour, and are offered with submission. If in any thing they are
erroneous, there are those who can detect their faults. In the language of
an ancient master, the earnest and assiduous _Despauter_, I invite the
correction of the candid: "Nos quoque, quantumcunque diligentes, cum a
candidis tum a lividis carpemur: a candidis interdum juste; quos oro, ut de
erratis omnibus amice me admoneant--erro nonnunquam quia homo sum."
GOOLD BROWN.
_New York_, 1836.
THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking
correctly. As an acquisition, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As
a study, it is the practical science which teaches the right use of
language.
_An English Grammar_ is a book which professes to explain the nature and
structure of the English language; and to show, on just authority, what is,
and what is not, good English.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR, in itself, is the art of reading, writing, and speaking
the English language correctly. It implies, in the adept, such knowledge as
enables him to avoid improprieties of speech; to correct any errors that
may occur in literary compositions; and to parse, or explain grammatically,
whatsoever is rightly written.
_To read_ is to perceive what is written or printed, so as to understand
the words, and be able to utter them with their proper sounds.
_To write_ is to express words and thoughts by letters, or characters,
made with a pen or other instrument.
_To speak_ is to utter words orally, in order that they may be heard and
understood.
Grammar, like every other liberal art, can be properly taught only by a
regular analysis, or systematic elucidation, of its component parts or
principles; and these parts or principles must be made known chiefly by
means of definitions and examples, rules and exercises.
A _perfect definition_ of any thing or class of things is such a
description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every
thing else, by briefly telling _what it is_.
An _example_ is a particular instance or model, serving to prove or
illustrate some given proposition or truth.
A _rule of grammar_ is some law, more or less general, by which custom
regulates and prescribes the right use of language.
An _exercise_ is some technical performance required of the learner in
order to bring his knowledge and skill into practice.
LANGUAGE, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only vocal
expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth; but after letters were
invented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, _spoken_
and _written_, so that the term, _language_, now signifies, _any series of
sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expression of
thought._
Of the composition of language we have also two kinds, _prose_ and _verse_;
the latter requiring a certain number and variety of syllables in each
line, but the former being free from any such restraint.
The _least parts_ of written language are letters; of spoken language,
syllables; of language significant in each part, words; of language
combining thought, phrases; of language subjoining sense, clauses; of
language cooerdinating sense, members; of language completing sense,
sentences.
A discourse, or narration, of any length, is but a series of sentences;
which, when written, must be separated by the proper points, that the
meaning and relation of all the words may be quickly and clearly perceived
by the reader, and the whole be uttered as the sense requires.
In extended compositions, a sentence is usually less than a paragraph; a
paragraph, less than a section; a section, less than a chapter; a chapter,
less than a book; a book, less than a volume; and a volume, less than the
entire work.
The common order of _literary division_, then, is; of a large work, into
volumes; of volumes, into books; of books, into chapters; of chapters, into
sections; of sections, into paragraphs; of paragraphs, into sentences; of
sentences, into members; of members, into clauses; of clauses, into
phrases; of phrases, into words; of words, into syllables; of syllables,
into letters.
But it rarely happens that any one work requires the use of all these
divisions; and we often assume some natural distinction and order of parts,
naming each as we find it; and also subdivide into articles, verses,
cantoes, stanzas, and other portions, as the nature of the subject
suggests.
Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax,
and Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.
Etymology treats of the different _parts of speech_, with their classes and
modifications.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of
words in sentences.
Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--In the Introduction to this work, have been taken many views of
the study, or general science, of grammar; many notices of its history,
with sundry criticisms upon its writers or critics; and thus language has
often been presented to the reader's consideration, either as a whole, or
with broader scope than belongs to the teaching of its particular forms. We
come now to the work of _analyzing_ our own tongue, and of laying down
those special rules and principles which should guide us in the use of it,
whether in speech or in writing. The author intends to dissent from other
grammarians no more than they are found to dissent from truth and reason;
nor will he expose their errors further than is necessary for the credit of
the science and the information of the learner. A candid critic can have no
satisfaction merely in finding fault with other men's performances. But the
facts are not to be concealed, that many pretenders to grammar have shown
themselves exceedingly superficial in their knowledge, as well as slovenly
in their practice; and that many vain composers of books have proved
themselves _despisers_ of this study, by the abundance of their
inaccuracies, and the obviousness of their solecisms.
OBS. 2.--Some grammarians have taught that the word _language_ is of much
broader signification, than that which is given to it in the definition
above. I confine it to speech and writing. For the propriety of this
limitation, and against those authors who describe the thing otherwise, I
appeal to the common sense of mankind. One late writer defines it thus:
"LANGUAGE is _any means_ by which one _person_ communicates his _ideas_ to
_another_."--_Sanders's Spelling-Book_, p. 7. The following is the
explanation of an other slack thinker: "One may, by speaking or by writing,
(and sometimes _by motions_,) communicate his thoughts to others. _The
process_ by which this is done, is called LANGUAGE.--_Language_ is _the
expression_ of thought _and feeling_."--_S. W. Clark's Practical Gram._, p.
7. Dr. Webster goes much further, and says, "LANGUAGE, in its most
extensive sense, is the instrument or means of communicating ideas _and
affections_ of the mind _and body_, from one _animal to another_. In this
sense, _brutes possess the power of language_; for by various inarticulate
sounds, they make known their wants, desires, and sufferings."--
_Philosophical Gram._, p. 11; _Improved Gram._, p. 5. This latter
definition the author of that vain book, "_the District School_," has
adopted in his chapter on Grammar. Sheridan, the celebrated actor and
orthoepist, though he seems to confine language to the human species, gives
it such an extension as to make words no necessary part of its essence.
"The first thought," says he, "that would occur to every one, who had not
properly considered the point, is, that language is composed of words. And
yet, this is so far from being an adequate idea of language, that the point
in which most men think its very essence to consist, is not even a
necessary property of language. For language, in its full extent, means,
any way or method whatsoever, by which _all that passes in the mind of one
man_, may be manifested to another."--_Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution_,
p. 129. Again: "I have already _shown_, that words are, in their own
nature, _no essential part of language_, and are only considered so through
custom."--_Ib._ p. 135.
OBS. 3.--According to S. Kirkham's notion, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive
sense, implies those signs by which _men and brutes_, communicate _to each
other_ their thoughts, affections and desires."--_Kirkham's English Gram._,
p. 16. Again: "_The language of brutes_ consists in the use of those
inarticulate sounds by which they express _their thoughts and
affections_."--_Ib._ To me it seems a shameful abuse of speech, and a vile
descent from the dignity of grammar, to make the voices of "_brutes_" any
part of language, as taken in a literal sense. We might with far more
propriety raise our conceptions of it to the spheres above, and construe
literally the metaphors of David, who ascribes to the starry heavens, both
"_speech_" and "_language_," "_voice_" and "_words_," daily "_uttered_" and
everywhere "_heard_." See _Psalm_ xix.
OBS. 4.--But, strange as it may seem, Kirkham, commencing his instructions
with the foregoing definition of language, proceeds to divide it, agreeably
to this notion, into two sorts, _natural_ and _artificial_; and affirms
that the former "is common both to man and brute," and that the language
which is peculiar to man, the language which consists of _words_, is
altogether an _artificial invention_:[83] thereby contradicting at once a
host of the most celebrated grammarians and philosophers, and that without
appearing to know it. But this is the less strange, since he immediately
forgets his own definition and division of the subject, and as plainly
contradicts himself. Without limiting the term at all, without excluding
his fanciful "_language of brutes_," he says, on the next leaf, "_Language_
is _conventional_, and not only _invented_, but, in its progressive
advancement, _varied for purposes of practical convenience_. Hence it
assumes _any and every form_ which those who make use of it, choose to give
it."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 18. This, though scarcely more rational than
his "_natural language of men and brutes_," plainly annihilates that
questionable section of grammatical science, whether brutal or human, by
making all language a thing "_conventional_" and "_invented_." In short, it
leaves no ground at all for any grammatical science of a positive
character, because it resolves all forms of language into the irresponsible
will of those who utter any words, sounds, or noises.
OBS. 5.--Nor is this gentleman more fortunate in his explanation of what
may really be called language. On one page, he says, "_Spoken language_ or
_speech_, is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human
voice."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 17. On the next, "The most important use of
_that faculty called speech_, is, to convey our thoughts to
others."--_Ib._, p. 18. Thus the grammarian who, in the same short
paragraph, seems to "defy the ingenuity of man to give his words any other
meaning than that which he himself intends _them to express_," (_Ib._, p.
19,) either writes so badly as to make any ordinary false syntax appear
trivial, or actually conceives man to be the inventor of one of his own
_faculties_. Nay, docs he not make man the contriver of that "natural
language" which he possesses "in common with the brutes?" a language "_The
meaning of which_," he says, "_all the different animals perfectly
understand_?"--See his _Gram._, p. 16. And if this notion again be true,
does it not follow, that a horse knows perfectly well what horned cattle
mean by their bellowing, or a flock of geese by their gabbling? I should
not have noticed these things, had not the book which teaches them, been
made popular by _a thousand_ imposing attestations to its excellence and
accuracy. For grammar has nothing at all to do with inarticulate voices, or
the imaginary languages of _brutes_. It is scope enough for one science to
explain all the languages, dialects, and speeches, that lay claim to
_reason_. We need not enlarge the field, by descending
"To beasts, whom[84] God on their creation-day
Created mute to all articulate sound."--_Milton_.[85]
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.
CHAPTER I.--OF LETTERS.
A _Letter_ is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some
elementary sound of the human voice, some element of speech.
An elementary sound of the human voice, or an element of speech, is one of
the simple sounds which compose a spoken language. The sound of a letter is
commonly called its _power_: when any letter of a word is not sounded, it
is said to be _silent_ or _mute._ The letters in the English alphabet, are
twenty-six; the simple or primary sounds which they represent, are about
thirty-six or thirty-seven.
A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these _four
sorts of things_; their _names_, their _classes_, their _powers_, and their
_forms_.
The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or engraved, or embossed,
in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes; and yet are always _the same_,
because their essential properties do not change, and their names, classes,
and powers, are mostly permanent.
The following are some of the different sorts of types, or styles of
letters, with which every reader should be early acquainted:--
1. The Roman: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M
m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.
2. The Italic: _A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l,
M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z._
3. The Script: [Script: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K
k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z
z.]
4. The Old English: [Old English: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I
i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x,
Y y, Z z.]
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--A letter _consists_ not in the figure only, or in the power only,
but in the figure and power united; as an ambassador consists not in the
man only, or in the commission only, but in the man commissioned. The
figure and the power, therefore, are necessary to constitute the letter;
and a name is as necessary, to call it by, teach it, or tell what it is.
The _class_ of a letter is determined by the nature of its power, or sound;
as the ambassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise, according to the extent
of his commission. To all but the deaf and dumb, written language is the
representative of that which is spoken; so that, in the view of people in
general, the powers of the letters are habitually identified with their
sounds, and are conceived to be nothing else. Hence any given sound, or
modification of sound, which all men can produce at pleasure, when
arbitrarily associated with a written sign, or conventional character,
constitutes what is called _a letter_. Thus we may produce the sounds of
_a, e, o_, then, by a particular compression of the organs of utterance,
modify them all, into _ba, be, bo_, or _fa, fe, fo_; and we shall see that
_a, e_, and _o_, are letters of one sort, and _b_ and _f_ of an other. By
_elementary_ or _articulate_ sounds,[86] then, we mean not only the simple
tones of the voice itself, but the modifying stops and turns which are
given them in speech, and marked by letters: the real voices constituting
vowels; and their modifications, consonants.
OBS. 2.--A mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given, cannot be a
letter; though it may, like the marks used for punctuation, deserve a name
and a place in grammar. Commas, semicolons, and the like, represent
_silence_, rather than sounds, and are therefore not letters. Nor are the
Arabic figures, which represent entire _words_, nor again any symbols
standing for _things_, (as the astronomic marks for the sun, the moon, the
planets,) to be confounded with letters; because the representative of any
word or number, of any name or thing, differs widely in its power, from the
sign of a simple elementary sound: i. e., from any constituent _part_ of a
written word. The first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes
stand for the whole, and is still a letter; but it is so, as being the
first element of the word, and not as being the representative of the
whole.
OBS. 3.--In their definitions of vowels and consonants, many grammarians
have resolved letters into _sounds only_; as, "A Vowel is an articulate
_sound_," &c.--"A Consonant is an articulate _sound_," &c.--_L. Murray's
Gram._, p. 7. But this confounding of the visible signs with the things
which they signify, is very far from being a true account of either.
Besides, letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which
is independent of all sound, though speech, doubtless, is what they
properly represent. In practice, almost all the letters may occasionally
happen to be _silent_; yet are they not, in these cases, necessarily
useless. The deaf and dumb also, to whom none of the letters express or
represent sounds, may be taught to read and write understandingly. They
even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented
syllables, and to have some notion of _quantity_, or of something else
equivalent to it; for some of them, it is said, can compose verses
according to the rules of prosody. Hence it would appear, that the powers
of the letters are not, of necessity, identified with their sounds; the
things being in some respect distinguishable, though the terms are commonly
taken as synonymous. The fact is, that a word, whether spoken or written,
is of itself _significant_, whether its corresponding form be known or not.
Hence, in the one form, it may be perfectly intelligible to the illiterate,
and in the other, to the educated deaf and dumb; while, to the learned who
hear and speak, either form immediately suggests the other, with the
meaning common to both.
OBS. 4.--Our knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by
the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Moses is supposed to have written in
characters which were nearly the same as those called Samaritan, but his
writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular, called
the Chaldee or Chaldaic, which is said to have been made by Ezra the
scribe, when he wrote out a new copy of the law, after the rebuilding of
the temple. Cadmus carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, where it
was subsequently altered and enlarged. The small letters were not invented
till about the seventh century of our era. The Latins, or Romans, derived
most of their capitals from the Greeks; but their small letters, if they
had any, were made afterwards among themselves. This alphabet underwent
various changes, and received very great improvements, before it became
that beautiful series of characters which we now use, under the name of
_Roman letters_. Indeed these particular forms, which are now justly
preferred by many nations, are said to have been adopted after the
invention of printing. "The Roman letters were first used by Sweynheim and
Pannartz, printers who settled at Rome, in 1467. The earliest work printed
wholly in this character in England, is said to have been Lily's or Paul's
Accidence, printed by Richard Pinson, 1518. The Italic letters were
invented by Aldus Manutius at Rome, towards the close of the fifteenth
century, and were first used in an edition of Virgil, in
1501."--_Constables Miscellany_, Vol. xx, p. 147. The Saxon alphabet was
mostly Roman. Not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms.
But the changes, though few, give to a printed page a very different
appearance. Under William the Conqueror, this alphabet was superseded by
the modern Gothic, Old English, or Black letter; which, in its turn,
happily gave place to the present Roman. The Germans still use a type
similar to the Old English, but not so heavy.
OBS. 5.--I have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an
acquaintance with their _names_, their _classes_, their _powers_, and their
_forms_. Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present what
seems most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve
for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements. The
most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in
general most inquisitive. Hence many, who think themselves sufficiently
acquainted with the letters, do in fact know but very little about them. If
a person is able to read some easy book, he is apt to suppose he has no
more to learn respecting the letters; or he neglects the minute study of
these elements, because he sees what words they make, and can amuse himself
with stories of things more interesting. But merely to understand common
English, is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship,
and especially for a _teacher_. For one may do this, and even be a great
reader, without ever being able to name the letters properly, or to
pronounce such syllables as _ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy_, without getting half
of them wrong. No one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has
learned it; and if we neglect the _elements_ of grammar, our attainments
must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial.
I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. The _names_ of the letters, as now commonly spoken
and written in English, are _A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, I, Jay,
Kay, Ell, Em, En, O, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy,
Zee_.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--With the learning and application of these names, our literary
education begins; with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling, it is for
a long time carried on; nor can we ever dispense with them, but by
substituting others, or by ceasing to mention the things thus named. What
is obviously indispensable, needs no proof of its importance. But I know
not whether it has ever been noticed, that these names, like those of the
days of the week, are worthy of particular distinction, for their own
nature. They are words of a very peculiar kind, being nouns that are at
once _both proper and common_. For, in respect to rank, character, and
design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical--that is,
it is ever one and the same; yet, in an other respect, it is a
comprehensive sort, embracing individuals both various and numberless. Thus
every B is a _b_, make it as you will; and can be nothing else than that
same letter b, though you make it in a thousand different fashions, and
multiply it after each pattern innumerably. Here, then, we see
individuality combined at once with great diversity, and infinite
multiplicity; and it is _to this combination_, that letters owe their
wonderful power of transmitting thought. Their _names_, therefore, should
always be written with capitals, as proper nouns, at least in the singular
number; and should form the plural regularly, as ordinary appellatives.
Thus: (if we adopt the names now most generally used in English schools:)
_A, Aes; Bee, Bees; Cee, Cees; Dee, Dees; E, Ees; Eff, Effs; Gee, Gees;
Aitch, Aitches; I, Ies; Jay, Jays; Kay, Kays; Ell, Ells; Em, Ems; En, Ens;
O, Oes; Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues; Ar, Ars; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ues; Vee,
Vees; Double-u, Double-ues; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies; Zee, Zees._
OBS. 2.--The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages,
are mostly framed _with reference_ to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there
in English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power:
for _A, E, I, O_, and _U_, are the only letters which can name themselves,
and all these have other sounds than those which their names express. The
simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insufficient to form
any name, and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name
of each, that did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would
be hard to believe even Murray, when he says, "They are frequently
confounded by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the
_name_, are often applied to explain the _nature_ of a consonant; and by
this means the student is led into error and perplexity."--_L. Murray's
Gram._, 8vo, p. 8. The confounding of names with the things for which they
stand, implies, unquestionably, great carelessness in the use of speech,
and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things; yet so
common is this error, that Murray himself has many times fallen into
it.[87] Let the learner therefore be on his guard, remembering that
grammar, both in its study and in its practice, requires the constant
exercise of a rational discernment. Those letters which name themselves,
take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end
of an accented syllable; thus the names, _A, E, I, O, U_, are uttered with
the sounds given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other
names, _Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Urim_; or in the first syllables of the
common words, _paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil_. The other letters, most
of which can never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their
powers are combined with other sounds more vocal; as, _Bee, Cee, Dee,--Ell,
Em, En,--Jay, Kay, Kue_. But in this respect the terms _Aitch_ and
_Double-u_ are irregular; because they have no obvious reference to the
powers of the letters thus named.
OBS. 3.--Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of _by
their names_; nor can they be spoken of otherwise; yet, as the simple
characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written
names, the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the
words for which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has
hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice. Our dictionaries, by
a strange oversight or negligence, do not recognize them as words; and
writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either
authority or analogy. What they are, or ought to be, has therefore been
treated as a trifling question: and, what is still more surprising, several
authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them; while others,
here at the very threshold of instruction, teach falsely--giving "_he_" for
_Aitch_, "_er_" for _Ar_, "_oo_" or "_uu_" for _Double-u_, "_ye_" for _Wy_,
and writing almost all the rest improperly. So that many persons who think
themselves well educated, would be greatly puzzled to name on paper these
simple elements of all learning. Nay, there can be found a hundred men who
can readily write the alphabetic names which were in use two or three
thousand years ago in Greece or Palestine, for one who can do the same
thing with propriety, respecting those which we now employ so constantly in
English:[88] and yet the words themselves are as familiar to every
school-boy's lips as are the characters to his eye. This fact may help to
convince us, that _the grammar_ of our language has never yet been
sufficiently taught. Among all the particulars which constitute this
subject, there are none which better deserve to be everywhere known, by
proper and determinate names, than these prime elements of all written
language.
OBS. 4.--Should it happen to be asked a hundred lustrums hence, what were
the names of the letters in "the Augustan age of English literature," or in
the days of William the Fourth and Andrew Jackson, I fear the learned of
that day will be as much at a loss for an answer, as would most of our
college tutors now, were they asked, by what series of names the Roman
youth were taught to spell. Might not Quintilian or Varro have obliged
many, by recording these? As it is, we are indebted to Priscian, a
grammarian of the sixth century, for almost all we know about them. But
even the information which may be had, on this point, has been strangely
overlooked by our common Latin grammarians.[89] What, but the greater care
of earlier writers, has made the Greek names better known or more important
than the Latin? In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must
have established for the letters a certain set of names, which are _the
only true ones_, and which are of course to be preferred to such as are
local or unauthorized. In this, however, as in other things, use may
sometimes vary, and possibly improve; but when its decisions are clear, no
feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them. Every parent, therefore,
who would have his children instructed to read and write the English
language, should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters
as they are commonly named in English. A Scotch gentleman of good education
informs me, that the names of the letters, as he first learned them in a
school in his own country, were these: "A, Ib, Ec, Id, E, Iff, Ig, Ich, I,
Ij, Ik, Ill, Im, In, O, Ip, Kue, Ir, Iss, It, U, Iv, Double-u, Ix, Wy, Iz;"
but that in the same school the English names are now used. It is to be
hoped, that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage, and
name the letters _as they ought to be named_; and that the day will come,
in which the regular English _orthography_ of these terms, shall be
steadily preferred, ignorance of it be thought a disgrace, and the makers
of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a
thousand times better known than their own.
OBS. 5.--It is not in respect to their _orthography_ alone, that these
first words in literature demand inquiry and reflection: the
_pronunciation_ of some of them has often been taught erroneously, and,
with respect to three or four of them, some writers have attempted to make
an entire change from the customary forms which I have recorded. Whether
the name of the first letter should be pronounced "_Aye_," as it is in
England, "_Ah_," as it is in Ireland, or "_Aw_," as it is in Scotland, is a
question which Walker has largely discussed, and clearly decided in favour
of the first sound; and this decision accords with the universal practice
of the schools in America. It is remarkable that this able critic, though
he treated minutely of the letters, naming them all in the outset of his
"Principles" subsequently neglected the names of them all, except the first
and the last. Of _Zee_, (which has also been called _Zed, Zad, Izzard,
Uzzard, Izzet_, and _Iz_,)[90] he says, "Its common name is _izzard_, which
Dr. Johnson explains into _s hard_; if, however, this is the meaning, it is
a gross misnomer; for the _z_ is not the hard, but the soft _s_;[91] but as
it has a less sharp, and therefore not so audible a sound, it is not
impossible _but_ it may mean _s surd_. _Zed_, borrowed from the French, is
the more fashionable name of this letter; but, in my opinion, _not to be
admitted, because the names of the letters ought to have no
diversity._"--_Walker's Principles_, No. 483. It is true, the name of a
letter ought to be one, and in no respect diverse; but where diversity has
already obtained, and become firmly rooted in custom, is it to be obviated
by insisting upon what is old-fashioned, awkward, and inconvenient? Shall
the better usage give place to the worse? Uniformity cannot be so reached.
In this country, both _Zed_ and _Izzard_, as well as the worse forms _Zad_
and _Uzzard_, are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term
_Zee_; and whoever will spell aloud, with each of these names, a few such
words as _dizzy, mizzen, gizzard_, may easily perceive why none of the
former can ever be brought again into use. The other two, _Iz_ and _Izzet_,
being localisms, and not authorized English, I give up all six; _Zed_ to
the French, and the rest to oblivion.
OBS. 6.--By way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter,
Walker observes, "If a diversity of names to vowels did not confound us in
our spelling, or declaring to each other the component letters of a word,
it would be entirely needless to enter into _so trifling a question_ as the
mere name of a letter; but when we find ourselves unable to convey signs to
each other on account of this diversity of names, and that words themselves
are endangered by an improper utterance of their component parts, it seems
highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point, which,
insignificant as it may seem, is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and
regular pronunciation."--_Dict., under A_. If diversity in this matter is
so perplexing, what shall we say to those who are attempting innovations
without assigning reasons, or even pretending authority? and if a knowledge
of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation, what shall we think of
him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write
them? He who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing,
cannot deal honestly, if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement,
to any established and undisturbed usage of the language; for, in grammar,
no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom. The best
usage can never be that which is little known, nor can it be well
ascertained and taught by him who knows little. Inquisitive minds are ever
curious to learn the nature, origin, and causes of things; and that
instruction is the most useful, which is best calculated to gratify this
rational curiosity. This is my apology for dwelling so long upon the
present topic.
OBS. 7.--The names originally given to the letters were not mere notations
of sound, intended solely to express or make known the powers of the
several characters then in use; nor ought even the modern names of our
present letters, though formed with special reference to their sounds, to
be considered such. Expressions of mere sound, such as the notations in a
pronouncing dictionary, having no reference to what is meant by the sound,
do not constitute words at all; because they are not those acknowledged
signs to which a meaning has been attached, and are consequently without
that significance which is an essential property of words. But, in every
language, there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical
characters are commonly known in speech; and which, as they are the
acknowledged names of these particular objects, must be entitled to a place
among _the words_ of the language. It is a great error to judge otherwise;
and a greater to make it a "trifling question" in grammar, whether a given
letter shall be called by one name or by an other. Who shall say that
_Daleth, Delta_, and _Dee_, are not three _real words_, each equally
important in the language to which it properly belongs? Such names have
always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated; and as the
forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations, and have
become different in different languages, there has necessarily followed a
change of the names. For, whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the
diversity which has thence arisen, to name these elements in a set of
foreign terms, inconsistent with the genius of the language to be learned,
would surely be attended with a tenfold greater. We derived our letters,
and their names too, from the Romans; but this is no good reason why the
latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and
pronounced in Rome.
OBS. 8.--The names of the twenty-two letters in Hebrew, are, without
dispute, proper _words_; for they are not only significant of the letters
thus named, but have in general, if not in every instance, some other
meaning in that language. Thus the mysterious ciphers which the English
reader meets with, and wonders over, as he reads the 119th Psalm, may be
resolved, according to some of the Hebrew grammars, as follows:--
[Hebrew: Aleph] Aleph, A, an ox, or a leader; [Hebrew: Beth] Beth, Bee,
house; [Hebrew: Gimel] Gimel, Gee, a camel; [Hebrew: Dalet] Daleth, Dee, a
door; [Hebrew: he] He, E, she, or behold; [Hebrew: vav] Vau, U, a hook, or
a nail; [Hebrew: zajin] Zain, Zee, armour; [Hebrew: het] Cheth, or Heth,
Aitch, a hedge; [Hebrew: tet] Teth, Tee, a serpent, or a scroll; [Hebrew:
jod] Jod, or Yod, I, or Wy, a hand shut; [Hebrew: kaf] Caph, Cee, a
hollow hand, or a cup; [Hebrew: lamed] Lamed, Ell, an ox-goad; [Hebrew:
mem] Mem, Em, a stain, or spot; [Hebrew: nun] Nun, En, a fish, or a snake;
[Hebrew: samekh] Samech, Ess, a basis, or support; [Hebrew: ayin] Ain, or
Oin, O, an eye, or a well; [Hebrew: pe] Pe, Pee, a lip, or mouth; [Hebrew:
tsadi] Tzaddi, or Tsadhe, Tee-zee, (i. e. tz, or ts,) a hunter's pole;
[Hebrew: qof] Koph, Kue, or Kay, an ape; [Hebrew: resh] Resch, or Resh,
Ar, a head; [Hebrew: shin] Schin, or Sin, Ess-aitch, or Ess, a tooth;
[Hebrew: tav] Tau, or Thau, Tee, or Tee-aitch, a cross, or mark.
These English names of the Hebrew letters are written with much less
uniformity than those of the Greek, because there has been more dispute
respecting their powers. This is directly contrary to what one would have
expected; since the Hebrew names are words originally significant of other
things than the letters, and the Greek are not. The original pronunciation
of both languages is admitted to be lost, or involved in so much obscurity
that little can be positively affirmed about it; and yet, where least was
known, grammarians have produced the most diversity; aiming at disputed
sounds in the one case, but generally preferring a correspondence of
letters in the other.
OBS. 9.--The word _alphabet_ is derived from the first two names in the
following series. The Greek letters are twenty-four; which are formed,
named, and sounded, thus:--
[Greek: A a], Alpha, a; [Greek: B, b], Beta, b; [Greek: G g], Gamma, g
hard; [Greek: D d], Delta, d; [Greek: E e], Epsilon, e short; [Greek: Z z],
Zeta, z; [Greek: AE ae], Eta, e long; [Greek: TH Th th], Theta, th; [Greek: I
i], Iota, i; [Greek K k], Kappa, k; [Greek: L l], Lambda, l; [Greek: M m],
Mu, m; [Greek: N n], Nu, n; [Greek: X x], Xi, x; [Greek: O o], Omicron, o
short; [Greek: P p], Pi, p; [Greek: R r] Rho, r; [Greek: S s s], Sigma, s;
[Greek: T t], Tau, t; [Greek: Y y], Upsilon, u; [Greek: PH ph], Phi, ph;
[Greek: CH ch], Chi, ch; [Greek: PS ps], Psi, ps; [Greek: O o], Omega, o
long.
Of these names, our English dictionaries explain the first and the last;
and Webster has defined _Iota_, and _Zeta_, but without reference to the
meaning of the former in Greek. _Beta, Delta, Lambda_, and perhaps some
others, are also found in the etymologies or definitions of Johnson and
Webster, both of whom spell the word _Lambda_ and its derivative
_lambdoidal_ without the silent _b_, which is commonly, if not always,
inserted by the authors of our Greek grammars, and which Worcester, more
properly, retains.
OBS. 10.--The reader will observe that the foregoing names, whether Greek
or Hebrew, are in general much less simple than those which our letters now
bear; and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those
languages, he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was
gained when to each letter there was given a short name, expressive, as
ours mostly are, of its ordinary power. This improvement appears to have
been introduced by the Romans, whose names for the letters were even more
simple than our own. But so negligent in respect to them have been the
Latin grammarians, both ancient and modern, that few even of the learned
can tell what they really were in that language; or how they differed,
either in orthography or sound, from those of the English or the French,
the Hebrew or the Greek. Most of them, however, may yet be ascertained from
Priscian, and some others of note among the ancient philologists; so that
by taking from later authors the names of those letters which were not used
in old times, we can still furnish an entire list, concerning the accuracy
of which there is not much room to dispute. It is probable that in the
ancient pronunciation of Latin, _a_ was commonly sounded as in _father_;
_e_ like the English _a_; _i_ mostly like _e_ long; _y_ like _i_ short; _c_
generally and _g_ always hard, as in _come_ and _go_. But, as the original,
native, or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an
understanding of it when written, the existing nations have severally, in a
great measure, accommodated themselves, in their manner of reading this and
other ancient tongues.
OBS. 11.--As the Latin language is now printed, its
letters are twenty-five. Like the French, it has all that belong to the
English alphabet, except the _Double-u_. But, till the first Punic war, the
Romans wrote C for G, and doubtless gave it the power as well as the place
of the Gamma or Gimel. It then seems to have slid into K; but they used it
also for S, as we do now. The ancient Saxons, generally pronounced C as K,
but sometimes as Ch. Their G was either guttural, or like our Y. In some of
the early English grammars the name of the latter is written _Ghee_. The
letter F, when first invented, was called, from its shape, Digamma, and
afterwards Ef. J, when it was first distinguished from I, was called by the
Hebrew name Jod, and afterwards Je. V, when first distinguished from U, was
called Vau, then Va, then Ve. Y, when the Romans first borrowed it from the
Greeks, was called Ypsilon; and Z, from the same source, was called Zeta;
and, as these two letters were used only in words of Greek origin, I know
not whether they ever received from the Romans any shorter names. In
Schneider's Latin Grammar, the letters are named in the following manner;
except Je and Ve, which are omitted by this author: "A, Be, Ce, De, E, Ef,
Ge, Ha, I, [Je,] Ka, El, Em, En, O, Pe, Cu, Er, Es, Te, U, [Ve,] Ix,
Ypsilon, Zeta." And this I suppose to be the most proper way of writing
their names _in Latin_, unless we have sufficient authority for shortening
Ypsilon into Y, sounded as short _i_, and for changing Zeta into Ez.
OBS. 12.--In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels, A, E, I, O, U,
name themselves; but they name themselves differently to the ear, according
to the different ways of uttering them in different languages. And as the
name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also may
be affected in the same manner. But in every language there should be a
known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series; and
that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to _the
genius of the language_. I do not say that the names above can be regularly
declined in Latin; but in English it is as easy to speak of two Dees as of
two trees, of two Kays as of two days, of two Exes as of two foxes, of two
Effs as of two skiffs; and there ought to be no more difficulty about the
correct way of writing the word in the one case, than in the other. In Dr.
Sam. Prat's Latin Grammar, (an elaborate octavo, all Latin, published in
London, 1722,) nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes; b, c, d, g, p, q,
t, j, and v; and eight, semivowels; f, l, m, n, r, s, x, z. "All the
mutes," says this author, "are named by placing _e_ after them; as, be, ce,
de, ge, except _q_, which ends in _u_." See p. 8. "The semivowels,
beginning with _e_, end in themselves; as, ef, _ach_, el, em, en, er, es,
_ex_, (or, as Priscian will have it, _ix_,) _eds_." See p. 9. This mostly
accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph; and so far as it
does not, I judge the author to be wrong. The reader will observe that the
Doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete: K is a mute
which is not enumerated, and the rule would make the name of it _Ke_, and
not _Ka_;--H is not one of his eight semivowels, nor does the name Ach
accord with his rule or seem like a Latin word;--the name of Z, according
to his principle, would be _Ez_ and not "_Eds_," although the latter may
better indicate the _sound_ which was then given to this letter.
OBS. 13.--If the history of these names exhibits diversity, so does that of
almost all other terms; and yet there is some way of writing every word
with correctness, and correctness tends to permanence. But Time, that
establishes authority, destroys it also, when he fairly sanctions newer
customs. To all names worthy to be known, it is natural to wish a perpetual
uniformity; but if any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar,
let him open the English Bible of the fourteenth century, and read a few
verses, observing the names. For instance: "Forsothe whanne _Eroude_ was to
bringynge forth hym, in that nigt _Petir_ was slepynge bitwixe tweyno
knytis."--_Dedis_, (i. e., _Acts_,) xii, 6. "_Crist Ihesu_ that is to
demynge the quyke and deed."--_2 Tim._, iv, 1. Since this was written for
English, our language has changed much, and at the same time acquired, by
means of the press, some aids to stability. I have recorded above the
_true_ names of the letters, as they are now used, with something of their
history; and if there could be in human works any thing unchangeable, I
should wish, (with due deference to all schemers and fault-finders,) that
these names might remain the same forever.
OBS. 14.--If any change is desirable in our present names of the letters,
it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of _Double-u_.
But can we change this well known name? I imagine it would be about as easy
to change _Alpha, Upsilon, or Omega_; and perhaps it would be as useful.
Let Dr. Webster, or any defender of his spelling, try it. He never named
the _English_ letters rightly; long ago discarded the term _Double-u_; and
is not yet tired of his experiment with "_oo_;" but thinks still to make
the vowel sound of this letter its name. Yet he writes his new name wrong;
has no authority for it but his own; and is, most certainly, reprehensible
for the _innovation_.[92] If W is to be named as a vowel, it ought to _name
itself_, as other vowels do, and not to take _two Oes_ for its written
name. Who that knows what it is, to name a letter, can think of naming _w_
by double _o_? That it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this
simple affair of naming the letters, may appear not only from the foregoing
instance, but from the following quotation: "Among the thousand
mismanagements of literary instruction, there is at the outset in the
hornbook, _the pretence to represent elementary sounds_ by syllables
composed of two or more elements; as, _Be, Kay, Zed, Double-u_, and
_Aitch_. These words are used in infancy, and through life, as _simple
elements_ in the process of synthetic spelling. If the definition of a
_consonant_ was made by the master from the practice of the child, it might
suggest pity for the pedagogue, but should not make us forget the realities
of nature."--_Dr. Push, on the Philosophy of the Human Voice_, p. 52. This
is a strange allegation to come from such a source. If I bid a boy spell
the word _why_, he says, "Double-u, Aitch, Wy, _hwi_;" and knows that he
has spelled and pronounced the word correctly. But if he conceives that the
five syllables which form the three words, _Double-u_, and _Aitch_, and
_Wy_, are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronouncing the word
_why_, it is not because the hornbook, or the teacher of the hornbook, ever
made any such blunder or "pretence;" but because, like some great
philosophers, he is capable of misconceiving very plain things. Suppose he
should take it into his head to follow Dr. Webster's books, and to say,
"Oo, he, ye, _hwi_;" who, but these doctors, would imagine, that such
spelling was supported either by "the realities of nature," or by the
authority of custom? I shall retain both the old "definition of a
consonant," and the usual names of the letters, notwithstanding the
contemptuous pity it may excite in the minds of _such_ critics.
II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS.
The letters are divided into two general classes, _vowels_ and
_consonants_.
A _vowel_ is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone; as,
_a, e, o_.
A _consonant_ is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to
a vowel; as, _b, c, d_.[93]
The vowels are _a, e, i, o, u_, and sometimes _w_ and _y._ All the other
letters are consonants.
_W_ or _y_ is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same
syllable; as in _wine, twine, whine; ye, yet, youth_: in all other cases,
these letters are vowels; as in _Yssel, Ystadt, yttria; newly, dewy,
eyebrow._
CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.
The consonants are divided, with respect to their powers, into _semivowels_
and _mutes._
A _semivowel_ is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a
vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted; as,
_l, n, z_, in _al, an, az._
A _mute_ is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and
which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; as, _k, p, t_, in
_ak, ap, at._
The semivowels are, _f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z_, and _c_ and
_g_ soft: but _w_ or _y_ at the end of a syllable, is a vowel; and the
sound of _c, f, g, h, j, s_, or _x_, can be protracted only as an
_aspirate_, or strong breath.
Four of the semivowels,--_l, m, n_, and _r_,--are termed _liquids_, on
account of the fluency of their sounds; and four others,--_v, w, y_, and
_z_,--are likewise more vocal than the aspirates.
The mutes are eight;--_b, d, k, p, q, t_, and _c_ and _g_ hard: three of
these,--_k, q_, and _c_ hard,--sound exactly alike: _b, d_, and _g_ hard,
stop the voice less suddenly than the rest.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The foregoing division of the letters is of very
great antiquity, and, in respect to its principal features sanctioned by
almost universal authority; yet if we examine it minutely, either with
reference to the various opinions of the learned, or with regard to the
essential differences among the things of which it speaks, it will not
perhaps be found in all respects indisputably certain. It will however be
of use, as a basis for some subsequent rules, and as a means of calling the
attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the
letters. A knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is
implied in the faculty of speech. The power of producing these sounds with
distinctness, and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is
used, constitutes perfection of utterance. Had we a perfect alphabet,
consisting of one symbol, and only one, for each elementary sound; and a
perfect method of spelling, freed from silent letters, and precisely
adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words; the process of
learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated. And yet any
attempt toward such a reformation, any change short of the introduction of
some entirely new mode of writing, would be both unwise and impracticable.
It would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion, because
pronunciation is the least permanent part of language; and if the
orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard, their origin
and meaning would, in many instances, be soon lost. We must therefore
content ourselves to learn languages as they are, and to make the best use
we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters; and we may
be the better satisfied to do this, because the deficiencies and
redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained, as to make
it certain what a perfect one would be.
OBS. 2.--In order to have a right understanding of the letters, it is
necessary to enumerate, as accurately as we can, the elementary _sounds_ of
the language; and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds
are enunciated, as well as to the characters by which they are represented.
The most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain
differences in the sounds, as well as in the shapes, of the letters; and
yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed, or how many of
them will fall under some particular name, it may occasionally puzzle a
philosopher to tell. The student must consider what is proposed or asked,
use his own senses, and judge for himself. With our lower-case alphabet
before him, he can tell by his own eye, which are the long letters, and
which the short ones; so let him learn by his own ear, which are the
vowels, and which, the consonants. The processes are alike simple; and, if
he be neither blind nor deaf, he can do both about equally well. Thus he
may know for a certainty, that _a_ is a short letter, and _b_ a long one;
the former a vowel, the latter a consonant: and so of others. Yet as he may
doubt whether _t_ is a long letter or a short one, so he may be puzzled to
say whether _w_ and _y_, as heard in _we_ and _ye_, are vowels or
consonants: but neither of these difficulties should impair his confidence
in any of his other decisions. If he attain by observation and practice a
clear and perfect pronunciation of the letters, he will be able to class
them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books.
OBS. 3.--Grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a
vowel or a consonant; and also that there are among the latter some
semivowels, some mutes, some aspirates, some liquids, some sharps, some
flats, some labials, some dentals, some nasals, some palatals, and perhaps
yet other species; but in enumerating the letters which belong to these
several classes, they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to
ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their
authority. I have adopted what I conceive to be the best authorized, and at
the same time the most intelligible. He that dislikes the scheme, may do
better, if he can. But let him with modesty determine what sort of
discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable. Aristotle,
three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters
into _vowels, semivowels_, and _mutes_, and declared that no syllable could
be formed without a vowel. In the opinion of some neoterics, it has been
reserved to our age, to detect the fallacy of this. But I would fain
believe that the Stagirite knew as well what he was saying, as did Dr.
James Rush, when, in 1827, he declared the doctrine of vowels and
consonants to be "a misrepresentation." The latter philosopher resolves the
letters into "_tonics, subtonics_, and _atonics_;" and avers that
"consonants alone may form syllables." Indeed, I cannot but think the
ancient doctrine better. For, to say that "consonants alone may form
syllables," is as much as to say that consonants are not consonants, but
vowels! To be consistent, the attempters of this reformation should never
speak of vowels or consonants, semivowels or mutes; because they judge the
terms inappropriate, and the classification absurd. They should therefore
adhere strictly to their "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" which classes,
though apparently the same as vowels, semivowels, and mutes, are better
adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements. Thus, by
reforming both language and philosophy at once, they may make what they
will of either!
OBS. 4.--Some teach that _w_ and _y_ are always vowels: conceiving the
former to be equivalent to _oo_, and the latter to _i_ or _e_. Dr. Lowth
says, "_Y_ is always a vowel," and "_W_ is either a vowel or a diphthong."
Dr. Webster supposes _w_ to be always "a vowel, a simple sound;" but admits
that, "At the beginning of words, _y_ is called an _articulation_ or
_consonant_, and _with some propriety perhaps_, as it brings the root of
the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate, and nearly
in the position to which the close _g_ brings it."--_American Dict.,
Octavo_. But I follow Wallis, Brightland, Johnson, Walker, Murray,
Worcester, and others, in considering both of them sometimes vowels and
sometimes consonants. They are consonants at the beginning of words in
English, because their sounds take the article _a_, and not _an_, before
them; as, _a wall, a yard_, and not, _an wall, an yard_. But _oo_ or the
sound of _e_, requires _an_, and not _a_; as, _an eel, an oozy bog_.[94] At
the end of a syllable we know they are vowels; but at the beginning, they
are so squeezed in their pronunciation, as to follow a vowel without any
hiatus, or difficulty of utterance; as, "_O worthy youth! so young, so
wise!_"
OBS. 5.--Murray's rule, "_W_ and _y_ are consonants when they begin a word
or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels," which is found
in Comly's book, _Kirkham's_, Merchant's, Ingersoll's, Fisk's. Hart's,
Hiley's, Alger's, Bullions's, Pond's, S. Putnam's, Weld's, and in sundry
other grammars, is favourable to my doctrine, but too badly conceived to be
quoted here as authority. It _undesignedly_ makes _w_ a consonant in
_wine_, and a vowel in _twine_; and _y_ a consonant when it _forms_ a
syllable, as in _dewy_: for a letter that _forms_ a syllable, "begins" it.
But _Kirkham_ has lately learned his letters anew; and, supposing he had
Dr. Rush on his side, has philosophically taken their names for their
sounds. He now calls _y_ a "_diphthong_." But he is wrong here by his own
showing: he should rather have called it a _triphthong_. He says, "By
pronouncing in a very deliberate and perfectly natural manner, the letter
_y_, (which is a _diphthong_,) the _unpractised_ student will perceive,
that the sound produced, is compound; being formed, at its opening, of the
obscure sound of _oo_ as heard in _oo_-ze, which sound rapidly slides into
that of _i_, and then advances to that of _ee_ as heard in _e_-ve, _and_ on
which it gradually passes off into silence."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 75.
Thus the "unpractised student" is taught that _b-y_ spells _bwy_; or, if
pronounced "very deliberately, _boo-i-ee_!" Nay, this grammatist makes _b_,
not a labial mute, as Walker, Webster, Cobb, and others, have called it,
but a nasal subtonic, or semivowel. He delights in protracting its
"guttural murmur;" perhaps, in assuming its name for its sound; and, having
proved, that "consonants are capable of forming syllables," finds no
difficulty in mouthing this little monosyllable _by_ into _b-oo-i-ee!_ In
this way, it is the easiest thing in the world, for such a man to outface
Aristotle, or any other divider of the letters; for he _makes_ the sounds
by which he judges. "Boy," says the teacher of Kirkham's Elocution,
"describe the protracted sound of _y_."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 110. The
pupil may answer, "That letter, sir, has no longer or more complex sound,
than what is heard in the word _eye_, or in the vowel _i_; but the book
which I study, describes it otherwise. I know not whether I can make you
understand it, but I will _tr-oo-i-ee_." If the word _try_, which the
author uses as an example, does not exhibit his "protracted sound of _y_,"
there is no word that does: the sound is a mere fiction, originating in
strange ignorance.
OBS. 6.--In the large print above, I have explained the principal classes
of the letters, but not all that are spoken of in books. It is proper to
inform the learner that the _sharp_ consonants are _t_, and all others
after which our contracted preterits and participles require that _d_
should be sounded like _t_; as in the words faced, reached, stuffed,
laughed, triumphed, croaked, cracked, houghed, reaped, nipped, piqued,
missed, wished, earthed, betrothed, fixed. The _flat_ or _smooth_
consonants are _d_, and all others with which the proper sound of _d_ may
be united; as in the words, daubed, judged, hugged, thronged, sealed,
filled, aimed, crammed, pained, planned, feared, marred, soothed, loved,
dozed, buzzed. The _labials_ are those consonants which are articulated
chiefly by the lips; among which, Dr. Webster reckons _b, f, m, p_, and
_v_. But Dr. Rush says, _b_ and _m_ are nasals, the latter, "purely nasal."
[95] The _dentals_ are those consonants which are referred to the teeth;
the _nasals_ are those which are affected by the nose; and the _palatals_
are those which compress the palate, as _k_ and hard _g_. But these
last-named classes are not of much importance; nor have I thought it worth
while to notice _minutely_ the opinions of writers respecting the others,
as whether _h_ is a semivowel, or a mute, or neither.
OBS. 7.--The Cherokee alphabet, which was invented in 1821, by See-quo-yah,
or George Guess, an ingenious but wholly illiterate Indian, contains
eighty-five letters, or characters. But the sounds of the language are much
fewer than ours; for the characters represent, not simple tones and
articulations, but _syllabic sounds_, and this number is said to be
sufficient to denote them all. But the different syllabic sounds in our
language amount to some thousands. I suppose, from the account, that
_See-quo-yah_ writes his name, in his own language, with three letters; and
that characters so used, would not require, and probably would not admit,
such a division as that of vowels and consonants. One of the Cherokees, in
a letter to the American Lyceum, states, that a knowledge of this mode of
writing is so easily acquired, that one who understands and speaks the
language, "can learn to read in a day; and, indeed," continues the writer,
"I have known some to acquire the art in a single evening. It is only
necessary to learn the different sounds of the characters, to be enabled to
read at once. In the English language, we must not only first learn the
letters, but to spell, before reading; but in Cherokee, all that is
required, is, to learn the letters; for they have _syllabic sounds_, and by
connecting different ones together, a word is formed: in which there is no
art. All who understand the language can do so, and both read and write, so
soon as they can learn to trace with their fingers the forms of the
characters. I suppose that more than one half of the Cherokees can read
their own language, and are thereby enabled to acquire much valuable
information, with which they otherwise would never have been blessed."--_W.
S. Coodey_, 1831.
OBS. 8.--From the foregoing account, it would appear that the Cherokee
language is a very peculiar one: its words must either be very few, or the
proportion of polysyllables very great. The characters used in China and
Japan, stand severally for _words_; and their number is said to be not less
than seventy thousand; so that the study of a whole life is scarcely
sufficient to make a man thoroughly master of them. Syllabic writing is
represented by Dr. Blair as a great improvement upon the Chinese method,
and yet as being far inferior to that which is properly _alphabetic_, like
ours. "The first step, in this new progress," says he, "was the invention
of an alphabet of syllables, which probably preceded the invention of an
alphabet of letters, among some of the ancient nations; and which is said
to be retained to this day, in Ethiopia, and some countries of India. By
fixing upon a particular mark, or character, for every syllable in the
language, the number of characters, necessary to be used in writing, was
reduced within a much smaller compass than the number of words in the
language. Still, however, the number of characters was great; and must have
continued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. Till, at
last, some happy genius arose, and tracing the sounds made by the human
voice, to their most simple elements, reduced them to a very few _vowels
and consonants_; and, by affixing to each of these, the signs which we now
call letters, taught men how, by their combinations, to put in writing all
the different words, or combinations of sound, which they employed in
speech. By being reduced to this simplicity, the art of writing was brought
to its highest state of perfection; and, in this state, we now enjoy it in
all the countries of Europe."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, Lect. VII, p. 68.
OBS. 9.--All certain knowledge of the sounds given to the letters by Moses
and the prophets having been long ago lost, a strange dispute has arisen,
and been carried on for centuries, concerning this question, "Whether the
Hebrew letters are, or are not, _all consonants_:" the vowels being
supposed by some to be suppressed and understood; and not written, except
by _points_ of comparatively late invention. The discussion of such a
question does not properly belong to English grammar; but, on account of
its curiosity, as well as of its analogy to some of our present disputes, I
mention it. Dr. Charles Wilson says, "After we have sufficiently known the
figures and names of the letters, the next step is, to learn to enunciate
or to pronounce them, so as to produce articulate sounds. On this subject,
which appears at first sight very plain and simple, numberless contentions
and varieties of opinion meet us at the threshold. From the earliest period
of the invention of written characters to represent human language, however
more or less remote that time may be, it seems absolutely certain, that the
distinction of letters into _vowels and consonants_ must have obtained. All
the speculations of the Greek grammarians assume this as a first
principle." Again: "I beg leave only to premise this observation, that I
absolutely and unequivocally deny the position, that all the letters of the
Hebrew alphabet are consonants; and, after the most careful and minute
inquiry, give it as my opinion, that of the twenty-two letters of which the
Hebrew alphabet consists, five are vowels and seventeen are consonants. The
five vowels by name are, Aleph, He, Vau, Yod, and Ain."--_Wilson's Heb.
Gram._, pp. 6 and 8.
III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS.
The powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their
figures are used to represent; but letters formed into words, are capable
of communicating thought independently of sound. The simple elementary
sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than _thirty-six_;[96]
but they may be variously _combined_, so as to form words innumerable.
Different vowel sounds, or vocal elements, are produced by opening the
mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each;
but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the
same vowel power.
The _vowel sounds_ which form the basis of the English language, and which
ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it, are
those which are heard at the beginning of the words, _ate, at, ah, all,
eel, ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us_, and that of _u_ in _bull_.
In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be
joined together, as in _ay, oil, out, owl_; and all of them may be preceded
or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which
will severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the same
essential sounds may be changed into a new series of words by an _f_; as,
_fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse,
fuss, full_. Again, into as many more with a _p_; as, _pate, pat, par,
pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, purl, pull_. Each of
the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them
are sometimes words: the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form
syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately,
according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible:
eigh, ~a, ah, awe, =eh, ~e, eye, ~i, oh, ~o, oo, yew, ~u, u. Thus the eight
long sounds, _eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew_, are, or may be, words;
but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in _at, et, it,
ot, ut, put_, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants; except
the first, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or
_a_--a sound sometimes given to the word _a_, perhaps most generally; as in
the phrase, "twice _~a_ day."
The simple _consonant sounds_ in English are twenty-two: they are marked by
_b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v,
w, y, z_, and _zh_. But _zh_ is written only to show the sound of other
letters; as of _s_ in _pleasure_, or _z_ in _azure_.
All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: _buy, die,
fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh,
thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure_. Again: most of them may be repeated in
the same word, if not in the same syllable; as in _bibber, diddle, fifty,
giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror,
hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union,[97]
dizzies, vision_.
With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but complex sounds:
hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to _dzh_; and X, either to
_ks_ or to _gz_. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins
none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of
Z; as in _Xerxes, xebec_.
The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always
the power of _k_. C is hard, like _k_, before _a, o_, and _u_; and soft,
like _s_, before _e, i_, and _y_: thus the syllables, _ca, ce, ci, co, cu,
cy_, are pronounced, _ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy_. _S_ before _c_ preserves the
former sound, but coalesces with the latter; hence the syllables, _sca,
sce, sci, sco, scu, scy_, are sounded, _ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy_. _Ce_
and _ci_ have sometimes the sound of _sh_; as in _ocean, social_. _Ch_
commonly represents the compound sound of _tsh_; as in _church_.
G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always
hard, or guttural, before _a, o_, and _u_; and generally soft, like _j_,
before _e, i_, or _y_: thus the syllables, _ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy_, are
pronounced _ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy_.
The possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six letters of our
alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are
unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are
more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording
of speech.
Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven
and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer,
we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to
explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all
ages.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--A knowledge of sounds can be acquired, in the first
instance, only by the ear. No description of the manner of their
production, or of the differences which distinguish them, can be at all
intelligible to him who has not already, by the sense of hearing, acquired
a knowledge of both. What I here say of the sounds of the letters, must of
course be addressed to those persons only who are able both to speak and to
read English. Why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance
and knowledge on the part of the pupil, must alike render useless? I have
supposed some readers to have such an acquaintance with the powers of the
letters, as is but loose and imperfect; sufficient for the accurate
pronunciation of some words or syllables, but leaving them liable to
mistakes in others; extending perhaps to all the sounds of the language,
but not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them. Such persons may profit
by a written description of the powers of the letters, though no such
description can equal the clear impression of the living voice. Teachers,
too, whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young, and, by a
patient inculcation of elementary principles, to lay the foundation of an
accurate pronunciation, may derive some assistance from any notation of
these principles, which will help their memory, or that of the learner. The
connexion between letters and sounds is altogether _arbitrary_; but a few
positions, being assumed and made known, in respect to some characters,
become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of
similar sound.
OBS. 2.--The importance of being instructed at an early age, to pronounce
with distinctness and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native
language, has been so frequently urged, and is so obvious in itself, that
none but those who have been themselves neglected, will be likely to
disregard the claims of their children in this respect.[98] But surely an
accurate knowledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly
more common, were there not much hereditary negligence respecting the
manner in which these important rudiments are learned. The utterance of the
illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent, but it is always more or less
barbarous, because it is not aided by a knowledge of orthography. For
pronunciation and orthography, however they may seem, in our language
especially, to be often at variance, are certainly correlative: a true
knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both. Each of the letters
represents some one or more of the elementary sounds, exclusive of the
rest; and each of the elementary sounds, though several of them are
occasionally transferred, has some one or two letters to which it most
properly or most frequently belongs. But borrowed, as our language has
been, from a great variety of sources, to which it is desirable ever to
retain the means of tracing it, there is certainly much apparent lack of
correspondence between its oral and its written form. Still the
discrepancies are few, when compared with the instances of exact
conformity; and, if they are, as I suppose they are, unavoidable, it is as
useless to complain of the trouble they occasion, as it is to think of
forcing a reconciliation. The wranglers in this controversy, can never
agree among themselves, whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation,
or pronunciation to orthography. Nor does any one of them well know how our
language would either sound or look, were he himself appointed sole arbiter
of all variances between our spelling and our speech.
OBS. 3.--"Language," says Dr. Rush, "was long ago analyzed into its
alphabetic elements. Wherever this analysis is known, the art of teaching
language has, with the best success, been conducted upon the rudimental
method." * * * "The art of reading consists in having all the vocal
elements under complete command, that they may be properly applied, for the
vivid and elegant delineation of the sense and sentiment of
discourse."--_Philosophy of the Voice_, p. 346. Again, of "the
pronunciation of the alphabetic elements," he says, "The least deviation
_from the assumed standard_ converts the listener into the critic; and I am
surely speaking within bounds when I say, that for every miscalled element
in discourse, ten succeeding words are lost to the greater part of an
audience."--_Ibid._, p. 350. These quotations plainly imply both the
practicability and the importance of teaching the pronunciation of our
language analytically by means of its present orthography, and agreeably to
the standard assumed by the grammarians. The first of them affirms that it
has been done, "with the best success," according to some ancient method of
dividing the letters and explaining their sounds. And yet, both before and
afterwards, we find this same author complaining of our alphabet and its
subdivisions, as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both; and of
our orthography, as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better: and, at
the same time, he speaks of softening his censure through modesty. "The
deficiencies, redundancies, and confusion, of the system of alphabetic
characters in this language, prevent the adoption of its subdivisions in
this essay."--_Ib._, p. 52. Of the specific sounds given to the letters, he
says, "The first of these matters is under the rule of every body, and
therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that
philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction. How can we
hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language, when
great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt, in so simple and
useful a labour as the correction of its orthography!"--P. 256. Again: "I
_deprecate noticing_ the faults of speakers, in the pronunciation of the
alphabetic elements. It is better for criticism to be modest on this point,
till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses,
look more like the work of what is called--wise and transcendent humanity:
till the pardonable variety of pronunciation, and the _true spelling by
the vulgar_, have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up
the troubles of orthography for no other purpose, as one can divine, than
to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education."--_Ib._,
p. 383.
OBS. 4.--How far these views are compatible, the reader will judge. And it
is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts, from a consideration of
the fact, that a great master of the "pen-craft" here ridiculed, a noted
stickler for needless Kays and Ues, now commonly rejected, while he boasts
that his grammar, which he mostly copied from Murray's, is teaching the old
explanation of the alphabetic elements to "more than one hundred thousand
children and youth," is also vending under his own name an abstract of the
new scheme of "_tonicks, subtonicks_, and _atonicks_;" and, in one breath,
bestowing superlative praise on both, in order, as it would seem, to
monopolize all inconsistency. "Among those who have successfully laboured
in the philological field, _Mr. Lindley Murray_ stands forth in bold
relief, as undeniably at the head of the list."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p.
12. "The modern candidate for oratorical fame, stands on very different,
and far more advantageous, ground, than that occupied by the young and
aspiring Athenian; especially since a _correct analysis of the vocal
organs_, and a faithful record of their operations, have been given to the
world by _Dr. James Rush_, of Philadelphia--a name that will _outlive_ the
unquarried marble of our mountains."--_Ibid._, p. 29. "But what is to be
said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution, and
thoughtless friends undertake to support it? The fraud must go on, till
presumption quarrels, as often happens, with its own friends, or with
itself, and thus dissolves the spell of its merits."--_Rush, on the Voice_,
p. 405.
OBS. 5.--The question respecting the _number_ of simple or elementary
sounds in our language, presents a remarkable puzzle: and it is idle, if
not ridiculous, for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our
alphabet and orthography, who does not show himself able to solve it. All
these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four
lines upon almost any subject; and every one who can read, is familiar with
them all, and with all the letters. Now it is either easy _to count_ them,
or it is difficult. If difficult, wherein does the difficulty lie? and how
shall he who knows not what and how many they are, think himself capable of
reforming our system of their alphabetic signs? If easy, why do so few
pretend to know their number? and of those who do pretend to this
knowledge, why are there so few that agree? A certain verse in the seventh
chapter of Ezra, has been said to contain all the letters. It however
contains no _j_; and, with respect to the sounds, it lacks that of _f_,
that of _th sharp_, and that of _u_ in _bull_. I will suggest a few
additional words for these; and then both all the letters, and all the
sounds, of the English language, will be found in the example; and most of
them, many times over: "'And I, even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a
decree to all the treasurers' who 'are beyond the river, that whatsoever
Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, shall require
of you, it be done speedily' and faithfully, according to that which he
shall enjoin." Some letters, and some sounds, are here used much more
frequently than others; but, on an average, we have, in this short passage,
each sound five times, and each letter eight. How often, then, does a man
speak all the elements of his language, who reads well but one hour!
OBS. 6.--Of the number of elementary sounds in our language, different
orthoepists report differently; because they cannot always agree among
themselves, wherein the identity or the simplicity, the sameness or the
singleness, even of well-known sounds, consists; or because, if each is
allowed to determine these points for himself, no one of them adheres
strictly to his own decision. They may also, each for himself, have some
peculiar way of utterance, which will confound some sounds which other men
distinguish, or distinguish some which other men confound. For, as a man
may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible, so he may utter
many sounds improperly and still be understood. One may, in this way, make
out a scheme of the alphabetic elements, which shall be true of his own
pronunciation, and yet have obvious faults when tried by the best usage of
English speech. It is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the
number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the language obviously
requires. And what that number is, it seems to me not very difficult to
ascertain; at least, I think we may fix it with sufficient accuracy for all
practical purposes. But let it be remembered, that all who have hitherto
attempted the enumeration, have deviated more or less from their own
decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds; but,
most commonly, it appears to have been thought expedient to admit some
exceptions concerning both. Thus the long or diphthongal sounds of _I_ and
_U_, are admitted by some, and excluded by others; the sound of _j_, or
soft _g_, is reckoned as simple by some, and rejected as compound by
others; so a part, if not all, of what are called the long and the short
vowels, as heard in _ale_ and _ell, arm_ and _am, all_ and _on, isle_ or
_eel_ and _ill, tone_ and _tun, pule_ or _pool_ and _pull_, have been
declared essentially the same by some, and essentially different by others.
Were we to recognize as elementary, no sounds but such as are
unquestionably simple in themselves, and indisputably different in quality
from all others, we should not have more sounds than letters: and this is a
proof that we have characters enough, though the sounds are perhaps badly
distributed among them.
OBS. 7.--I have enumerated _thirty-six_ well known sounds, which, in
compliance with general custom, and for convenience in teaching. I choose
to regard as the oral elements of our language. There may be found some
reputable authority for adding four or five more, and other authority as
reputable, for striking from the list seven or eight of those already
mentioned. For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard in
writing, a principle of universal grammar, _that there can be no
syllable without a vowel_, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr.
Johnson, L. Murray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is
given to the vowel _e_ a certain very obscure sound which approaches, but
amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so regarded
by the writers of dictionaries. It may be exemplified in the words _oven,
shovel, able_;[99] or in the unemphatic article _the_ before a consonant,
as in the sentence, "Take the nearest:" we do not hear it as "_thee
nearest_," nor as "_then carest_," but more obscurely. There is also a
feeble sound of _i_ or _y_ unaccented, which is equivalent to _ee_ uttered
feebly, as in the word _diversity_. This is the most common sound of _i_
and of _y_. The vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound
of short _u_. As elegance of utterance depends much upon the preservation
of this sound from such obtuseness, perhaps Walker and others have done
well to mark it as _e_ in _me_; though some suppose it to be peculiar, and
others identify it with the short _i_ in _fit_. Thirdly, a distinction is
made by some writers, between the vowel sounds heard in _hate_ and _bear_,
which Sheridan and Walker consider to be the same. The apparent difference
may perhaps result from the following consonant _r_, which is apt to affect
the sound of the vowel which precedes it. Such words as _bear, care, dare,
careful, parent_, are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation, by too
broad a sound of the _a_; and, as the multiplication of needless
distinctions should be avoided, I do not approve of adding an other sound
to a vowel which has already quite too many. Worcester, however, in his new
Dictionary, and Wells, in his new Grammar, give to the vowel A _six_ or
_seven_ sounds in lieu of _four_; and Dr. Mandeville, in his Course of
Reading, says, "_A_ has _eight_ sounds."--P. 9.
OBS. 8.--Sheridan made the elements of his oratory _twenty-eight_. Jones
followed him implicitly, and adopted the same number.[100] Walker
recognized several more, but I know not whether he has anywhere told us
_how many there are_. Lindley Murray enumerates _thirty-six_, and the same
thirty-six that are given in the main text above. The eight sounds not
counted by Sheridan are these: 1. The Italian _a_, as in _far, father_,
which he reckoned but a lengthening of the _a_ in _hat_; 2. The short _o_,
as in _hot_, which he supposed to be but a shortening of the _a_ in _hall_;
3. The diphthongal _i_, as in _isle_, which he thought but a quicker union
of the sounds of the diphthong _oi_, but which, in my opinion, is rather a
very quick union of the sounds _ah_ and _ee_ into _ay, I_;[101] 4. The long
_u_, which is acknowledged to be equal to _yu_ or _yew_, though perhaps a
little different from _you_ or _yoo_,[102] the sound given it by Walker; 5.
The _u_ heard in _pull_, which he considered but a shortening of _oo_; 6.
The consonant _w_, which he conceived to be always a vowel, and equivalent
to _oo_; 7. The consonant _y_, which he made equal to a short _ee_; 8. The
consonant _h_, which he declared to be no letter, but a mere breathing, In
all other respects, his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that
which is adopted in this work, and which is now most commonly taught.
OBS. 9.--The effect of _Quantity_ in the prolation of the vowels, is a
matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted.
_Quantity_ is simply the _time_ of utterance, whether long or short. It is
commonly spoken of with reference to _syllables_, because it belongs
severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice, and to
these only; but, as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone, the notion
of quantity is of course as applicable to them, as to any of the more
complex sounds in which consonants are joined with them. All sounds imply
time; because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which
temporarily agitate the air, an element that tends to silence. When mighty
winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the _Ocean_ is raised,
he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a _long_ quantity;
the rolling billows, as they meet the shore, pronounce the long-drawn
syllables of his majestic elocution. But see him again in gentler mood;
stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves:
he will teach you _short_ quantity, as well as long. In common parlance, to
avoid tediousness, to save time, and to adapt language to circumstances, we
usually utter words with great rapidity, and in comparatively short
quantity. But in oratory, and sometimes in ordinary reading, those sounds
which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear, should be sensibly
protracted, especially in emphatic words; and even the shortest syllable,
must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness: otherwise
the performance will be judged defective.
OBS. 10.--Some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than
others; but whether the former are naturally long, and the latter naturally
short, may be doubted: the common opinion is, that they are. But one author
at least denies it; and says, "We must explode the pretended natural
epithets _short_ and _long_ given to our vowels, independent on accent: and
we must observe that our silent _e_ final lengthens not its syllable,
unless the preceding vowel be accented."--_Mackintosh's Essay on E. Gram._,
p. 232. The distinction of long and short vowels which has generally
obtained, and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to
establish between them, have always been to me sources of much
embarrassment. It would appear, that in one or two instances, sounds that
differ only in length, or time, are commonly recognized as different
elements; and that grammarians and orthoepists, perceiving this, have
attempted to carry out the analogy, and to find among what they call the
long vowels a parent sound for each of the short ones. In doing this, they
have either neglected to consult the ear, or have not chosen to abide by
its verdict. I suppose the vowels heard in _pull_ and _pool_ would be
necessarily identified, if the former were protracted or the latter
shortened; and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in
_of_ and _all_, were they tried in the same way, though I am not sure of
it. In protracting the _e_ in _met_, and the _i_ in _ship_, ignorance or
carelessness might perhaps, with the help of our orthoepists, convert the
former word into _mate_ and the latter into _sheep_; and, as this would
breed confusion in the language, the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps
be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of _e_ and _i_, to
that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken. But to suppose, as
some do, that the protraction of _u_ in _tun_ would identify it with the
_o_ in _tone_, surpasses any notion I have of what stupidity may
misconceive. With one or two exceptions, therefore, it appears to me that
each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature, that it may be readily
recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone, though it be made as long
or as short as it is possible for any sound of the human voice to be. It is
manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in _ate, at, arm, all, eel,
old, ooze, us_, may be protracted to the entire extent of a full breath
slowly expended, and still be precisely the same one simple sound;[103]
and, on the contrary, that all but one may be shortened to the very minimum
of vocality, and still be severally known without danger of mistake. The
prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utterance in that particular
position which the sound of the letter requires, and then _holds them
unmoved_ till we have given to it all the length we choose.
OBS. 11.--In treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels, Walker
says, "The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us
when we utter the vowels, is a long and a short sound, according to the
greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This
distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is
that to which we annex _clearer ideas than to any other_; and though the
short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed with
sufficient accuracy with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but
little confusion, as vowels long and short are always sufficiently
distinguishable."--_Principles_, No. 63. Again: "But though the terms long
and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally understood, an
accurate ear will easily perceive that these terms do not always mean the
long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied;
for, if we choose to be directed by the ear, in denominating vowels long or
short, we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which
have _exactly the same radical tone_, and differ only in the long or short
emission of that tone."--_Ib._, No. 66. He then proceeds to state his
opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus
correspondent: _tame, them; car, carry; wall, want; dawn, gone; theme, him;
tone_, nearly _tun; pool, pull_. As to the long sounds of _i_ or _y_, and
of _u_, these two being diphthongal, he supposes the short sound of each to
be no other than the short sound of its latter element _ee_ or _oo_. Now to
me most of this is exceedingly unsatisfactory; and I have shown why.
OBS. 12.--If men's notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the
clearest ideas they have in relation to the elements of speech, how comes
it to pass that of all the disputable points in grammar, this is the most
perplexed with contrarieties of opinion? In coming before the world as an
author, no man intends to place himself clearly in the wrong; yet, on the
simple powers of the letters, we have volumes of irreconcilable doctrines.
A great connoisseur in things of this sort, who professes to have been long
"in the habit of listening to sounds of every description, and that with
more than ordinary attention," declares in a recent and expensive work,
that "in every language we find the vowels _incorrectly classed_"; and, in
order to give to "the simple elements of English utterance" a better
explanation than others have furnished, he devotes to a new analysis of our
alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages, besides having several
chapters on subjects connected with it. And what do his twenty pages amount
to? I will give the substance of them in ten lines, and the reader may
judge. He does not tell us _how many_ elementary sounds there are; but,
professing to arrange the vowels, long and short, "in the order in which
they are naturally found," as well as to show of the consonants that the
mutes and liquids form correspondents in regular pairs, he presents a
scheme which I abbreviate as follows. VOWELS: 1. _A_, as in _=all_ and
_wh~at_, or _o_, as in _orifice_ and _n~ot_; 2. _U--=urn_ and _h~ut_, or
_l=ove_ and _c~ome_; 3. _O--v=ote_ and _ech~o_; 4. _A--=ah_ and _h~at_; 5.
_A--h=azy_, no short sound; 6. _E--=e=el_ and _it_; 7. _E--m=ercy_ and
_m~et_; 8. _O--pr=ove_ and _ad~o_; 9. _OO--t=o=ol_ and _f~o~ot_; 10.
_W--vo=w_ and _la~w_; 11. _Y_--(like the first _e_--) _s=yntax_ and
_dut~y_. DIPHTHONGS: 1. _I_--as _ah-ee_; 2. _U_--as _ee-oo_; 3. _OU_--as
_au-oo_. CONSONANTS: 1. Mutes,--_c_ or _s, f, h, k_ or _q, p, t, th sharp,
sh_; 2. Liquids,--_l_, which has no corresponding mute, and _z, v, r, ng,
m, n, th flat_ and _j_, which severally correspond to the eight mutes in
their order; 3. Subliquids,--_g hard, b_, and _d_. See "Music of Nature,"
by _William Gardiner_, p. 480, and after.
OBS. 13.--Dr. Rush comes to the explanation of the powers of the letters as
the confident first revealer of nature's management and wisdom; and hopes
to have laid the foundation of a system of instruction in reading and
oratory, which, if adopted and perfected, "will beget a similarity of
opinion and practice," and "be found to possess an excellence which must
grow into sure and irreversible favour."--_Phil. of the Voice_, p. 404. "We
have been willing," he says, "_to believe, on faith alone_, that nature is
wise in the contrivance of speech. Let us now show, by our works of
analysis, how she manages the _simple elements_ of the voice, in the
production of their unbounded combinations."--_Ibid._, p. 44. Again: "Every
one, with peculiar self-satisfaction, thinks he reads well, and yet all
read differently: there is, however, _but one mode_ of reading
well."--_Ib._, p. 403. That one mode, some say, his philosophy alone
teaches. Of that, others may judge. I shall only notice here what seems to
be his fundamental position, that, on all the vocal elements of language,
nature has stamped duplicity. To establish this extraordinary doctrine, he
first attempts to prove, that "the letter _a_, as heard in the word _day_,"
combines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds; that it is a compound
of what he calls, with reference to vowels and syllables in general, "the
radical and the vanishing movement of the voice,"--a single and indivisible
element in which "two sounds are heard continuously successive," the sounds
of _a_ and _e_ as in _ale_ and _eve_. He does not know that some
grammarians have contended that _ay_ in _day_ is a proper diphthong, in
which both the vowels are heard; but, so pronouncing it himself, infers
from the experiment, that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a. If this
inference is not wrong, the word _shape_ is to be pronounced _sha-epe_;
and, in like manner, a multitude of other words will acquire a new element
not commonly heard in them.
OBS. 14.--But the doctrine stops not here. The philosopher examines, in
some similar way, the other simple vowel sounds, and finds a beginning and
an end, a base and an apex, a radical and a vanishing movement, to them
all; and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all "into
two parts," and to convert most of them into diphthongs, as well as to
include all diphthongs with them, as being altogether as simple and
elementary. Thus he begins with confounding all distinction between
diphthongs and simple vowels; except that which he makes for himself when
he admits "the radical and the vanish," the first half of a sound and the
last, to have no difference in quality. This admission is made with respect
to the vowels heard in _ooze, eel, err, end_, and _in_, which he calls, not
diphthongs, but "monothongs." But in the _a_ of _ale_, he hears _=a'-ee_;
in that of _an, ~a'-~e_; (that is, the short _a_ followed by something of
the sound of _e_ in _err_;) in that of _art, ah'~-e_; in that of _all,
awe'-~e_; in the _i_ of _isle, =i'-ee_; in the _o_ of _old, =o'-oo_; in the
proper diphthong _ou, ou'-oo_; in the _oy_ of _boy_, he knows not what.
After his explanation of these mysteries, he says, "The seven radical
sounds with their vanishes, which have been described, include, as far as I
can perceive, all the elementary diphthongs of the English
language."--_Ib._, p. 60. But all the sounds of the vowel _u_, whether
diphthongal or simple, are excluded from his list, unless he means to
represent one of them by the _e_ in _err_; and the complex vowel sound
heard in _voice_ and _boy_, is confessedly omitted on account of a doubt
whether it consists of two sounds or of three! The elements which he
enumerates are thirty-five; but if _oi_ is not a triphthong, they are to be
thirty-six. Twelve are called "_Tonics_; and are heard in the usual sound
of the separated _Italics_, in the following words: _A_-ll, _a_-rt, _a_-n,
_a_-le, _ou_-r, _i_-sle, _o_-ld, _ee_-l, _oo_-ze, _e_-rr, _e_-nd,
_i_-n,"--_Ib._, p. 53. Fourteen are called "_Subtonics_; and are marked by
the separated Italics, in the following words: _B_-ow, _d_-are, _g_-ive,
_v_-ile, _z_-one, _y_-e, _w_-o, _th_-en, a-_z_-ure, si-_ng_, _l_-ove,
_m_-ay, _n_-ot, _r_-oe."--_Ib._, p. 54. Nine are called "_Atonics_; they
are heard in the words, U-_p_, ou-_t_, ar-_k_, i-_f_, ye-_s, h_-e,
_wh_-eat, _th_-in, pu-_sh_."--_Ib._, p. 56. My opinion of this scheme of
the alphabet the reader will have anticipated.
IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS.
In printed books of the English language, the Roman characters are
generally employed; sometimes, the _Italic_; and occasionally, the [Font
change: Old English]: but in handwriting, [Font change: Script letters] are
used, the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen.
Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be _needlessly mixed_;
because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much
upon the regularity of its letters.
In the ordinary forms of the Roman letters, every thick stroke that slants,
slants from the left to the right downwards, except the middle stroke in Z;
and every thin stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right
upwards.
Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words: in
the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators.
In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics; a
double line, for small capitals; a triple line, for full capitals.
In every kind of type or character, the letters have severally _two forms_,
by which they are distinguished as _capitals_ and _small letters_. Small
letters constitute the body of every work; and capitals are used for the
sake of eminence and distinction. The titles of books, and the heads of
their principal divisions, are printed wholly in capitals. Showbills,
painted signs, and short inscriptions, commonly appear best in full
capitals. Some of these are so copied in books; as, "I found an altar
with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD."--_Acts_, xvii, 23. "And they
set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF
THE JEWS."--_Matt._, xxvii, 37.
RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.
RULE I.--OF BOOKS.
When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in
their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small; as,
"Pope's Essay on Man"--"the Book of Common Prayer"--"the Scriptures of the
Old and New Testaments." [104]
RULE II.--FIRST WORDS.
The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately
numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital; as, "Rejoice
evermore. Pray without ceasing. In every thing give thanks: for this is the
will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise
not prophesyings. Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."--_1
Thess._, v, 16--21.
"14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation:
15. _For_ quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
16. _For_ protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for murders:
17. _For_ cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:
18. _For_ imposing taxes on us without our consent:" &c.
_Declaration of American Independence._
RULE III.--OF THE DEITY.
All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should
begin with capitals; as, "God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being,
Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the
Holy Spirit, the Lord of Sabaoth."
"The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee."--_Moore_.
RULE IV.--PROPER NAMES.
Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals; as,
"Saul of Tarsus, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand,
the Thames, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the
Argonauts."
RULE V.--OF TITLES.
Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to
persons, begin usually with capitals; as, "His Majesty William the Fourth,
Chief Justice Marshall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr.
Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Second, James the Less, St.
Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., Esq."
RULE VI.--ONE CAPITAL.
Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their
parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital: as,
"Eastport, Eastville, Westborough, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehall,
Whitechurch, Whitehaven, Whiteplains, Mountmellick, Mountpleasant,
Germantown, Germanflats, Blackrock, Redhook, Kinderhook, Newfoundland,
Statenland, Newcastle, Northcastle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb,
Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson."
RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS.
The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the
general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two; as,
"The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, _Benchasker_, Ben Golich,
Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 311.
Write _Ben Chasker_. So, when the word _East, West, North_, or _South_, as
part of a name, denotes relative position, or when the word _New_
distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two
capitals; as, "East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South
Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hampshire."
RULE VIII.--COMPOUNDS.
When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound
proper name, it ought to begin with a capital; as, "The United States, the
Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little
Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green,
Land's End, the Gold Coast."
RULE IX.--APPOSITION.
When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each
other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a
capital, and the appellative, with a small letter; as, "The prophet Elisha,
Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio
river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city."
RULE X.--PERSONIFICATIONS.
The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly
individual, should begin with a capital; as, "Upon this, _Fancy_ began
again to bestir herself."--_Addison_. "Come, gentle _Spring_, ethereal
mildness, come."--_Thomson_.
RULE XI.--DERIVATIVES.
Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular
persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals; as,
"Platonic, Newtonian, Greek, or Grecian, Romish, or Roman, Italic, or
Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French,
Dutch, Scotch, Welsh:" so, perhaps, "to Platonize, Grecize, Romanize,
Italicize, Latinize, or Frenchify."
RULE XII.--OF I AND O.
The words _I_ and _O_ should always be capitals; as, "Praise the Lord, O
Jerusalem; praise thy God, O Zion."--_Psalm_ cxlvii. "O wretched man that I
am!"--"For that which I do, I allow not: for what I would, that do I not;
but what I hate, that do I."--_Rom._, vii, 24 and 15.
RULE XIII.--OF POETRY.
Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with
the line preceding, should begin with a capital; as,
"Our sons their fathers' failing language see,
And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."--_Pope_.
Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of
examples; as,
"Happy the man whose tender care
relieves the poor distress'd!
When troubles compass him around,
the Lord shall give him rest."
_Psalms with Com. Prayer, N. Y._, 1819, Ps. xli.
RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES.
The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct
quotation, should begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know
thyself.'"--"Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'"--"Jesus answered
them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?"--_John_, x, 34.
"Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not
steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy
mother."--_Luke_, xviii, 20.
RULE XV.--CHIEF WORDS.
Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal
subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals; and names subscribed
frequently have capitals throughout: as, "In its application to the
Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the
same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the
exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by
Congress."--ANDREW JACKSON, 1835.
RULE XVI.--NEEDLESS CAPITALS.
Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for
their use: a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency; as,
"Many a Noble _Genius_ is lost for want of _Education_. Which wou'd then be
Much More Liberal. As it was when the _Church_ Enjoy'd her _Possessions_.
And _Learning_ was, in the _Dark Ages_, Preserv'd almost only among the
_Clergy_."--CHARLES LESLIE, 1700; _Divine Right of Tythes_, p. 228.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The letters of the alphabet, read by their names, are equivalent
to words. They are a sort of universal signs, by which we may mark and
particularize objects of any sort, named or nameless; as, "To say,
therefore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, A is more or less
quadrangular than B, is absurd."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 50. Hence they are
used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas,
being construed both substantively and adjectively; as, "In ascending from
the note C to D, the interval is equal to an inch; and from D to E, the
same."--_Music of Nature_, p. 293. "We have only to imagine the G clef
placed below it."--_Ib._ Any of their forms may be used for such purposes,
but the custom of each science determines our choice. Thus Algebra employs
small Italics; Music, Roman capitals; Geometry, for the most part, the
same; Astronomy, Greek characters; and Grammar, in some part or other,
every sort. Examples: "Then comes _answer_ like an ABC book."--_Beauties of
Shakspeare_, p. 97. "Then comes _question_ like an _a, b, c_,
book.--_Shakspeare_." See A, B, C, in _Johnson's quarto Dict._
Better:--"like an _A-Bee-Cee_ book."
"For A, his magic pen evokes an O,
And turns the tide of Europe on the foe."--_Young_.
OBS. 2.--A lavish use of capitals defeats the very purpose for which the
letters were distinguished in rank; and carelessness in respect to the
rules which govern them, may sometimes misrepresent the writer's meaning.
On many occasions, however, their use or disuse is arbitrary, and must be
left to the judgement and taste of authors and printers. Instances of this
kind will, for the most part, concern _chief words_, and come under the
fifteenth rule above. In this grammar, the number of rules is increased;
but the foregoing are still perhaps too few to establish an accurate
uniformity. They will however tend to this desirable result; and if doubts
arise in their application, the difficulties will be in particular examples
only, and not in the general principles of the rules. For instance: In 1
Chron., xxix, 10th, some of our Bibles say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of
Israel our father, for ever and ever." Others say, "Blessed be thou, LORD
God of Israel, our Father, for ever and ever." And others, "Blessed be
thou, LORD God of Israel our Father, for ever and ever." The last is wrong,
either in the capital F, or for lack of a comma after _Israel_. The others
differ in meaning; because they construe the word _father_, or _Father_,
differently. Which is right I know not. The first agrees with the Latin
Vulgate, and the second, with the Greek text of the Septuagint; which two
famous versions here disagree, without ambiguity in either.[105]
OBS. 3.--The innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals, which, to a
greater or less extent, disgrace the very best editions of our most popular
books, are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on this
point. In amending the rules for this purpose, I have not been able
entirely to satisfy myself; and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the
very critical reader. But the public shall have the best instructions I can
give. On Rule 1st, concerning _Books_, it may be observed, that when
particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real
titles, the principle of the rule does not apply. Thus, one may call
Paradise Lost, "Milton's _great poem_;" or the Diversions of Purley, "the
_etymological investigations_ of Horne Tooke." So it is written in the
Bible, "And there was delivered unto him _the book of the prophet_
Esaias."--_Luke_, iv, 17. Because the name of Esaias, or Isaiah, seems to
be the only proper title of his book.
OBS. 4.--On Rule 2d, concerning _First Words_, it may be observed, that the
using of other points than the period, to separate sentences that are
totally distinct in sense, as is sometimes practised in quoting, is no
reason for the omission of capitals at the beginning of such sentences;
but, rather, an obvious reason for their use. Our grammarians frequently
manufacture a parcel of puerile examples, and, with the formality of
apparent quotation, throw them together in the following manner: "He is
above disguise;" "we serve under a good master;" "he rules over a willing
people;" "we should do nothing beneath our character."--_Murray's Gram._,
p. 118. These sentences, and all others so related, should, unquestionably,
begin with capitals. Of themselves, they are distinct enough to be
separated by the period and a dash. With examples of one's own making, the
quotation points may be used or not, as the writer pleases; but not on
their insertion or omission, nor even on the quality of the separating
point, depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial
capitals. For example: "The Future Tense is the form of the verb which
denotes future time; as, John _will come_, you shall go, they will learn,
the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week."--_Frazee's Improved
Gram._, p. 38; _Old Edition_, 35. To say nothing of the punctuation here
used, it is certain that the initial words, _you, they, the_, and _he_,
should have commenced with capitals.
OBS. 5.--On Rule 3d, concerning _Names of Deity_, it may be observed, that
the words _Lord_ and _God_ take the nature of proper names, only when they
are used in reference to the Eternal Divinity. The former, as a title of
honour to men, is usually written with a capital; but, as a common
appellative, with a small letter. The latter, when used with reference to
any fabulous deity, or when made plural to speak of many, should seldom, if
ever, begin with a capital; for we do not write with a capital any common
name which we do not mean to honour: as, "Though there be that are called
_gods_, whether in heaven or in earth--as there be _gods_ many, and _lords_
many."--_1 Cor._, viii, 5. But a diversity of design or conception in
respect to this kind of distinction, has produced great diversity
concerning capitals, not only in original writings, but also in reprints
and quotations, not excepting even the sacred books. Example: "The Lord is
a great God, and a great King above all _Gods_."--_Gurney's Essays_, p. 88.
Perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods, that he may
honour the one true God the more; but the Bible, in four editions to which
I have turned, gives the word _gods_ no capital. See _Psalms_, xcv, 3. The
word _Heaven_ put for God, begins with a capital; but when taken literally,
it commonly begins with a small letter. Several nouns occasionally
connected with names of the Deity, are written with a very puzzling
diversity: as, "The Lord of _Sabaoth_;"--"The Lord God of _hosts_;"--"The
God of _armies_;"--"The Father of _goodness_;"--"The Giver of all
_good_;"--"The Lord, the righteous _Judge_." All these, and many more like
them, are found sometimes with a capital, and sometimes without. _Sabaoth_,
being a foreign word, and used only in this particular connexion, usually
takes a capital; but the equivalent English words do not seem to require
it. For "_Judge_," in the last example, I would use a capital; for "_good_"
and "_goodness_," in the preceding ones, the small letter: the one is an
eminent name, the others are mere attributes. Alger writes, "_the Son of
Man_," with two capitals; others, perhaps more properly, "_the Son of
man_," with one--wherever that phrase occurs in the New Testament. But, in
some editions, it has no capital at all.
OBS. 6.--On Rule 4th, concerning _Proper Names_, it may be observed, that
the application of this principle supposes the learner to be able to
distinguish between proper names and common appellatives. Of the difference
between these two classes of words, almost every child that can speak, must
have formed some idea. I once noticed that a very little boy, who knew no
better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers,
was sufficiently master of this distinction, to call many individuals by
their several names, and to apply the common words, _man, woman, boy,
girl_, &c., with that generality which belongs to them. There is,
therefore, some very plain ground for this rule. But not all is plain, and
I will not veil the cause of embarrassment. It is only an act of imposture,
to pretend that grammar _is easy_, in stead of making it so. Innumerable
instances occur, in which the following assertion is by no means true: "The
distinction between a common and a proper noun is _very
obvious_."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p 32. Nor do the remarks of this author, or
those of any other that I am acquainted with, remove any part of the
difficulty. We are told by this gentleman, (in language incorrigibly bad,)
that, "_Nouns_ which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or
things, are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut,
poplar_, different species; and _red oak, white oak, black oak_,
varieties."--_Ib._, p. 32. Now, as it requires _but one noun_ to denote
either a genus or a species, I know not how to conceive of _those_ "_nouns_
which denote _the genus_ of things," except as of other confusion and
nonsense; and, as for the three varieties of oak, there are surely no
"_nouns_" here to denote them, unless he will have _red, white_, and
_black_ to be nouns. But what shall we say of--"the Red sea, the White sea,
the Black sea;" or, with two capitals, "Red Sea, White Sea, Black Sea," and
a thousand other similar terms, which are neither proper names unless they
are written with capitals, nor written with capitals unless they are first
judged to be proper names? The simple phrase, "the united states," has
nothing of the nature of a proper name; but what is the character of the
term, when written with two capitals, "the United States?" If we contend
that it is not then a proper name, we make our country anonymous. And what
shall we say to those grammarians who contend, that "_Heaven, Hell, Earth,
Sun_, and _Moon_, are proper names;" and that, as such, they should be
written with capitals? See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 380.
OBS. 7.--It would seem that most, if not all, proper names had originally
some common signification, and that very many of our ordinary words and
phrases have been converted into proper names, merely by being applied to
particular persons, places, or objects, and receiving the distinction of
capitals. How many of the oceans, seas, lakes, capes, islands, mountains,
states, counties, streets, institutions, buildings, and other things, which
we constantly particularize, have no other proper names than such as are
thus formed, and such as are still perhaps, in many instances, essentially
appellative! The difficulties respecting these will be further noticed
below. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, group, or
people; as, _Adam, Boston_, the _Hudson_, the _Azores_, the _Andes_, the
_Romans_, the _Jews_, the _Jesuits_, the _Cherokees_. This is as good a
definition as I can give of a proper noun or name. Thus we commonly
distinguish the names of particular persons, places, nations, tribes, or
sects, with capitals. Yet we name the sun, the moon, the equator, and many
other particular objects, without a capital; for the word the may give a
particular meaning to a common noun, without converting it into a proper
name: but if we say _Sol_, for the sun, or _Luna_, for the moon, we write
it with a capital. With some apparent inconsistency, we commonly write the
word _Gentiles_ with a capital, but _pagans, heathens_, and _negroes_,
without: thus custom has marked these names with degradation. The names of
the days of the week, and those of the months, however expressed, appear to
me to partake of the nature of proper names, and to require capitals: as,
_Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday_; or, as
the Friends denominate them, _Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, Fourthday,
Fifthday, Sixthday, Seventhday_. So, if they will not use _January,
February_, &c., they should write as proper names their _Firstmonth,
Secondmonth_, &c. The Hebrew names for the months, were also proper nouns:
to wit, Abib, Zif, Sivan, Thamuz, Ab, Elul, Tisri, Marchesvan, Chisleu,
Tebeth, Shebat, Adar; the year, with the ancient Jews, beginning, as ours
once did, in March.
OBS. 8.--On Rule 5th, concerning _Titles of Honour_, it may be observed,
that names of office or rank, however high, do not require capitals merely
as such; for, when we use them alone in their ordinary sense, or simply
place them in apposition with proper names, without intending any
particular honour, we begin them with a small letter: as, "the emperor
Augustus;"--"our mighty sovereign, Abbas Carascan;"--"David the
king;"--"Tidal king of nations;"--"Bonner, bishop of London;"--"The sons of
Eliphaz, the first-born you of Esau; duke Teman, duke Omar, duke Zepho,
duke Kenaz, duke Korah, duke Gatam, and duke Amalek."--_Gen._, xxxvi, 15.
So, sometimes, in addresses in which even the greatest respect is intended
to be shown: as, "O _sir_, we came indeed down at the first time to buy
food."--_Gen._, xliii, 20. "O my _lord_, let thy servant, I pray thee,
speak a word in my _lord's_ ears."--_Gen._, xliv, 18. The Bible, which
makes small account of worldly honours, seldom uses capitals under this
rule; but, in some editions, we find "Nehemiah the _Tirshatha_," and "Herod
the _Tetrarch_," each with a needless capital. Murray, in whose
illustrations the word _king_ occurs early one hundred times, seldom
honours his Majesty with a capital; and, what is more, in all this mawkish
mentioning of royalty, nothing is said of it _that is worth knowing_.
Examples: "The _king_ and the queen had put on their robes."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 154. "The _king_, with his life-guard, has just passed through
the village."--_Ib._, 150. "The _king_ of Great Britain's
dominions."--_Ib._, 45. "On a sudden appeared the _king_."--_Ib._, 146.
"Long live the _King_!"--_Ib._, 146. "On which side soever the _king_ cast
his eyes."--_Ib._, 156. "It is the _king_ of Great Britain's."--_Ib._, 176.
"He desired to be their _king_."--_Ib._, 181. "They desired him to be their
_king_."--_Ib._, 181. "He caused himself to be proclaimed _king_."--_Ib._,
182. These examples, and thousands more as simple and worthless, are among
the pretended quotations by which this excellent man, thought "to promote
the cause of virtue, as well as of learning!"
OBS. 9.--On Rule 6th, concerning _One Capital for Compounds_, I would
observe, that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar, than to
find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing, and wild guess-work
in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be
written. For example: What in Greek was "_ho Areios Pagos_," the _Martial
Hill_, occurs twice in the New Testament: once, in the accusative case,
"_ton Areion Pagan_," which is rendered _Areopagus_; and once, in the
genitive, "_tou Areiou Pagou_," which, in different copies of the English
Bible is made _Mars' Hill, Mars' hill, Mars'-hill, Marshill, Mars Hill_,
and perhaps _Mars hill_. But if _Mars_ must needs be put in the possessive
case, (which I doubt,) they are all wrong: for then it should be _Mars's
Hill_; as the name _Campus Martins_ is rendered "_Mars's Field_," in
Collier's Life of Marcus Antoninus. We often use nouns adjectively; and
_Areios_ is an adjective: I would therefore write this name _Mars Hill_, as
we write _Bunker Hill_. Again: _Whitehaven_ and _Fairhaven_ are commonly
written with single capitals; but, of six or seven _towns_ called
_Newhaven_ or _New Haven_, some have the name in one word and some in two.
_Haven_ means a _harbour_, and the words, _New Haven_, written separately,
would naturally be understood of a harbour: the close compound is obviously
more suitable for the name of a city or town. In England, compounds of this
kind are more used than in America; and in both countries the tendency of
common usage seems to be, to contract and consolidate such terms. Hence the
British counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word
_shire_; as, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicestershire,
Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. But the best books we
have, are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names, whether
foreign or domestic; as, "_Ulswater_ is somewhat smaller. The handsomest is
_Derwentwater_."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 212. "_Ulswater_, a lake of England,"
&c. "_Derwent-Water_, a lake in Cumberland," &c.--_Univ. Gazetteer_,
"_Ulleswater_, lake, Eng. situated partly in Westmoreland,"
&c.--_Worcester's Gaz._ "_Derwent Water_, lake, Eng. in
Cumberland."--_Ibid._ These words, I suppose, should be written _Ullswater_
and _Derwentwater_.
OBS. 10.--An affix, or termination, differs from a distinct word; and is
commonly understood otherwise, though it may consist of the same letters
and have the same sound. Thus, if I were to write _Stow Bridge_, it would
be understood of a _bridge_; if _Stowbridge_, of a _town_: or the latter
might even be the name of a _family_. So _Belleisle_ is the proper name of
a _strait_; and _Belle Isle_ of several different _islands_ in France and
America. Upon this plain distinction, and the manifest inconvenience of any
violation of so clear an analogy of the language, depends the propriety of
most of the corrections which I shall offer under Rule 6th. But if the
inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek, a river, a
harbour, or a bridge, and to think it officious in other men to pretend to
know better, they may do as they please. If between them and their
correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer, it is for the literary
world to determine who is right. Important names are sometimes acquired by
mere accident. Those which are totally inappropriate, no reasonable design
can have bestowed. Thus a fancied resemblance between the island of
Aquidneck, in Narraganset Bay, and that of Rhodes, in the AEgean Sea, has
at length given to a _state_, or _republic_, which lies _chiefly on the
main land_, the absurd name of _Rhode Island_; so that now, to distinguish
Aquidneck itself, geographers resort to the strange phrase, "_the Island of
Rhode Island_."--_Balbi_. The official title of this little republic, is,
"_the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations_." But this name is
not only too long for popular use, but it is doubtful in its construction
and meaning. It is capable of being understood in four different ways. 1. A
stranger to the fact, would not learn from this phrase, that the
"Providence Plantations" are included in the "State of Rhode Island," but
would naturally infer the contrary. 2. The phrase, "Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations," may be supposed to mean "Rhode Island
[Plantations] and Providence Plantations." 3. It may be understood to mean
"Rhode Island and Providence [i.e., two] Plantations." 4. It may be taken
for "Rhode Island" [i.e., as an island,] and the "Providence Plantations."
Which, now, of all these did Charles the Second mean, when he gave the
colony this name, with his charter, in 1663? It happened that he meant the
last; but I doubt whether any man in the state, except perhaps some learned
lawyer, can _parse_ the phrase, with any certainty of its true construction
and meaning. This old title can never be used, except in law. To write the
popular name "_Rhodeisland_," as Dr. Webster has it in his American
Spelling-Book, p. 121, would be some improvement upon it; but to make it
_Rhodeland_, or simply _Rhode_, would be much more appropriate. As for
_Rhode Island_, it ought to mean nothing but the island; and it is, in
fact, _an abuse of language_ to apply it otherwise. In one of his parsing
lessons, Sanborn gives us for good English the following tautology: "_Rhode
Island_ derived its name from the _island of Rhode Island_."--_Analytical
Gram._, p. 37. Think of that sentence!
OBS. 11.--On Rules 7th and 8th, concerning _Two Capitals for Compounds_, I
would observe, with a general reference to those _compound terms_ which
designate particular places or things, that it is often no easy matter to
determine, either from custom or from analogy, whether such common words as
may happen to be embraced in them, are to be accounted parts of compound
proper names and written with capitals, or to be regarded as appellatives,
requiring small letters according to Rule 9th. Again the question may be,
whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word, according to
Rule 6th. Let the numerous examples under these four rules be duly
considered: for usage, in respect to each of them, is diverse; so much so,
that we not unfrequently find it contradictory, in the very same page,
paragraph, or even sentence. Perhaps we may reach some principles of
uniformity and consistency, by observing the several different kinds of
phrases thus used. 1. We often add an adjective to an old proper name to
make a new one, or to serve the purpose of distinction: as, Now York, New
Orleans, New England, New Bedford; North America, South America; Upper
Canada, Lower Canada; Great Pedee, Little Pedee; East Cambridge, West
Cambridge; Troy, West Troy. All names of this class require two capitals:
except a few which are joined together; as _Northampton_, which is
sometimes more analogically written _North Hampton_. 2. We often use the
possessive case with some common noun after it; as, Behring's Straits,
Baffin's Bay, Cook's Inlet, Van Diemen's Land, Martha's Vineyard, Sacket's
Harbour, Glenn's Falls. Names of this class generally have more than one
capital; and perhaps all of them should be written so, except such as
coalesce; as, Gravesend, Moorestown, the Crowsnest. 3. We sometimes use two
common nouns with _of_ between them; as, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of
Man, the Isles of Shoals, the Lake of the Woods, the Mountains of the Moon.
Such nouns are usually written with more than one capital. I would
therefore write "the Mount of Olives" in this manner, though it is not
commonly found so in the Bible. 4. We often use an adjective and a common
noun; as, the Yellow sea, the Indian ocean, the White hills, Crooked lake,
the Red river; or, with two capitals, the Yellow Sea, the Indian Ocean, the
White Hills, Crooked Lake, the Red River. In this class of names the
adjective is the distinctive word, and always has a capital; respecting the
other term, usage is divided, but seems rather to favour two capitals. 5.
We frequently put an appellative, or common noun, before or after a proper
name; as, New York city, Washington street, Plymouth county, Greenwich
village. "The Carondelet canal extends from the city of New Orleans to the
bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi
river."--_Balbi's Geog._ This is apposition. In phrases of this kind, the
common noun often has a capital, but it seldom absolutely requires it; and
in general a small letter is more correct, except in some few instances in
which the common noun is regarded as a permanent part of the name; as in
_Washington City, Jersey City_. The words _Mount, Cape, Lake_, and _Bay_,
are now generally written with capitals when connected with their proper
names; as, Mount Hope, Cape Cod, Lake Erie, Casco Bay. But they are not
always so written, even in modern books; and in the Bible we read of "mount
Horeb, mount Sinai, mount Zion, mount Olivet," and many others, always with
a single capital.
OBS. 12.--In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used
than it was a few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are
employed as adjectives; and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting
it. Thus the phrase, "the New London Bridge," can be understood only of a
new bridge in London; and if we intend by it a bridge in New London, we
must say, "the New-London Bridge." So "the New York Directory" is not
properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for York. I have
seen several books with titles which, for this reason, were evidently
erroneous. With respect to the ancient Scripture names, of this class, we
find, in different editions of the Bible, as well as in other books, many
discrepancies. The reader may see a very fair specimen of them, by
comparing together the last two vocabularies of Walker's Key. He will there
meet with an abundance of examples like these: "Uz'zen Sherah,
Uzzen-sherah; Talitha Cumi, Talithacumi; Nathan Melech, Nathan'-melech;
A'bel Meholath, Abel-meholah; Hazel Elponi, Hazeleponi; Az'noth Tabor,
Asnoth-tabor; Baal Ham'on, Baal-hamon; Hamon Gog, Ham'ongog; Baal Zebub,
Baeal'zebub; Shethar Boz'naei, Shether-boz'naei; Merodach Bal'adan,
Merodach-bal'adan." All these glaring inconsistencies, and many more, has
Dr. Webster restereotyped from Walker, in his octavo Dictionary! I see no
more need of the hyphen in such names, than in those of modern times. They
ought, in some instances, to be joined together without it; and, in others,
to be written separately, with double capitals. But special regard should
be had to the ancient text. The phrase, "Talitha, cumi,"--i. e., "Damsel,
arise,"--is found in some Bibles, "Talitha-cumi;" but this form of it is no
more correct than either of those quoted above. See _Mark_, v, 41st, in
_Griesbach's Greek Testament_, where a comma divides this expression.
OBS. 13.--On Rule 10th, concerning _Personifications_, it may be well to
observe, that not every noun which is the name of an object personified,
must begin with a capital, but only such as have a resemblance to _proper
nouns_; for the word _person_ itself, or _persons_, or any other common
noun denoting persons or a person, demands no such distinction. And proper
names of persons are so marked, not with any reference to personality, but
because they are _proper nouns_--or names of individuals, and not names of
sorts. Thus, AEsop's viper and file are both personified, where it is
recorded, "'What ails thee, fool?' says the _file_ to the _viper_;" but the
fable gives to these names no capitals, except in the title of the story.
It may here be added, that, according to their definitions of
personification, our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto
formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure. Lindley Murray
says, "PERSONIFICATION [,] or PROSOPOPOEIA, is that figure by which we
attribute _life_ and _action_ to _inanimate_ objects."--_Octavo Gram._, p.
346; _Duodecimo_, p. 211. Now this is all wrong, doubly wrong,--wrong in
relation to what personification is, and wrong too in its specification of
the objects which may be personified. For "_life and action_" not being
peculiar to _persons_, there must be something else than these ascribed, to
form the figure; and, surely, the objects which _Fancy_ thinks it right to
personify, are not always "_inanimate_." I have elsewhere defined the thing
as follows: "_Personification_ is a figure by which, in imagination, we
ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract
qualities."--_Inst._, p. 234.
OBS. 14.--On Rule 11th, concerning _Derivatives_, I would observe, that not
only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers,
but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are
frequently, if not generally, written with an initial capital. Thus, from
_Greece_, we have _Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecise, Grecism,
Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize_. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of
"_Latinised English_;" and, again, of style strictly "_English_, without
_Scotticisms_ or _Gallicisms_."--_Mur. Gram._, 8vo, p. 295; _Blair's
Lect._, pp. 93 and 94. But it is questionable, how far this principle
respecting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's
quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, _gallicisms, anglicisms, hebrician,
latinize, latinized, judaized_, and _christianized_, without capitals; and
the words _Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms_, and _Frenchified_, under like
circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines _Romanize_, "To
_Latinize_; to conform to _Romish_ opinions." In the examples of Johnson,
there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, with respect to adjectives from
proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such
adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals: no one will
contend that the words _American_ and _Americans_ should be written with a
small _a_. With respect to _Americanism, Gallicism_, and other similar
words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these.
And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, I would not stop here, but
would write _Americanize_ and _Americanized_ with a capital also; for it
appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs
and participles of this kind, so long as they retain an obvious reference
to their particular origin. But when any such word ceases to be understood
as referring directly to the proper name, it may properly be written
without a capital. Thus we write _jalap_ from _Jalapa, hermetical_ from
_Hermes, hymeneal_ from _Hymen, simony_, from _Simon, philippic_ from
_Philip_; the verbs, to _hector_, to _romance_, to _japan_, to _christen_,
to _philippize_, to _galvanize_; and the adverbs _hermetically_ and
_jesuitically_, all without a capital: and perhaps _judaize, christianize_,
and their derivatives, may join this class. Dr. Webster's octavo Dictionary
mentions "the _prussic_ acid" and "_prussian_ blue," without a capital; and
so does Worcester's.
OBS. 15.--On Rule 12th, concerning _I_ and _O_, it may be observed, that
although many who occasionally write, are ignorant enough to violate this,
as well as every other rule of grammar, yet no printer ever commits
blunders of this sort. Consequently, the few erroneous examples which will
be exhibited for correction under it, will not be undesigned mistakes.
Among the errors of books, we do not find the printing of the words _I_ and
_O_ in small characters; but the confounding of _O_ with the other
interjection _oh_, is not uncommon even among grammarians. The latter has
no concern with this rule, nor is it equivalent to the former, as a sign:
_O_ is a note of wishing, earnestness, and vocative address; but _oh_ is,
properly, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise. In the following example,
therefore, a line from Milton is perverted:--
"_Oh_ thou! that with surpassing glory crowned!"
--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 88.
OBS. 16.--On Rule 13th, concerning _Poetry_, it may be observed, that the
principle applies only to regular versification, which is the common form,
if not the distinguishing mark, of poetical composition. And, in this, the
practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal; but I
have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded. Such poetry
as that of Macpherson's Ossian, or such as the common translation of the
Psalms, is subjected neither to this rule, nor to the common laws of verse.
OBS. 17.--On Rule 14th, concerning _Examples, Speeches_, and _Quotations_,
it may be observed, that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or
otherwise, depends in some measure upon their form. One may suggest certain
words by way of example, (as _see, saw, seeing, seen_,) and they will
require no capital; or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his
own words, and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital; but
whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called
_person_, requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it
is woven. Thus Cobbett observes, that, "The French, in their Bible, say _Le
Verbe_, where we say _The Word_."--_E. Gram._, p. 21. Cobbett says _the
whole_ of this; but he here refers one short phrase to the French nation,
and an other to the English, not improperly beginning each with a capital,
and further distinguishing them by Italics. Our common Bibles make no use
of the quotation points, but rely solely upon capitals and the common
points, to show where any particular speech begins or ends. In some
instances, the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt,
notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers, in the use
of introductory phrases. Murray says, "When a quotation is brought in
obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, 'Solomon observes,
"that pride goes before destruction."'"--_Octavo Gram._, p. 284. But, as
the word '_that_' belongs not to Solomon, and the next word begins his
assertion, I think we ought to write it, "Solomon observes, that, '_Pride
goeth_ before destruction.'" Or, if we do not mean to quote him literally,
we may omit the guillemets, and say, "Solomon observes that pride goes
before destruction."
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
[Fist][The improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected
orally by the learner, according to the formules given, or according to
others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations
may require. A correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake
of contrast, or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency.
It will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up.
But a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in the Key.]
UNDER RULE I.--OF BOOKS.
"Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the
apostles."--_G. B._
[FORMULE OF CORRECTION.--Not proper, because the words, _bible, acts_, and
_apostles_, here begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 1st,
"When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in
their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small."
Therefore, "Bible" should begin with a capital B; and "Acts" and
"Apostles," each with a large A.]
"The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of
the chronicles."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Neh._, xii, 23. "Are they not written in
the book of the acts of Solomon?"--SCOTT, ALGER: I _Kings_, xi, 41. "Are
they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the kings of
Israel?"--ALGER: _1 Kings_, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of
the chronicles of the kings of Judah?"--SCOTT: _ib._, ver. 45. "Which were
written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the
psalms."--SCOTT: _Luke_, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which may be seen in
Josephus's History of the Jewish wars."--_Scott's Preface_, p. ix. "This
history of the Jewish war was Josephus's first work, and published about A.
D. 75."--_Note to Josephus_. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the chronology
of Justus of Tiberias.'"--_Ib., Jos. Life_. "A philosophical grammar,
written by James Harris, Esquire."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 34. "The reader is
referred to Stroud's sketch of the slave laws."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, i,
25. "But God has so made the bible that it interprets itself."--_Ib._, i,
78. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the psalter."--_Music
of Nature_, p. 283. "Gardiner says this of _Sternhold_; of whom the
universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia affirm,
that he died in 1549."--_Author_. "The title of a Book, to wit: 'English
Grammar in familiar lectures,'" &c.--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 2. "We had not,
at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in familiar Lectures.'"--_Ib._,
p. 3. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."--_Ib._,
p. 53. "Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before
you."--_Ib._, p. 113. "Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical
dictionary of the German language, and other works."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._
"Alley, William, author of 'the poor man's library,' and a translation of
the Pentateuch, died in 1570."--_Ib._
UNDER RULE II.--OF FIRST WORDS.
"Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 61.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _improve_ and _forgive_ begin with
small letters. But, according to Rule 2nd, "The first word of every
distinct sentence should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Improve" should
begin with a capital I; and "Forgive," with a capital F.]
EXAMPLES: "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold."--_Mur.
Gram._, p. 170; _et al_. Again: "It may rain; he may go or stay; he would
walk; they should learn."--_Ib._, p. 64; _et al_. Again: "Oh! I have
alienated my friend; alas! I fear for life."--_Ib._, p. 128; _et al_.
Again: "He went from London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are
supported by industry."--_Ib._, p. 28; _et al_. "On the foregoing examples,
I have a word to say. they are better than a fair specimen of their kind,
our grammars abound with worse illustrations, their models of English are
generally spurious quotations. few of their proof-texts have any just
parentage, goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. who fathers the
foundlings? nobody. then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his
who could write no better."--_Author_. "_goose-eyes_!" says a bright boy;
"pray, what are they? does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases?
_dead-eyes_ are in a ship, they are blocks, with holes in them, but what
are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "_goose-eyes_ are quotation points,
some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form, the
French call them _guillemets_, from the name of their inventor."--_Author.
"it_ is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."--_Comly's
Gram._, 12th Ed., p. 126. "_ourselves_ is a personal pronoun, of the first
person plural."--_Ib._, 138. "_thee_ is a personal pronoun, of the second
person singular."--_Ib._, 126. "_contentment_ is a noun common, of the
third person singular."--_Ib._, 128. "_were_ is a neuter verb, of the
indicative mood, imperfect tense."--_Ib._, 129.
UNDER RULE III.--OF DEITY.
"O thou dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."--_W. Allen's Gram._,
p. 449.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _dispenser_ begins with a small
letter. But, according to Rule 3d, "All names of the Deity, and sometimes
their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals." Therefore,
"Dispenser" should here begin with a capital D.]
"Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?"--SCOTT: _Gen._, xviii, 25.
"And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 330. "It is the gift of him, who is the great author of good,
and the Father of mercies."--_Ib._, 287. "This is thy god that brought thee
up out of Egypt."--SCOTT, ALGER: _Neh._, ix, 18. "For the lord is our
defence; and the holy one of Israel is our king."--See _Psalm_ lxxxix, 18.
"By making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties."--_Anti-
Slavery Mag._, i, 29. "Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me
at that day."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 _Tim._, iv, 8. "The cries of them * * *
entered into the ears of the Lord of sabaoth."--SCOTT: _James_, v, 4. "In
Horeb, the deity revealed himself to Moses, as the eternal I am, the
self-existent one; and, after the first discouraging interview of his
messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name,
jehovah--a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a
fearful profanation to pronounce."--_Author_. "And god spake unto Moses,
and said unto him, I am the lord: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac,
and unto Jacob, by the name of god almighty; but by my name jehovah was I
not known to them."--See[106] _Exod._, vi, 2. "Thus saith the lord the king
of Israel, and his redeemer the lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the
last; and besides me there is no god."--See _Isa._, xliv, 6.
"His impious race their blasphemy renew'd,
And nature's king through nature's optics view'd."--_Dryden_, p. 90.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF PROPER NAMES.
"Islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan."--_Balbi's Geog._,
p. 17.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _ramazan_ here begins with a small
letter. But, according to Rule 4th, "Proper names, of every description,
should always begin with capitals." Therefore, "Ramazan" should begin with
a capital R. The word is also misspelled: it should rather be _Ramadan_.]
"Near mecca, in arabia, is jebel nor, or the mountain of light, on the top
of which the mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their
devotions where, according to their belief, mohammed received from the
angel gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."--_Author_. "In the kaaba at
mecca, there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the
mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham, but their ancestors
once held it to be an image of remphan, or saturn; so 'the image which fell
down from jupiter,' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians, was
probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."--_Id._ "When the lycaonians,
at lystra, took paul and barnabas to be gods, they called the former
mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter jupiter, for the
greater dignity of his appearance."--_Id._ "Of the writings of the
apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet
we have in those of barnabas, clement of rome, hermas, ignatius, and
polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament,
and the New Testament is a voucher for the old."--_Id._
"It is said by tatian, that theagenes of rhegium, in the time of cambyses,
stesimbrotus the thracian, antimachus the colophonian, herodotus of
halicarnassus, dionysius the olynthian, ephorus of cumae, philochorus the
athenian, metaclides and chamaeleon the peripatetics, and zenodotus,
aristophanes, callimachus, erates, eratosthenes, aristarchus, and
apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth,
and the age of homer." See _Coleridge's Introd._, p. 57. "Yet, for aught
that now appears, the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules; and
some have even suspected, that, as the son of jupiter and alcmena, has
fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses, so this unfathered son of
critheis, themisto, or whatever dame--this melesigenes, maeonides,
homer--the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of smyrna, chios, colophon,
salamis, rhodes, argos, athens, or whatever place--has, by the help of
lycurgus, solon, pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of
many poets or homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus, as
to become a god in the eyes of all greece, a wonder in those of all
Christendom."--_Author_.
"Why so sagacious in your guesses?
Your _effs_, and _tees_, and _arrs_, and _esses_?"--_Swift_.
UNDER RULE V.--OF TITLES.
"The king has conferred on him the title of duke."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p.
193.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _duke_ begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 5th, "Titles of office or honour, and epithets of
distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals." Therefore,
"Duke" should here begin with a capital D.]
"At the court of queen Elizabeth."--_Murray's Gram._; 8vo, p. 157; 12mo, p.
126; _Fisk's_, 115; _et al_. "The laws of nature are, truly, what lord
Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."--_Murray's Key_, p. 260. "Sixtus
the fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."--_Ib._, p.
257. "Who at that time made up the court of king Charles the
second."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 314. "In case of his majesty's dying without
issue."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 181. "King Charles the first was beheaded in
1649."--_W. Allen's Gram._, p. 45. "He can no more impart or (to use lord
Bacon's word,) _transmit_ convictions."--_Kirkham's Eloc._, p. 220. "I
reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 176. "We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his
country."--_Ib._, p. 177. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great
Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of
Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority."--_Ib._,
p. 176. "Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I
say?"--See GRIESBACH: _Luke_, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom
also he named apostles."--SCOTT: _Luke_, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to
Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him."--See _the Greek: Matt._,
xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from
the dead, they will repent."--_Luke_, xvi, 30.
UNDER RULE VI.--OF ONE CAPITAL.
"Fall River, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431."--See _Univ.
Gaz._, p. 416.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name _Fall River_ is here written in two
parts, and with two capitals. But, according to Rule 6th, "Those compound
proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a
hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital." Therefore,
_Fallriver_, as the name of a _town_, should be one word, and retain but
one capital.]
"Dr. Anderson died at West Ham, in Essex, in 1808."--_Biog. Dict._ "Mad
River, [the name of] two towns in Clark and Champaign counties,
Ohio."--_Williams's Universal Gazetteer_. "White Creek, town of Washington
county, N. York."--_Ib._ "Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different
parts of Ohio."--_Ib._ "Salt Lick, a town of Fayette county,
Pennsylvania."--_Ib._ "Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county,
Ohio."--_Ib._ "White Clay, a hundred of New Castle county,
Delaware."--_Ib._ "Newcastle, town and halfshire of Newcastle county,
Delaware."--_Ib._ "Sing-Sing, a village of West Chester county, New York,
situated in the town of Mount Pleasant."--_Ib._ "West Chester, a county of
New York; also a town in Westchester county."--_Ib._ "West Town, a village
of Orange county, New York."--_Ib._ "White Water, a town of Hamilton
county, Ohio."--_Ib._ "White Water River, a considerable stream that rises
in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly, unites with the Miami, in
Ohio."--_Ib._ "Black Water, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town
in Ireland."--_Ib._ "Black Water, the name of seven different rivers in
England, Ireland, and the United States."--_Ib._ "Red Hook, a town of
Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Ib._ "Kinderhook, a town of
Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."--_Ib._ "New Fane, a town of
Niagara county, New York."--_Ib._ "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county,
Arkansas."--_Ib._ "Moose Head Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in
Maine."--_Ib._ "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830)
2,959."--_Ib._, p. 408. "Mc Donough, a county of Illinois, with a
courthouse, at Macomb."--_Ib._, p. 185. "Half-Moon, the name of two towns,
in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."--See
_Worcester's Gaz._ "Le Boeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a
small lake of the same name."--_Ib._ "Charles City, James City, Elizabeth
City, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."--See _Univ.
Gaz._ "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called
Stroud water."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 223.
UNDER RULE VII.--TWO CAPITALS.
"The Forth rises on the north side of Benlomond, and runs
easterly."--_Glas. Geog_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the name "_Benlomond_" is compounded under
one capital, contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms. But,
according to Rule 7th, "The compounding of a name under one capital should
be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a
separation under two." Therefore, "Ben Lomond" should be written with two
capitals and no hyphen.]
"The red granite of Ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the
world."--_Ib._, ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the
level of the sea."--_Ib._, 313. "The height of Benclough is 2,420
feet."--_Ib._. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben
Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."--_Ib._, 311. "Benvracky is 2,756 feet high;
Ben-ledi, 3,009; and Benvoirlich, 3,300."--_Ib._, 313. "The river Dochart
gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs."--_Ib._,
314. "About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into
Lochdochart."--_Geog. altered_. LAKES:--"Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con,
Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Voil."--_Scott's Lady of the
Lake_. GLENS:--"Glenfinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen,
Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire."--_Ib._ MOUNTAINS:--"Ben-an,
Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes
Benvenue."--_Ib._ "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the
inhabitants of the Low-countries."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 322. "And
Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."--SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2
_Kings_, xxiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her
_Good Fortune_; but the others, who weep and wring their hands,
_Bad-fortune_."--_Collier's Tablet of Cebes_.
UNDER RULE VIII.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt."--SCOTT: _Ps._
lx, _title_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _valley_ and _salt_ begin with
small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, "When any adjective or common
noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin
with a capital." Therefore, "Valley" should here begin with a capital V,
and "Salt" with a capital S.]
"Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c.--SCOTT: _Acts_,
xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called
the mount of Olives."--_Luke_, xxi, 37. "Abgillus, son of the king of the
Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with
Charlemagne."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the
Grain coast from the Ivory coast."--_Dict. of Geog._, p. 125. "The North
Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of
Montrose."--_Ib._, p. 232. "At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is
contracted by promontories on both coasts."--_Ib._, p. 233. "The Chestnut
ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge,
ten miles further west."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 65. "Washington City, the
metropolis of the United States of America."--_W.'s Univ. Gaz._, p. 380.
"Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830)
18,826."--_Ib._, p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new
Hampshire, is called mount Washington."--_Author_. "Mount's bay, in the
west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point."--_Id._
"Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient
Attica."--_Dict. of Geog_. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest
and most easterly of the Cyclades."--_Ib._ "But he overthrew Pharaoh and
his host in the Red sea."--BRUCE'S BIBLE: _Ps._ cxxxvi, 15. "But they
provoked him at the sea, even at the Red sea."--SCOTT: _Ps._ cvi, 7.[107]
UNDER RULE IX.--OF APPOSITION.
"At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."--ALGER:
_Matt._, xiv, 1.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word Tetrarch begins with a capital
letter. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a common and a proper name are
associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if
the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small
letter." Therefore, "tetrarch" should here begin with a small _t_.]
"Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?"--_Author_. "St. Luke,
the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St.
Paul."--_Id._ "Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching
against papal indulgences."--_Id._ "The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and
admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."--_Id._ "The Grammarian Varro, 'the
most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years
old."--_Id._ "John Despauter, the great Grammarian of Flanders, whose works
are still valued, died in 1520."--_Id._ "Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of
Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."--_Id._ "Cicero the Orator, 'the
Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."--_Id._
"Euripides, the Greek Tragedian, was born in the Island of Salamis, B. C.
476."--_Id._ "I will say unto God my Rock, Why hast thou forgotten
me?"--SCOTT: _Ps._ xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine
miles below New York City."--_Univ. Gaz._ "When the son of Atreus, King of
Men, and the noble Achilles first separated."--_Coleridge's Introd._, p.
83.
"Hermes, his Patron-God, those gifts bestow'd,
Whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load."
--POPE: _Odys._, B. 19.
UNDER RULE X.--OF PERSONIFICATIONS.
"But wisdom is justified of all her children."--SCOTT, ALGER: _Luke_, vii,
35.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _wisdom_ begins with a small
letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified,
when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital."
Therefore, "Wisdom" should here begin with a capital W.]
"Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine
gender."--_Murray's Gram._, i, p. 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay
before her Mahomet, and his disciples."--_Blair's Rhetoric_, p. 157: see
also _Murray's Gram._, i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where
is thy victory?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 55; _Murray's Gram._, p. 348; _English
Reader_, 31; _Merchant's Gram._, 212. "Ye cannot serve God and
Mammon."--SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: _Matt._, vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and
mammon."--IIDEM: _Luke_, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion
herself had dictated the plan."--See _Key_. "Poetry distinguishes herself
from prose, by yielding to a musical law."--See _Key_. "My beauteous
deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is religion. I am
the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and
joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called
superstition: she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear
and sorrow.'"--See _Key_. "Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats;
and habit had so absolute a power, that even conscience, if religion had
employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an
entrance."--See _Key_.
"In colleges and halls in ancient days,
There dwelt a sage called discipline."--_Wayland's M. Sci._, p. 368.
UNDER RULE XI.--OF DERIVATIVES.
"In English, I would have gallicisms avoided."--FELTON: _Johnson's Dict._
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _gallicisms_ here begins with a
small letter. But, according to Rule 11th, "Words derived from proper
names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or
nations, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Gallicisms" should begin
with a capital G.]
"Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the christian era."--_Murray's
Seq._, p. 357. "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most
excellent and useful christians, and christian ministers."--_Ib._, 319.
"They corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms."--MILTON: _in
Johnson's Dict._ "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation
to 1286, a benedictine of the 13th century."--_Universal Biog. Dict._
"Graffio, a jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on
moral subjects."--_Ib._ "They frenchify and italianize words whenever they
can."--See _Key_. "He who sells a christian, sells the grace of
God."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, p. 77. "The first persecution against the
christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."--_Gregory's Dict._ "P. Rapin, the
jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."--_Cobbett's E.
Gram._, 171. "The Roman poet and epicurean philosopher Lucretius has
said," &c.--_Cohen's Florida_, p. 107. Spell "calvinistic, atticism,
gothicism, epicurism, jesuitism, sabianism, socinianism, anglican,
anglicism, anglicize, vandalism, gallicism, romanize."--_Webster's El.
Spelling-Book_, 130-133. "The large ternate bat."--_Webster's Dict. w_.
ROSSET; _Bolles's Dict., w_. ROSET.
"Church-ladders are not always mounted best
By learned clerks, and latinists profess'd."--_Cowper_.
UNDER RULE XII.--OF I AND O.
"Fall back, fall back; i have not room:--o!
methinks i see a couple whom i should know."--_Lucian, varied._
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _I_, which occurs three times, and
the word _O_, which occurs once, are here printed in letters of the lower
case.[108] But, according to Rule 12th, "The words _I_ and _O_ should
always be capitals." Therefore, each should be changed to a capital, as
often as it occurs.]
"Nay, i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these
are to no purpose: the world will not live, think, or love, as i
do."--_Swift, varied_. "Whither, o! whither shall i fly? o wretched prince!
o cruel reverse of fortune! o father Micipsa! is this the consequence of
thy generosity?"--_Sallust, varied_. "When i was a child, i spake as a
child, i understood as a child, i thought as a child; but when i became a
man, i put away childish things."--_1 Cor._, xiii, 11, _varied_. "And i
heard, but i understood not: then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end
of these things?"--_Dan._, xii, 8, _varied_. "Here am i; i think i am very
good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in
my life."--_Few Days in Athens, varied_. "Singular, Vocative, _o master_;
Plural, Vocative, _o masters_."--_Bicknell's Gram._, p. 30.
"I, i am he; o father! rise, behold
Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!"--See _Pope's Odyssey_.
UNDER RULE XIII.--OF POETRY.
"Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
lie in three words--health, peace, and competence;
but health consists with temperance alone,
and peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."
_Pope's Essay on Man, a fine London Edition_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the last three lines of this example begin
with small letters. But, according to Rule 18th, "Every line in poetry,
except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line,
should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, "Lie," "But," and
"And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the
capitals L, B, and A.]
"Observe the language well in all you write,
and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight.
The smoothest verse and the exactest sense
displease us, if ill English give offence:
a barbarous phrase no reader can approve;
nor bombast, noise, or affectation love.
In short, without pure language, what you write
can never yield us profit or delight.
Take time for thinking, never work in haste;
and value not yourself for writing fast."
See _Dryden's Art of Poetry:--British Poets_, Vol. iii, p. 74.
UNDER RULE XIV.--OF EXAMPLES.
"The word _rather_ is very properly used to express a small degree or
excess of a quality: as, 'she is _rather_ profuse in her
expenses.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 47.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _she_ begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 14th, "The first word of a full example, of a
distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital."
Therefore, the word "She" should here begin with a capital S.]
"_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other: as,
'neither of my friends was there.'"--_Murray's Gram._, p. 56. "When we say,
'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the
ordinary size of men, and to different weather."--_Ib._, p. 47. "We more
readily say, 'A million of men,' than 'a thousand of men.'"--_Ib._, p. 169.
"So in the instances, 'two and two are four;' 'the fifth and sixth volumes
will complete the set of books.'"--_Ib._, p. 124. "The adjective may
frequently either precede or follow it [the verb]: as, 'the man is
_happy_;' or, '_happy_ is the man:' 'The interview was _delightful_;' or,
'_delightful_ was the interview.'"--_Ib._, p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a
pen,' 'they ran the river, 'the tower fell the Greeks,' 'Lambeth is
Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a
vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He
writes _with_ a pen;' 'they ran _towards_ the river;' 'the tower fell
_upon_ the Greeks;' 'Lambeth is _over against_ Westminster-abbey.'"--_Ib._,
p. 118. "Let me repeat it;--he only is great, who has the habits of
greatness."--_Murray's Key_, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times;
but, until seventy times seven."--See _Matt._, xviii, 22.
"The Panther smil'd at this; and when, said she,
Were those first councils disallow'd by me?"--_Dryden_, p. 95.
UNDER RULE XV.--OF CHIEF WORDS.
"The supreme council of the nation is called the divan."--_Balbi's Geog._,
p. 360.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _divan_ begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and
such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by
capitals." Therefore, "Divan" should here begin with a capital D.]
"The British parliament is composed of kings, lords, and
commons."--_Murray's Key_, p. 184. "A popular orator in the House of
Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he
pleases."--See _Campbell's Rhet._, p. 169; _Murray's Gram._, 364. "They may
all be taken together, as one name; as, the _house of commons_."--
_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 25. "Intrusted to persons in whom the
parliament could confide."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 202. "For 'The Lords'
house,' it were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords;' and, in
stead of 'The commons' vote,' to say, 'The votes of the commons.'"--See
_ib._, p. 177, 4th _Amer. Ed._; also _Priestley's Gram._, p. 69. "The house
of lords were so much influenced by these reasons."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo,
p. 152; _Priestley's Gram._, 188. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into
two great classes; figures of words, and figures of thought. The former,
figures of words, are commonly called tropes."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 132.
"Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more
useful distribution."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered
sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength."--_Ib._, p.
120.
"The word is then depos'd, and in this view,
You rule the scripture, not the scripture you."--_Dryden_, p. 95.
UNDER RULE XVI.--OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS.
"Be of good cheer: It is I; be not afraid."--ALGER: _Matt._, xiv, 27.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word _It_ begins with a capital _I_, for
which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule
16th, "Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or
reason for their use." Therefore, 'it' should here begin with a small
letter, as Dr. Scott has it.]
"Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth."--_Murray's
Key_, p. 240. "Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the
intricacy, of human events?"--_Ib._, p. 242. "The last edition was
carefully compared with the Original M. S."--_Ib._, p. 239. "And the
governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews?"--ALGER:
_Matt._, xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame,
that say, Aha, Aha!"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Ps._, lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate
for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"--IB.: _Ps._, xl,
15. "What think ye of Christ? whose Son is he? They say unto him, The Son
of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in Spirit call him
Lord?"--SCOTT: _Matt._, xxii, 42, 43. "Among all Things in the Universe,
direct your Worship to the Greatest; And which is that? 'T is that Being
which Manages and Governs all the Rest."--_Meditations of M. Aurelius
Antoninus_, p. 76. "As for Modesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they
have left this wicked World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that
can keep you here?"--_Ib._, p. 81.
"If Pulse of Terse, a Nation's Temper shows,
In keen Iambics English Metre flows."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 151.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"Come, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come."--_Gardiner's Music of
Nature_, p. 411.
[FORMULES.--1. Not proper, because the word _spring_ begins with a small
letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified,
when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital."
Therefore "Spring" should here begin with a capital S.
2. Not proper again, because the word _Ethereal_ begins with a capital E,
for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to
Rule 16th. "Capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule
or reason for their use." Therefore, "ethereal" should here begin with a
small letter.]
As, "He is the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve
Caesars."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 36. "In the History of Henry the fourth, by
father Daniel, we are surprized at not finding him the great
man."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 151. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by
Father Daniel, we are _surprised_ at not finding him the great
man."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 172; _Ingersoll's_, 187; _Fisk's_, 99. "Do not
those same poor peasants use the Lever and the Wedge, and many other
instruments?"--_Murray_, 288; from _Harris_, 293. "Arithmetic is excellent
for the gauging of Liquors; Geometry, for the measuring of Estates;
Astronomy, for the making of Almanacks; and Grammar, perhaps, for the
drawing of Bonds and Conveyances."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 295. "The wars of
Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some
note."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 364. "_William_ is a noun.--why? _was_ is a
verb.--why? _a_ is an article.--why? _very_ is an adverb.--why?"
&c.--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 20. "In the beginning was the word, and
that word was with God, and God was that word."--_Gwilt's Saxon Gram._, p.
49. "The greeks are numerous in thessaly, macedonia, romelia, and
albania."--_Balbi, varied_. "He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or
Padishah (lord)."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "I will ransom them from the
power of the grave; I will redeem them from death: O death, I will be thy
plagues;[109] O grave, I will be thy destruction."--SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.:
_Hosea_, xiii, 14. "Silver and Gold have I none; but such as I have, give I
unto thee."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 321. "Return, we beseech thee, O God
of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."--_Ib._,
p. 342. "In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen
to rail in public."--_Ib._, p. 316. "They assert that, in the phrases,
'give me _that_,' '_this_ is John's,' and '_such_ were _some_ of you,' the
words in italics are pronouns: but that, in the following phrases, they are
not pronouns; '_this_ book is instructive,' '_some_ boys are ingenious,'
'_my_ health is declining,' '_our_ hearts are deceitful,' &c."--_Ib._, p.
58. "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Far Out
head."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 308. Dr. Webster, and other makers of
spelling-books, very improperly write "sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday,
thursday, friday, saturday," without capitals.--See _Webster's Elementary
Spelling-Book_ p. 85. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled
the capitan-pasha."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 360. "Shall we not much rather be
in subjection unto the father of spirits, and live?"--SCOTT'S BIBLE:
_Heb._, xii, 9. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father
of Spirits, and live?"--FRIENDS' BIBLE: _Heb._, xii, 9. "He was more
anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."--_Murray's Sequel_,
p. 308. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount
Zion."--_Psalms_, xlviii, 2. "The Lord is my Helper, and I will not fear
what man shall do unto me."--SCOTT: _Heb._, xiii, 6. "Make haste to help
me, O LORD my Salvation."--SCOTT: _Ps._, xxxviii, 22.
"The City, which Thou seest, no other deem
Than great and glorious Rome, Queen of the Earth."
_Harris's Hermes_, p. 49.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"That range of hills, known under the general name of mount
Jura."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 110. "He rebuked the Red sea also, and it
was dried up."--SCOTT: _Ps._, cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the mount of
Olives."--_John_, viii, 1. "Milton's book, in reply to the _Defence of the
king_, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament, and
killed his antagonist with vexation."--See _Murray's Sequel_, 343.
"Mandeville, sir John, an Englishman, famous for his travels, born about
1300, died in 1372."--_Biog. Dict._ "Ettrick pen, a mountain in
Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."--_Glasgow Geog._, Vol. ii, p.
312. "The coast bends from Dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the
promontory of Dunnet head."--_Ib._, p. 307. "Gen. Gaines ordered a
detachment of near 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround
and take an Indian Village, called Fowl Town, about fourteen miles from
fort Scott."--_Cohen's Florida_, p. 41. "And he took the damsel by the
hand, and said unto her, Talitha Cumi."--ALGER: _Mark_, v, 4. "On religious
subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with
peculiar force."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 318. "Contemplated with gratitude to
their Author, the Giver of all Good."--_Ib._, p. 289. "When he, the Spirit
of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth."--_Ib._, p. 171;
_Fisk_, 98; _Ingersoll_, 186. "See the lecture on verbs, rule XV. note
4."--_Fisk's E. Gram._, p. 117. "At the commencement of lecture II. I
informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation."--_Kirkham's
Gram._, p. 171. "This VIII. lecture is a very important one."--_Ib._, p.
113. "Now read the XI. and XII. lectures _four_ or _five_ times
over."--_Ib._, p. 152. "In 1752, he was advanced to the bench, under the
title of lord Kames."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 331. "One of his maxims was,
'know thyself.'"--_Lempriere's Dict., n. Chilo._ "Good master, what good
thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"--See _Matt._, xix, 16.
"His best known works, however, are 'anecdotes of the earl of Chatham,' 2
vols. 4to., 3 vols. 8vo., and 'biographical, literary, and political
anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age; never
before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1797."--_Univ. Biog. Dict., n. Almon_. "O
gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"--_Merchant's
School Gram._, p. 172. "O sleep, O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse,"
&c.--SINGER'S SHAK. _Sec. Part of Hen. IV_, Act iii. "Sleep, gentle sleep,
Nature's soft nurse," &c.--_Dodd's Beauties of Shakspeare_, p. 129.
"And Peace, O, Virtue! Peace is all thy own."--_Pope's Works_, p. 379.
"And peace, O virtue! peace is all thy own."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 16.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His
book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the
interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of
orthodoxy."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before
was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's
voice."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover
and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by
the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or
connexion, with the things signified."--_Berkley's Minute Philosopher_, p.
169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double
V."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote
'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."--See p. 101. "He also wrote
'european' without a capital."--See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be
pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."--_Calvin's Institutes,
Ded._, p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single
capitals."--See his _American Spelling-Book_, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west
point of Martha's Vineyard."--_Williams's Univ. Gaz._ Write "Craborchard,
Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz,
Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and
Portorico."--_Webster's American Spelling-Book_, 127-140. Write the names
of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august,
september, october, november, december."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_,
21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday,
thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;--christ, christian, christmas,
christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;--Easthampton, omega, johannes,
aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book,
sundry places_.
"Eight Letters in some Syllables we find,
And no more Syllables in Words are joined."
_Brightland's Gram._, p. 61.
CHAPTER II.--OF SYLLABLES.
A _Syllable_ is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either
a word, as, _a, an, ant_; or a part of a word, as _di_ in _dial_.
In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or
separate impulses of the voice; as, _gram-ma-ri-an_.
A word of one syllable is called a _monosyllable_; a word of two syllables,
a _dissyllable_; a word of three syllables, a _trissyllable_; and a word of
four or more syllables, a _polysyllable_.
Every vowel, except _w_, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants
belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be
formed.
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
A _diphthong_ is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, _ea_ in _beat, ou_
in _sound_. In _oe_ or _ae_, old or foreign, the characters often unite.
A _proper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded;
as, _oi_ in _voice, ow_ in _vow_.
An _improper diphthong_ is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is
sounded; as, _oa_ in _loaf, eo_ in _people_.
A _triphthong_ is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, _eau_ in beau,
_iew_ in _view, oeu_ in _manoeuvre_.
A _proper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded;
as, _uoy_ in _buoy_.
An _improper triphthong_ is a triphthong in which only one or two of the
vowels are sounded; as, _eau_ in _beauty, iou_ in _anxious_. The diphthongs
in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five
possible combinations of two vowels: _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea, ee,
ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ia, ie_, (_ii_,) _io_, (_iu, iw, iy_,)--_oa, oe, oi,
oo, ou, ow, oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo_, (_uu, uw_,) _uy_.
Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or
improper; to wit, _ay,--ie,--oi, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_.
The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; _ay,--ia, ie, io,--oi, ou, ow,
oy,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_: of which combinations, only three, _ia, io_, and
_oy_, are invariably of this class.
The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; _aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,--ea,
ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,--ie,--oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,--ua, ue, ui, uo, uy_.
The only proper triphthong in English is _uoy_, as in _buoy, buoyant,
buoyancy_; unless _uoi_ in _quoit_ may be considered a parallel instance.
The improper triphthongs are sixteen; _awe, aye,--eau, eou, ewe, eye,--ieu,
iew, iou,--oeu, owe,--uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee_.
SYLLABICATION.
In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear;
it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following
rules.
RULE I.--CONSONANTS.
Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which
they modify in utterance; as, _An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal_.[110]
RULE II.--VOWELS.
Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted
in dividing the syllables; as, _A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al_.
RULE III.--TERMINATIONS.
Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from
the radical words to which they have been added; as, _harm-less, great-ly,
connect-ed_: thus _count-er_ and _coun-ter_ are different words.
RULE IV.--PREFIXES.
Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, _mis-place, out-ride,
up-lift_: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may
be otherwise; thus, _re-create_, and _rec'-reate, re-formation_, and
_ref-ormation_, are words of different import.
RULE V.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which
compose them; as, _boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less_.
RULE VI.--LINES FULL.
At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable
must never be broken.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some
difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often
contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other
languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong
objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the
consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they
often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his
Spelling-Book, has "_gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow,
pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent,
re-so-lu-tion_," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle
by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error
respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly
reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation
of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern
spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed
at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they
disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them
will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with
themselves.
OBS. 2.--The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four;
1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show
the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact
pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary
to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these
objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in
reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may
not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a
consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants
coming together must be divided. _Farther than this it would be absurd to
go with a child_."--_Walker's Principles_, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it
recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it
his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An _Abridgment_ of
Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"--an _Abridgement_, which, he
says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the
important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles
_farther_ than he himself has _done_"--befooled the Legislature of
Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the
professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise
men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be
conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some
three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE
282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the
preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by
a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."--_Mulkey's Abridgement of
Walker's Rules_, p. 34.
OBS. 3.--A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication
which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It
censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so
elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to
the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules
of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."--_Mulkey's
Preface_, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of
those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of
children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young
learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have
quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly
declares it "_absurd_," to offer more than one or two, and those of the
very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches
nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and
syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of
grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the
following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. _Fifteen
distinctions_ respecting the "classification and organic formation of the
letters." 2. _Sixty-three rules_ for "the sounds of the vowels, according
to their relative positions." 3. _Sixty-four explanations_ of "the
different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. _Eighty-nine rules_ for "the sounds
of the consonants, according to position." 5. _Twenty-three heads_,
embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. _Twenty-nine_
"_rules_ for dividing words into syllables." 7. _Thirty-three "additional
principles;"_ which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not
class them. 8. _Fifty-two pages_ of "irregular Words," forming particular
exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. _Twenty-eight pages_ of notes
extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties
of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children!
OBS. 4.--Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoepy; a work in
which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a
_desideratum_--a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught
_the rules_ for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."--_Preface_, p.
4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them
out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the
size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in
the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences,
and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the
gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his
plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the
certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them.
Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary
quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the
scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November
14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to
employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoepy _to the
several instructors of the public schools_, and that the sum of five
hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same
amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."--See _Mulkey's Circular_.
OBS. 5.--Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good
spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their
analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies,
dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are
sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of
the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even
from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at
the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give
assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules
suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as
correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the
derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not
pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no
further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as,
_ortho-graphy, theo-logy_. But when we divide for the third purpose, and
intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible,
divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when
put together again; as, _or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy_. This being the most
common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a
general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing
of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at
the ends of lines.
OBS. 6.--Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the
syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in
a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the
possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a
syllable."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle,
with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that
celebrated orthoepist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the
whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object
of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."--_Walker's
Principles_,--No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has
found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is
known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For
example: the words _colonel, venison, transition, propitious_, cannot be so
divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as _acid, magic,
pacify, legible, liquidate_, it may not be best to follow the rule, because
there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of
these words with _c, g_, and _q_, especially at the end of a line. The rule
for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in
_sizable, rising, dronish_.
OBS. 7.--For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules,
which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as
general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their
application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention,
these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of
dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all
but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose.
"The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be
the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is
misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious
errors."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 37. Through the influence of books
in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation
of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps
be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of
syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of
ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the
instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the
scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and
that he should industriously avoid _that random Method of dividing by the
Ear_, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually
fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different
Countries."--_British Grammar_, p. 47.
OBS. 8.--The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly
conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in
giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them
with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his
pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the
latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process,
without putting the syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes,
without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce
a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of
spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of
speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be
distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the
whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding
syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts.
For example: _divisibility_. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess,
viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e;
Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: _chicanery_. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee
A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the
chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of
pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and
skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on
as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient.
The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper,
or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is
much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so
far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools,
_dictation_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION.
LESSON I.--CONSONANTS.
1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil,
co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy,
ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther,
phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar,
sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, N. Y.,
1819, p. 43-50.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the _v_ in _ci-vil_, the _l_ in _co-lour_,
the _p_ in _co-py_, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken
with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should
generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in
utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: _civ-il,
col-our, cop-y_, &c.]
2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables:
"be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty,
co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green,
fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty,
ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter,
mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly,
pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral,
se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;--con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver,
dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic,
what-e-ver;--re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."--_Murray: ib._, p.
67-83.
3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables:
"ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble,
pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;--be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive,
ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar,
pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;--de-mon-stra-tion,
e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture,
me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion,
sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."--_Murray: ib._, p. 84-87.
4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables:
"a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry,
pre-pa-ra-to-ry;--a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal,
ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;--cha-rac-te-ris-tic,
e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion."
--_Murray: ib._, p. 87-89.
5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard,
Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;--Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el,
De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a,
Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy,
Va-len-tine;--A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el,
Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."--_Murray: ib._, p. 98-101.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice,
es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;--az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en,
trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish,
mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;--brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning,
scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;--
as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,--fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,--sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,--
com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."--_Webster's Spelling-Books_.
2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io,
gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;--am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion,
par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar,
so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;--an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate,
ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate,
li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate,
sub-stan-tiate."--_Webster: Old Spelling-Book_, 86-91; _New_, 121-128.
3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser,
has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy,
dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty,
noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_. Again:
"eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."--_Webster_.
4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th:
"aw-ry,"--_Webster's Old Book_, 52; "ath-wart,"--_Ib._, 93;
"pros-pect-ive,"--_Ib._, 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"--_Ib._, 93;
"res-ist-i-bil-ity,"--_Webster's New Book_, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"--_Ib._,
130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]--_Walker's Dict._, 8vo; _Cobb_, 33;
"tow-ards,"--_Cobb_, 48.
5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th:
"E'n-gland,"--_Murray's Spelling-Book_, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"--_Ib._, 71;
"a-noth-er,"--_Emerson_, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"--_Webster_, 141;
_Cobb_, 159.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their
derivation: "ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per,
craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy,
gus-ty, ban-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-ted,
thrif-ty, ves-ture."--_Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book_.
2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong
notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et,
cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn-ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y,
port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al,
di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al,
pa-tern-al."--_Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book_.
3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong
idea of their pronunciation: "ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry,
eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, flip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry,
his-to-ry, liv-e-ry. lot-te-ry, mock-e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry,
pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry."--_Ib._, 41-42.
4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to _n_ before _k_
the sound of _ng_: "ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le,
crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey,
port-ress, pick-le, poult-ice, punch-eon, qua-drant, qua-drate, squa-dron,
rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le."--_Cobb's
Standard Spelling-Book_.
5. Correct the division of the following words, with a proper regard to
Rules 1st and 3d: "a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry,
eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken,
hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar-shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty,
pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty,
thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy."--_Emerson's Spelling-Book_,
17-44.
CHAPTER III.--OF WORDS.
A _Word_ is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some
idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as _primitive_
or _derivative_, and as _simple_ or _compound_. The former division is
called their _species_; the latter, their _figure_.
A _primitive_ word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the
language; as, _harm, great, connect_.
A _derivative_ word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the
language; as, _harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected_.
A _simple_ word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other
words; as, _watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less_.
A _compound_ word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as,
_watchman, watchhouse, watchtower, nevertheless_.
Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, _bookseller, schoolmaster_:
others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen;
as, _good-natured, negro-merchant_.
_RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS_.
RULE I.--COMPOUNDS.
Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a
compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, _steamboat,
railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined_, are preferable to the phrases,
_steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined_; and _toward us_
is better than the old phrase, _to us ward_.
RULE II.--SIMPLES.
When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same
meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the
compound _instead_ is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, _in
stead of_, is exactly like the other phrases, _in lieu of, in place of, in
room of_, in which we write no compound.
RULE III.--THE SENSE.
Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or
written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require.
Thus, a _glass house_ is a house made of glass, but a _glasshouse_ is a
house in which glass is made; so a _negro merchant_ is a coloured trader,
but a _negro-merchant_ is a man who buys and sells negroes.
RULE IV.--ELLIPSES.
When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them
should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, "_six or
seventeen_" should not be said for "_sixteen or seventeen_;" nor ought we
to say, "_calf, goat, and sheepskins_" for "_calfskins, goatskins, and
sheepskins_" In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate
all the words; as in the phrase, "_soup, coffee_, and _tea_
houses."--_Liberator_, x, 40.
RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as _to-day, to-night,
to-morrow_; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound
has more than one, or one that is movable, as _first-born, hanger-on,
laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell_, the hyphen should be
inserted between them.
RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as
_watchword, statesman, gentleman_, and the parts are such as admit of a
complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. Churchill,
after much attention to this subject, writes thus: "The practical
instruction of the _countinghouse_ imparts a more thorough knowledge of
_bookkeeping_, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere _schoolbook_,
however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."--_New Gram._,
p. vii. But _counting-house_, having more stress on the last syllable than
on the middle one, is usually written with the hyphen; and _book-keeping_
and _school-book_, though they may not need it, are oftener so formed than
otherwise.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--Words are the least parts of significant language; that is, of
language significant in each part; for, to syllables, taken merely as
syllables, no meaning belongs. But, to a word, signification of some sort
or other, is essential; there can be no word without it; for a sign or
symbol must needs represent or signify something. And as I cannot suppose
words to represent external things, I have said "A _Word_ is one or more
syllables spoken or written as the sign of some _idea_." But of _what_
ideas are the words of our language significant? Are we to say, "Of _all_
ideas;" and to recognize as an English word every syllable, or combination
of syllables, to which we know a meaning is attached? No. For this, in the
first place, would confound one language with an other; and destroy a
distinction which must ever be practically recognized, till all men shall
again speak one language. In the next place, it would compel us to embrace
among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of _local_
ideas, such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of
the individuals they have known, whether persons, places, or things. But,
however important they may be in the eyes of men, the names of particular
persons, places, or things, because they convey only particular ideas, do
not properly belong to what we call _our language_. Lexicographers do not
collect and define proper names, because they are beyond the limits of
their art, and can be explained only from history. I do not say that proper
names are to be excluded from grammar; but I would show wherein consists
the superiority of general terms over these. For if our common words did
not differ essentially from proper names, we could demonstrate nothing in
science: we could not frame from them any general or affirmative
proposition at all; because all our terms would be particular, and not
general; and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be
for ever itself only, and not an other.
OBS. 2.--Our common words, then, are the symbols neither of external
particulars, nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars
excite in our minds, but mainly of those general or universal ideas which
belong rather to the intellect than to the senses. For intellection differs
from sensation, somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the
perceptive faculty of a brute; and language, being framed for the
reciprocal commerce of human minds, whose perceptions include both, is made
to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular, yet without
placing them on equal ground. Our general ideas--that is, our ideas
conceived as common to many individuals, existing in any part of time,
past, present, or future--such, for example, as belong to the words _man,
horse, tree, cedar, wave, motion, strength, resist_--such ideas, I say,
constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words
primarily, essentially, and immediately; whereas, our particular ideas,
such as are conceived only of individual objects, which arc infinite in
number and ever fleeting, constitute a significance which belongs to
language only secondarily, accidentally, and mediately. If we express the
latter at all, we do it either by proper names, of which but very few ever
become generally known, or by means of certain changeable limitations which
are added to our general terms; whereby language, as Harris observes,
"without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to denote things
infinite."--_Hermes_, p. 345. The particular manner in which this is done,
I shall show hereafter, in Etymology, when I come to treat of articles and
definitives.
OBS. 3.--If we examine the structure of proper names, we shall find that
most of them are compounds, the parts of which have, in very many
instances, some general signification. Now a complete phrase commonly
conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind; but, in this
case, the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other
words which are added to them. Thus _smith_ is a more general term than
_goldsmith_; and _goldsmith_ is more general than a _goldsmith_; _a
goldsmith_, than _the goldsmith_; _the goldsmith_, than _one Goldsmith_;
_one Goldsmith_, than _Mr. Goldsmith_; _Mr. Goldsmith_, than _Oliver
Goldsmith_. Thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular
persons or objects, is that of giving them _proper names_; but proper names
must needs be so written, that they may be known as proper names, and not
be mistaken for common terms. I have before observed, that we have some
names which are both proper and common; and that these should be written
with capitals, and should form the plural regularly. It is surprising that
_the Friends_, who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about
language, should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is, of
_compounding_ their numerical names of the months and days, and writing
them uniformly with capitals, as proper names. For proper names they
certainly are, in every thing but the form, whenever they are used without
the article, and without those other terms which render their general idea
particular. And the compound form with a capital, is as necessary for
_Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday_, &c., as for _Sunday, Monday, Tuesday_, &c.
"The first day of the week,"--"The seventh day of the month,"--"The second
month of summer,"--"The second month in the year," &c., are good English
phrases, in which any compounding of the terms, or any additional use of
capitals, would be improper; but, for common use, these phrases are found
too long and too artificial. We must have a less cumbersome mode of
specifying the months of the year and the days of the week. What then?
Shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity, and, without
substituting in their place the form of proper names, apply general terms
to particular thoughts, and insist on it that this is right? And is not
this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary
names of the months and days, and write "_first day_," for _Sunday_, in
stead of "the first day of the week;" or "_second month_," for _February_,
in stead of "the second month in the year;" and so forth? This phraseology
may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar, but still
it is an abuse of language, because it is inconsistent with the common
acceptation of the terms. Example: "The departure of a ship will take place
_every sixth day_ with punctuality."--_Philadelphia Weekly Messenger_. The
writer of this did not mean, "_every Friday_;" and it is absurd for the
Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean.
OBS. 4.--In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to
express our meaning as briefly as possible; but legal phraseology is always
full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov.
24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837;" but a conveyancer will have it, "On the
twenty-fourth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and
thirty-seven;"--or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh
month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
thirty-seven." Accordingly we find that, in common daily use, all the names
of the months, except _March, May, June_, and _July_, are abbreviated;
thus, _Jan., Feb., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec_. And sometimes even
the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter; as '37 for 1837; or
1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in constructing tables
of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of
their names; as, S. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of
abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days,
are perhaps still more convenient. For, if we please, we may put the simple
Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add _d_. for _day_, and
_mo._ for _month_: as, 1 d., 2 d., 3 d., &c.;--1 mo., 2 mo., 3 mo.,
&c.:--or more compactly thus: 1d., 2d., 3d., &c.;--1mo., 2mo., 3mo., &c.
But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expression of these
things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great
brevity and too great prolixity; and, therefore, it is best to make it a
general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper
names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures
written in full.
OBS. 5.--In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled
with a curious speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry,
concerning the _principle of their identity_. We often speak of "_the same
words_," and of "_different words_;" but wherein does the sameness or the
difference of words consist? Not in their pronunciation; for the same word
may be differently pronounced; as, _p=at'ron_ or _p=a'tron, m=at'ron_ or
_m=a'tron_. Not in their orthography; for the same word may be differently
spelled; as, _favour_ or _favor, music_ or _musick, connexion_ or
_connection_. Not in their form of presentation; for the same word may be
either spoken or written; and speech and writing present what we call _the
same words_, in two ways totally different. Not in their meaning; for the
same word may have different meanings, and different words may signify
precisely the same thing. This sameness of words, then, must consist in
something which is to be reconciled with great diversity. Yet every word is
itself, and not an other: and every word must necessarily have some
property peculiar to itself, by which it may be easily distinguished from
every other. Were it not so, language would be unintelligible. But it _is_
so; and, therefore, to mistake one word for an other, is universally
thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes
are by no means of uncommon occurrence. But that the question about the
identity of words is not a very easy one, may appear from the fact, that
the learned often disagree about it in practice; as when one grammarian
will have _an_ and _a_ to be two words, and an other will affirm them to be
only different forms of one and the same word.
OBS. 6.--Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can find that
principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled.
Now, although different words do generally differ in orthography, in
pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one
orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is
allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other
only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a sign agreeing with an
other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that
the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every
word from every other, lies in neither extreme: it lies in a narrower
compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in
any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a
word, are different words; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same
word. Consequently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we
add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say, that we
speak or write different words, and not the same: thus _dear_, beloved, and
_deer_, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same;
and, in like manner, _use_, advantage, and _use_, to employ, will readily
be called different words. Upon this principle, _an_ and _a_ are different
words; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact
but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the
same article, though I have nowhere expressly called them the same word.
But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only
one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be
fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation,
and only one; one just orthography, and only one; and some proper
signification, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part
of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or
pronounced alike, not to maintain the second point of difference, against
the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to
confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two
different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so.
OBS. 7.--In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in
that which relates to the _figure of words_. It is a point of which modern
writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin
grammarians, reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical
accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech; and accordingly
noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct
topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of
compounding words in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation.
No use appears to have been made of the _hyphen_, in joining the words of
those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning
"_under one_." The compounding of words is one principal means of
increasing their number; and the arbitrariness with which that is done or
neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our
words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the
advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others,
have little need of definition; and when new things are formed, it is very
natural and proper to give them new names of this sort: as, _steamboat,
railroad_. The propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language,
is not to be determined by dictionaries; for that must be settled by usage
before any lexicographer will insert them. And so numerous, after all, are
the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have
its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right
way of spelling it; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of
use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. _Railroads_ are of so
recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary; and that one
is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong,
in keeping the words separate because _Johnson_ did not compound them. But
is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write _railroad_, or
_rail-road_, or _rail road_, which we cannot learn from any of our
dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write _rocklo_, or
_roquelo_, or _roquelaur_, or _roquelaure_, which, in some form or other,
is found in them all? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his
cloak is out of fashion.
OBS. 8.--No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above,
should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its
parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen; for,
in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other: and they ought
to be kept as distinct as possible.[113] But, when a whole phrase takes the
relation of an _adjective_, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen
becomes necessary; as, "An inexpressibly apt _bottle-of-small-beer_
comparison."--_Peter Pindar_. The occasions for the compounding of words,
are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to
be said; but, as we compound words, sometimes with the hyphen, and
sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use
this mark, and when to omit it. "Some settled rule for the use of the
hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange
predilection for it; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L.
Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to
countenance this practice; which is, no doubt, convenient enough for those
who do not like trouble. His words are: 'A Hyphen, marked thus - is
employed in connecting compounded words: as, Lap-dog, tea-pot,
pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples,
Johnson, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without
any separation between the syllables, _lapdog, preexistence_; his second
and fifth as two distinct words each, _tea pot, to morrow_; and his sixth
as three words, _mother in law_: so that only his fourth has the sanction
of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a
hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, _ness,
ly_, and the rest."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 374.
OBS. 9.--Again: "While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established
practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could
possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as
_preexistence, cooperate_, and _reenter_]; it would unquestionably be
advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of
words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected
arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson,
_alms-basket, alms-giver_, with the hyphen; we have _almsdeed, almshouse,
almsman_, without: and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might
be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplexity, is not
the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language,
every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some
particular syllable. Some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent
on _another_ syllable; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one
leading accent prominent: as in _expos'tulatory_. Accordingly, when a
compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as _night'cap,
bed'stead, broad'sword_, the two words have coalesced completely into one,
and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the
radical words has an accent, as _Chris'tian-name', broad'-shoul'dered_, I
think the hyphen should be used. _Good'-na'tured_ is a compound epithet
with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen: in _good nature, good
will_, and similar expressions, _good_ is used simply as an adjective, and
of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is
used adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies; as,
a _gold ring_, a _silver buckle_. When two numerals are employed to express
a number, without a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them
by a hyphen; as, _twenty-five, eighty-four_: but when the conjunction is
inserted, the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words
connected by the conjunction. This, however, is a common abuse; and we
often meet with _five-&-twenty, six-&-thirty_, and the like."--_Ib._, p.
376. Thus far Churchill: who appears to me, however, too hasty about the
hyphen in compound numerals. For we write _one hundred, two hundred, three
thousand_, &c., without either hyphen or conjunction; and as
_five-and-twenty_ is equivalent to _twenty-five_, and virtually but one
word, the hyphen, if not absolutely necessary to the sense, is certainly
not so very improper as he alleges. "_Christian name_" is as often written
without the hyphen as with it, and perhaps as accurately.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS.
UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"Professing to imitate Timon, the man hater."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 161.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound term _manhater_ is here made
two words. But, according to Rule 1st, "Words regularly or analogically
united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be
needlessly broken apart." Therefore, _manhater_ should be written as one
word.]
"Men load hay with a pitch fork."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 40. "A
pear tree grows from the seed of a pear."--_Ib._, p. 33. "A tooth brush is
good to brush your teeth."--_Ib._, p. 85. "The mail is opened at the post
office."--_Ib._, p. 151. "The error seems to me two fold."--_Sanborn's
Gram._, p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand."--_Webster's
New Spelling-Book_, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a
mile stone."--_Ib._, p. 88. "A grange is a farm and farm house."--_Ib._, p.
118. "It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than
money."--_Ib._, p. 118. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers, and harness
makers."--_Ib._, p. 150. "Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a
dollar."--_Ib._, p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at New York was a
terrible disaster."--_Ib._, p. 54. "The elders also, and the bringers up of
the children, sent to Jehu."--SCOTT: 2 _Kings_, x, 5. "Not with eye
service, as men pleasers."--_Bickersteth, on Prayer_, p. 64. "A good
natured and equitable construction of cases."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 138. "And
purify your hearts, ye double minded."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p.
115. "It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean
spirited action."--_Grammar of Alex. Murray, the schoolmaster_, p. 124.
"There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the
subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 71.
"To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday
life."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 459. "The common place, stale
declamation of its revilers would be silenced."--_Ib._, i, 494. "She formed
a very singular and unheard of project."--_Goldsmith's Rome_, p. 160. "He
had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited
enemies."--ROBERTS VAUX: _The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 74. "These old
fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.--_Music of Nature_, p. 292.
"This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."--_Ib._, p. 398. "So
we are assured from Scripture it self."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 300. "The
mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling."--_R.
Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com._ "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are
remitted unto them."--_Beacon_, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: _John_, xx,
23. "Tarry we our selves how we will."--_Walker's English Particles_, p.
161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor
want a voucher."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys
any of the above named sentiments."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 424. "I go on
horse back."--_Guy's Gram._, p. 54. "This requires _purity_, in opposition
to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words."--_Adam's Gram._, p. 242;
_Gould's_, 234. "May the Plough share shine."--_White's Eng. Verb_, p. 161.
"Which way ever we consider it."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 83.
"Where e'er the silent (e) a Place obtains,
The Voice foregoing, Length and softness gains."
--_Brightland's Gr._, p. 15.
UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLES.
"It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed."--_Kirkham's
Gram._, p. 83.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because _abovenamed_ is here unnecessarily made a
compound. But, according to Rule 2d, "When the simple words would only form
a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought
to be avoided." Therefore, _above_ and _named_ should here have been
written as two words.]
"After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude."--_Fox's Journal_.
Vol. i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give
in."--_Collier's Meditations of Antoninus_, p. 94. "They stared awhile in
silence one upon another."--_Rasselas_, p. 73. "After passion has for
awhile exercised its tyrannical sway."--_Murray's Gram._, ii, 135 and 267.
"Though set within the same general-frame of intonation."--_Rush, on the
Voice_, p. 339. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of
expression."--_Ib._, p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few
associable constituents."--_Ib._, p. 343. "Before each accented syllable or
emphatic monosyllabic-word."--_Ib._, p. 364. "One should not think too
favourably of oneself."--See _Murray's Gram._, Vol. i, p. 154. "Know ye not
your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol.
i, p. 355. "I judge not my ownself, for I know nothing of my ownself."--
_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 84. "Though they were in such a rage, I
desired them to tarry awhile."--_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 179. "_A_ instead of
_an_ is now used before words beginning with _a_ long."--_Murray's Gram._,
p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's
day."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 82. "A new-year's-gift is a present made on the
first day of the year."--See _Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al._ "When he
sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts."--STILLINGFLEET, _in
Johnson's Dict._ "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-
fables."--_Author_. "The world, take it altogether, is but one."--
_Collier's Antoninus_, B. vii, Sec. 9. "In writings of this stamp we must
accept of sound instead of sense."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 298. "A
male-child, A female-child, Male-descendants, Female-descendants."--
_Goldsbury's C. S. Gram._, p. 13; _Rev. T. Smith's Gram._, p. 15.
"Male-servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations."--
_Felton's Gram._, p. 15.
"Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim,
My muse e'er sought to blast another's fame."--_Lloyd_, p. 162.
UNDER RULE III.--THE SENSE.
"Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed
instincts."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 291.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the term _four footed_ is made two words, as
if the instincts were four and footed. But, according to Rule 3d, "Words
otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written
separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require."
Therefore, _four-footed_, as it here means _quadruped_, or _having four
feet_, should be one word.]
"He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his
table."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 128. "To the short seeing eye of
man, the progress may appear little."--_The Friend_, Vol. ix, p. 377.
"Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual
distinction."--_Town's Analysis_, p. 5. "A tin peddler will sell tin
vessels as he travels."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p. 44. "The beams
of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists."--_Ib._, p. 39. "What
you mean by _future tense adjective_, I can easily understand."--_Tooke's
Diversions_, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The town has been for several days very well
behaved."--_Spectator_, No. 532. "A _rounce_ is the handle of a printing
press."--_Webster's' Dict._; also _El. Spelling-Book_, p. 118. "The
phraseology we call _thee and thouing_ is not in so common use with us, as
the _tutoyant_ among the French."--_Walker's Dict., w. Thy._ "Hunting, and
other out door sports, are generally pursued."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 227.
"Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden."--SCOTT, ALGER,
FRIENDS: _Matt._, xi, 28. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only
begotten Son to save it."--_Barclay's Works_, i, p. 71. See SCOTT'S BIBLE:
_John_, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and
was spared."--_N. Y. Observer_, Vol. x, p. 90. "These are well pleasing to
God, in all ranks and relations."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 73.
"Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle."--_Numb._, xvii, 13.
"The words coalesce, when they have a long established association."--
_Murray's Gram._, p. 169. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go
in to them."--OLD BIBLE: _Ps._, cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming
into him."--See _Acts_, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be
considered in a two fold light."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 108. "We
commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold,
without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."--_Author._ See _Matt._,
xiii, 8. "When the first mark is going off, he cries _turn!_ the glass
holder answers _done!_"--_Bowditch's Nav._, p. 128. "It is a kind of
familiar shaking hands with all the vices."--_Maturin's Sermons_, p. 170.
"She is a good natured woman;" "James is self opinionated;" "He is broken
hearted."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 147. "These three examples apply to the
_present tense_ construction only."--_Ib._, p. 65. "So that it was like a
game of hide and go seek."--_Edward's First Lessons in Grammar_, p. 90.
"That lowliness is young ambition's ladder,
Whereto the climber upward turns his face."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 97.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF ELLIPSES.
"This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house."
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the compound word _schoolhouse_ is here
divided to avoid a repetition of the last half. But, according to Rule 4th,
"When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them
should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word." Therefore, "_school_"
should be "_schoolhouse_;" thus, "This building serves yet for a
_schoolhouse_ and a meeting-house."]
"Schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends [are] to be
encouraged."--_N. E. Discipline_, p. xv. "We never assumed to ourselves a
faith or worship-making-power."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. i, p. 83. "Pot and
pearl ashes are made from common ashes."--_Webster's New Spelling-Book_, p.
69. "Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics."--_Blair's Gram._,
p. 121. "I say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c."--_Dr.
Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. ii p. 121. "Or those who have
esteemed themselves skilful, have tried for the mastery in two or four
horse chariots."--_Zenobia_, Vol. i, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and
headed, running through the streets."--_Castle Rackrent_, p. 68. "Friends
have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses."--_The Friend_,
Vol. vii, p. 231. "The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the
first month, at the last in the second, and so on."--_Ib._, p. 167.
"Meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth
days."--_Ib._, p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with
gold leaf."--_Ib._, p. 404. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the
last seventh day in second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh month."--_Ib._, p.
87. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third fifth day in each
month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship at the same hour on first and
fifth days."--_Ib._, p. 231. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a main and
mizzen-mast."--_Webster's Dict._, "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether
nature has enlisted herself as a Cis or Trans-Atlantic partisan?"--
_Jefferson's Notes_, p. 97. "By large hammers, like those used for paper
and fullingmills, they beat their hemp."--MORTIMER: _in Johnson's Dict._
"Ant-hill, or Hillock, _n. s._ The small protuberances of earth, in which
ants make their nests."--_Ib._ "It became necessary to substitute simple
indicative terms called _pro-names_ or _nouns._"--_Enclytica_, p. 16.
"Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable
To star or sun-light, spread their umbrage broad."--_Milton._
UNDER RULE V.--THE HYPHEN.
"_Evilthinking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect
participle _thinking_; singular number;" &c.--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 180.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _evilthinking_, which has more than
one accented syllable, is here compounded without the hyphen. But,
according to Rule 5th, "When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce,
or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more
than one, or one that is movable, the hyphen should be inserted between
them." Therefore, the hyphen should be used in this word; thus,
_evil-thinking._]
"_Evilspeaking_; a noun, compounded of the noun _evil_ and the imperfect
participle _speaking._"--_Ib._ "I am a tall, broadshouldered, impudent,
black fellow."--SPECTATOR: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Ingratitude! thou
marblehearted fiend."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A popular licence is indeed the
manyheaded tyranny."--SIDNEY: _ib._ "He from the manypeopled city
flies."--SANDYS: _ib._ "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."--POPE:
_ib._ "The horsecucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the
table."--MORTIMER: _ib._ "The bird of night did sit, even at noonday, upon
the market-place."--SHAK.: _ib._ "These make a general gaoldelivery of
souls, not for punishment."--SOUTH: _ib._ "Thy air, thou other goldbound
brow, is like the first."--SHAK.: _ib._ "His person was deformed to the
highest degree; flatnosed, and blobberlipped."--L'ESTRANGE: _ib._ "He that
defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a bloodshedder."--ECCLUS., xxxiv,
22: _ib._ "Bloodyminded, _adj._ from _bloody_ and _mind._ Cruel; inclined
to blood-shed."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in
demeanour."--SHAK.: _ib._ "A young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken
bag tied to it."--SPECTATOR: _ib._ "I have seen enough to confute all the
boldfaced atheists of this age."--BRAMHALL: _ib._ "Before milkwhite, now
purple with love's wound."--SHAK: _ib._ "For what else is a redhot iron
than fire? and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood?"--NEWTON:
_ib._ "Pollevil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume in the
horse's poll, or nape of the neck just between the ears."--FARRIER: _ib._
"Quick-witted, brazenfac'd, with fluent tongues,
Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."--DRYDEN: _ib._
UNDER RULE VI.--NO HYPHEN.
"From his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell."--_Snelling's Gift for
Scribblers_, p. 43.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the word _tear-drop_, which has never any
other than a full accent on the first syllable, is here compounded with the
hyphen. But, according to Rule 6th, "When a compound has but one accented
syllable in pronunciation, and the parts are such as admit of a complete
coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore,
_teardrop_ should be made a close compound.]
"How great, poor jack-daw, would thy sufferings be!"--_Ib._, p. 29. "Placed
like a scare-crow in a field of corn."--_Ib._, p. 39. "Soup for the
alms-house at a cent a quart."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Up into the watch-tower get,
and see all things despoiled of fallacies."--DONNE: _Johnson's Dict., w.
Lattice._ "In the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by
night."--BACON: _ib., w. Watchtower._ "In the daytime Fame sitteth in a
watch-tower, and flieth most by night."--ID.: _ib., w. Daytime._ "The moral
is the first business of the poet, as being the ground-work of his
instruction."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Moral._ "Madam's own hand the mouse-trap
baited."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Mouse-trap._ "By the sinking of the air-shaft the
air hath liberty to circulate."--RAY: _ib., w. Airshaft._ "The multiform
and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone."--WATTS: _ib., w.
Multiform._ "Many of the fire-arms are named from animals."--_Ib., w.
Musket._ "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an
eel-skin."--SHAK.: _ib., w. Truss._ "They may serve as land-marks to shew
what lies in the direct way of truth."--LOCKE: _ib., w. Landmark._ "A
pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."--_Id.
ib., w. Lane._ "A mill-horse, still bound to go in one circle."--SIDNEY:
_ib., w. Mill-horse._ "Of singing birds they have linnets, goldfinches,
ruddocks, Canary-birds, black-birds, thrushes, and divers others."--CAREW:
_ib., w. Goldfinch._ "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches,
blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."--ID.: _ib., w. Blackbird._ "Of
singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, ruddocks, canary birds,
blackbirds, thrushes, and divers other."--ID.: _ib., w. Canary bird._
"Cartrage, or Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with
gun-powder."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to.
"Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
The time of night when Troy was set on fire,
The tune when screech-owls cry, and ban-dogs howl."
SHAKSPEARE: _ib., w. Silent._
"The time when screech-owls cry, and bandogs howl."
IDEM.: _ib., w. Bandog._
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones."--_Old Adage._
"If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form soever."--_Watts_, p.
5. "For Cassius is a weary of the world."--SHAKSPEARE: _in Kirkham's
Elocution_, p. 67. "By the coming together of more, the chains were
fastened on."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 223. "Unto the carrying away of
Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."--_Jer._, i, 3. "And the goings forth
of the border shall be to Zedad."--_Numbers_, xxxiv, 8. "And the goings out
of it shall be at Hazar-enan."--_Ib._, ver. 9. "For the taking place of
effects, in a certain particular series."--_Dr. West, on Agency_, p. 39.
"The letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."--_Dr. J.
Owen._ "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly."--_Blair's Lect._,
p. 126. "A falling off at the end is always injurious."--_Jamieson's
Rhetoric_, p. 127. "As all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be
trains of reasoning."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p.
333. "Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."--
_Micah_, v, 2. "Some times the adjective becomes a substantive."--
_Bradley's Gram._, p. 104. "It is very plain, I consider man as visited a
new."--_Barclay's Works_, Vol. iii, p. 331. "Nor do I any where say, as he
falsely insinuates."--_Ib._, p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where,
no where."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 55. "The world hurries off a pace,
and time is like a rapid river."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 58. "But to now
model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."--_Brown's Estimate_, Vol. i, p.
102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce
rain."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 369. "North west winds from the high lands
produce cold clear weather."--_Ib._ "The greatest part of such tables would
be of little use to English men."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 155. "The ground
floor of the east wing of Mulberry street meeting house was filled."--_The
Friend_, vii, 232. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made
at the glass houses."--_Red Book_, p. 131.
"The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife
Gives all the strength and colour of our life."
--_Murray's Gram._, p. 54; _Fisk's_, 65.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven
days in Tirzah."--_1 Kings_, xvi, 15. "In the thirty and first year of Asa
king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."--_Ib._, xvi, 23. "He
cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three
sum."--_Foreign Quarterly Review_. "The best cod are those known under the
name of Isle of Shoals dun fish."--_Balbi's Geog._, p. 26. "The soldiers,
with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol.
ii, p. 142. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of
cloth."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of
a thousand heavy armed Spartans."--_Ib._, p. 38. "But he laid them by
unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.'"--_Ib._, p. 7.
"Chester monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following
the second second day."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 124. "Eggharbour
monthly meeting is held the first second day."--_Ib._, p. 124. "Little Egg
Harbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second fifth day in
each month."--_Ib._, p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the
24th of eleventh month, 1834," &c.--_Ib._, p. 64. "In less than one-fourth
part of the time usually devoted."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 4. "The pupil
will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much."--_Ib._, p. 11.
"The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the
carriage."--_Ib._, p. 28. "In an ancient English version of the
New-Testament."--_Ib._, p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed."--_Red
Book_, p. 36. "The man, being a little short sighted, did not immediately
know him."--_Ib._, p. 40. "Picture frames are gilt with gold."--_Ib._, p.
44. "The park keeper killed one of the deer."--_Ib._, p. 44. "The fox was
killed near the brick kiln."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Here comes Esther, with her
milk pail."--_Ib._, p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us."--_Ib._,
p. 60. "A fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill."--_Ib._, p.
65. "If their private interests should be ever so little affected."--_Ib._,
p. 73. "Unios are fresh water shells, vulgarly called fresh water
clams."--_Ib._, p. 102.
"Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom,
Jostled by pedants out of elbow room."--_Lloyd_, p. 163.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains."--PRIOR: _in Johnson's
Dict., w. Hover._ "Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the
contents of the letter."--ADDISON: _ib., w. Hand_. "They have put me in a
silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool's cap."--ID.: _ib., w. Nightgown_. "Have
you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated,
numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"--ARBUTHNOT:
_ib., w. Ninnyhammer_. "A noble, that is, six, shillings and eightpence,
is, and usually hath been paid."--BACON: _ib., w. Noble_. "The king of
birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east
and west."--HOWELL: _ib., w. Full-summed_. "To morrow. This is an idiom of
the same kind, supposing _morrow_ to mean originally _morning_: as, _to
night, to day_."--_Johnson's Dict._, 4to. "To-day goes away and to-morrow
comes."--_Id., ib., w. Go_, No. 70. "Young children, who are try'd in Go
carts, to keep their steps from sliding."--PRIOR: _ib., w. Go-cart_.
"Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward."--SHAK.:
_ ib., w. Goer_. "Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor
Galilean virgin sent."--CRASHAW: _ib., w. Golden_. "My penthouse eye-brows
and my shaggy beard offend your sight."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Penthouse_. "The
hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh."--
L'ESTRANGE: _ib., w. Nag_. "A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful
head."--_Snelling's Gift_, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three
stringed lute."--_Ib._, p. 42. "They magnify a hundred fold an author's
merit."--_Ib._, p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened
door."--_Ib._, p. 10. "Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou
art bound to vice."--DRYDEN: in _Johnson's Dict., w. Gloss_. "Take of
aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms."--BACON: _ib., w.
Charge_. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the
sun-shine."--NEWTON: _ib., w. Rainbow_.
"Not but there are, who merit other palms;
Hopkins and Stern hold glad the heart with Psalms."
_British Poets_, Lond., 1800, Vol. vi, p. 405.
CHAPTER IV.--OF SPELLING.
_Spelling_ is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This
important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or
dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written
rules; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage.
The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and
perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many
others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words.
But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with
uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful.
The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service
to those who wish to be accurate.
_RULES FOR SPELLING._
RULE I.--FINAL F, L, OR S.
Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, preceded by a single vowel, double
the final consonant; as _staff, mill, pass--muff, knell, gloss--off, hiss,
puss_.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words _clef, if_, and _of_, are written with single _f_;
and _as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus_, and _thus_, with
single _s_. So _bul_, for the flounder; _nul_, for _no_, in law; _sol_, for
_sou_ or _sun_; and _sal_, for _salt_, in chemistry, have but the single
_l_.
OBS.--Because _sal, salis_, in Latin, doubles not the _l_, the chemists
write _salify, salifiable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous,
saliniform, salifying_, &c., with single _l_, contrary to Rule 3d. But in
_gas_ they ought to double the _s_; for this is a word of their own
inventing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form _gases_ and
_gaseous_ with the _s_ still single; for so they make it violate two
general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written _gass_, the
plural should nevertheless be _gasses_, and the adjective should be
_gasseous_, according to Rule 3d.
RULE II.--OTHER FINALS.
Words ending in any other consonant than _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the
final letter; as, _mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz_.
EXCEPTIONS.--We double the consonant in _abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg,
ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr_, and some proper names.
But we have also _ab_ (_from_) and _ad_ (_to_) for prefixes; and _jag, rag,
in, bur_, and _but_, are other words that conform to the rule.
RULE III.--DOUBLING.
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with
a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after _qu_,
double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with
a vowel: as, _rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter,
squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit,
committeth, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit,
acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting, acquitteth_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. X final, being equivalent to _ks_, is never doubled: thus,
from _mix_, we have _mixed, mixing_, and _mixer_. 2. When the derivative
retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always
doubled: as, _prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence,
ref'erable_, or _refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable_, or
_infer'rible; transfer'_, a _trans'fer, trans'ferable_, or
_transfer'rible_. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in
English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain,
_Britan'nic, Britannia_; appeal, _appel'lant_; argil, _argil'laus,
argilla'ceous_; cavil, _cav'illous, cavilla'tion_; excel', _ex'cellent,
ex'cellence_; inflame', _inflam'mable, inflamma'tion_. See Observations 13
and 14, p. 199.
RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING.
A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the
accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an
additional syllable: as, _toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ,
differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial,
dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic,
vitriolate_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. The final _l_ of words ending in _el_, must be doubled
before an other vowel, lest the power of the _e_ be mistaken, and a
syllable be lost: as, _travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling;
gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous_. Yet the word _parallel_, having
three Ells already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives; as,
_paralleling, paralleled_, and _unparalleled_. 2. Contrary to the preceding
rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of the few verbs
ending in _al, il_, or _ol_, unaccented,--namely, _equal, rival, vial,
marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol_, and _pistol_,--are usually
allowed to double the _l_, though some dissent from the practice: as,
_equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller;
carolled, carolling, caroller_. 3. When _ly_ follows _l_, we have two Ells
of course, but in fact no doubling: as, _real, really; oral, orally; cruel,
cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly_. 4. Compounds, though
they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication,
always retain the double letter: as, _wit'snapper, kid'napper,[114]
grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed,
hare'-lipped, half-witted_. So, _compromitted_ and _manumitted_; but
_benefited_ is different.
RULE V.--FINAL CK.
Monosyllables and English verbs end not with _c_, but take _ck_ for double
_c_; as, _rack, wreck, rock, attack_: but, in general, words derived from
the learned languages need not the _k_, and common use discards it; as,
_Italic, maniac, music, public_.
EXCEPTIONS.--The words _arc_, part of a circle; _orc_, the name of a fish;
_lac_, a gum or resin; and _sac_, or _soc_, a privilege, in old English
law, are ended with _c_ only. _Zinc_ is, perhaps, better spelled _zink_;
_marc, mark_; _disc, disk_; and _talc, talck_.
RULE VI.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any
additional termination, not beginning with the same letter;[115] as in the
following derivatives: _wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally,
shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness,
smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness,
recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Certain irregular derivatives in _d_ or _t_, from verbs
ending in _ee, ll_, or _ss_, (as _fled_ from _flee, sold_ from _sell, told_
from _tell, dwelt_ from _dwell, spelt_ from _spell, spilt_ from _spill,
shalt_ from _shall, wilt_ from _will, blest_ from _bless, past_ from
_pass_,) are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word _pontiff_ is
properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions
to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one; as, _pontific,
pontifical, pontificate_, &c. 3. The words _skillful, skillfully, willful,
willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness_, and _fullness_, have generally
been allowed to drop the second _l_, though all of them might well be made
to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster.
RULE VII.--RETAINING.
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives
formed from them by means of prefixes: as, _see, foresee_; _feoff,
enfeoff_; _pass, repass_; _press, depress_; _miss, amiss_; _call, recall_;
_stall, forestall_; _thrall, inthrall_; _spell, misspell_; _tell,
foretell_; _sell, undersell_; _add, superadd_; _snuff, besnuff_; _swell,
overswell_.
OBSERVATION.--The words _enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall,
reinstall, disinthrall, fulfill_, and _twibill_, are very commonly written
with one _l_, and made exceptions to this rule; but those authors are in
the right who retain the double letter.
RULE VIII.--FINAL LL.
Final _ll_ is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few
derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other
words that end in _l_, must be terminated with a single _l_: as, _cabal,
logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal,
rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul_.
OBSERVATION.--The words _annul, until, distil, extil_, and _instil_, are
also properly spelled with one _l_; for the monosyllables _null, till_, and
_still_ are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions
of later growth. Webster, however, prefers _distill, extill_, and _instill_
with _ll_; and some have been disposed to add the other two.
RULE IX.--FINAL E.
The final _e_ of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is
generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel:
as, _remove, removal_; _rate, ratable_; _force, forcible_; _true, truism_;
_rave, raving_; _sue, suing_; _eye, eying_; _idle, idling_; _centre,
centring_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. Words ending in _ce_ or _ge_, retain the _e_ before _able_
or _ous_, to preserve the soft sounds of _c_ and _g_: as, _trace,
traceable_; _change, changeable_; _outrage, outrageous_. 2. So, from
_shoe_, we write _shoeing_, to preserve the sound of the root; from _hoe,
hoeing_, by apparent analogy; and, from _singe, singeing_; from _swinge,
swingeing_; from _tinge, tingeing_; that they may not be confounded with
_singing, swinging_, and _tinging_. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as
_firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent_, the rule does not apply; and final
_ee_ remains double, by Rule 6th, as in _disagreeable, disagreeing_.
RULE X.--FINAL E.
The final _e_ of a primitive word is generally retained before an
additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, _pale, paleness_;
_edge, edgeless_; _judge, judgeship_; _lodge, lodgement_; _change,
changeful_; _infringe, infringement_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. When the _e_ is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes
omitted; as in _duly, truly, awful, argument_; but much more frequently
retained; as in _dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful,
shoeless, eyeless_. 2. The word _wholly_ is also an exception to the rule,
for nobody writes it _wholely_. 3. Some will have _judgment, abridgment_,
and _acknowledgment_, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but I write them with
the _e_, upon the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb,
Chalmers, and others: the French "_jugement_," _judgement_, always retains
the _e_.
RULE XI--FINAL Y.
The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is
generally changed into _i_ before an additional termination: as, _merry,
merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment_; _pity, pitied, pities, pitiest,
pitiless, pitiful, pitiable_; _contrary, contrariness, contrarily_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds:
thus, we write _merciful_, and _mercy-seat_; _penniless_, and _pennyworth_;
_scurviness_, and _scurvy-grass_; &c. But _ladyship_ and _goodyship_, being
unlike _secretariship_ and _suretiship_; _handicraft_ and _handiwork_,[116]
unlike _handygripe_ and _handystroke_; _babyship_ and _babyhood_, unlike
_stateliness_ and _likelihood_; the distinction between derivatives and
compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately
observed. 2. Before _ing_ or _ish_, the _y_ is retained to prevent the
doubling of _i_: as, _pity, pitying_; _baby, babyish_. 3. Words ending in
_ie_, dropping the _e_ by Rule 9th, change the _i_ into _y_, for the same
reason: as, _die, dying_; _vie, vying_; _lie, lying_.
RULE XII--FINAL Y.
The final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be
changed into _i_ before any additional termination: as, _day, days_; _key,
keys_; _guy, guys_; _valley, valleys_; _coy, coyly_; _cloy, cloys, cloyed_;
_boy, boyish, boyhood_; _annoy, annoyer, annoyance_; _joy, joyless,
joyful_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. From _lay, pay, say_, and _stay_, are formed _laid, paid,
said_, and _staid_; but the regular words, _layed, payed, stayed_, are
sometimes used. 2. _Raiment_, contracted from _arrayment_, is never written
with the _y_. 3. _Daily_ is more common than the regular form _dayly_; but
_gayly, gayety_, and _gayness_, are justly superseding _gaily_ and
_gaiety_.
RULE XIII.--IZE AND ISE.
Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_,
generally take the _z_ in all such as are essentially formed by means of
the termination; and the _s_ in monosyllables, and all such as are
essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, _gormandise, apologize,
brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize,
sympathize, disorganize_, with _z_;[117] _rise, arise, disguise, advise,
devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise,
compromise, enterprise, presurmise_, with _s_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. _Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise_,[118]
_exercise, exorcise_, and _merchandise_, are most commonly written with _s_
and _size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize_, and _recognize_,
with _z_. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult
to say. 2. _Prise_, a thing taken, and _prize_, to esteem; _apprise_, to
inform, and _apprize_, to _value_, or _appraise_, are often written either
way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3.
The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words _variable_, which
ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle.
RULE XIV.--COMPOUNDS.
Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which
compose them: as, _wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep,
kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill_.
EXCEPTIONS.--1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which,
they are not the _roots_, the words _full_ and _all_ drop one _l_; as,
_handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal_; in temporary
compounds, they retain both; as, _full-eyed, chock-full_,[119] _all-wise,
save-all_. 2. So the prefix _mis_, (if from _miss_, to err,) drops one _s_;
but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "_mispell_" and
"_mispend_," for _misspell_ and _misspend_. 3. In the names of days, the
word _mass_ also drops one _s_; as, _Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas_. 4. The
possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in _herdsman, kitesfoot_. 5.
One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as,
_Rosshire, chaffinch_; or else a hyphen is used: as, _Ross-shire,
ill-looking, still-life_. 6. _Chilblain, welcome_, and _welfare_, drop one
_l_. 7. _Pastime_ drops an _s_. 8. _Shepherd, wherever_, and _whosever_,
drop an _e_; and _wherefore_ and _therefore_ assume one.
RULE XV.--USAGE.
Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written
wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the
learned: as, "The brewer grinds his malt before he _brues_ his beer."--_Red
Book_, p. 38.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation
of our orthography; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate
its chief difficulties. Being made variable by the ignorance of some
writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has
been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uniformity and consistency can
be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and
principles; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will
admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their
number or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and
sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides;
because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and
uncertain. That errors and inconsistencies abound, even in the books which
are proposed to the world as _standards_ of English orthography, is a
position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less
extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and
probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are
liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more
weight than particular examples to the contrary. "The right spelling of a
word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation,
its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to
which it belongs."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 647.
OBS. 2.--I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our
lexicographers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of
our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one
man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with
himself, destroys his own: for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to
his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption
of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as _the criterion_ of what is right
or wrong in spelling; but it would seem that no one man's learning is
sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely
relied on to furnish _a standard_ by which we may in all cases be governed.
Johnson was generally right; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong.
He erred sometimes in his _principles_, or in their application; as when he
adopted the _k_ in such words as _rhetorick_, and _demoniack_; or when he
inserted the _u_ in such words as _governour, warriour, superiour_. Neither
of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted, in any thing like
the number of words to which he applied them; or ever will be; though some
indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon
the public, as the true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes _by
accident_, or _oversight_; as when he spelled thus: "_recall_ and _miscal,
inthrall_ and _bethral, windfall_ and _downfal, laystall_ and _thumbstal,
waterfall_ and _overfal, molehill_ and _dunghil, windmill_ and _twibil,
uphill_ and _downhil_." This occasional excision of the letter _l_ is
reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both
letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the
compound. Walker censures it as a "ridiculous irregularity," and lays the
blame of it on the "_printers_," and yet does not venture to correct it!
See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edition, quarto; Walker's
Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word _Dunghil_; and his Rhyming
Dictionary, Introd., p. xv.
OBS. 3.--"Dr. Johnson's Dictionary" has been represented by some as having
"nearly fixed the external form of our language." But Murray, who quotes
this from Dr. Nares, admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a
great number of English words, is far from being uniform, even amongst
writers of distinction."--_Gram._, p. 25. And, after commending this work
of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it is earnestly to be hoped, that
no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate," he
adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical
inconsistencies which ought to be rectified: such as, _immovable, moveable;
chastely, chastness; fertileness, fertily; sliness, slyly; fearlessly,
fearlesness; needlessness, needlesly_."--_Ib._ In respect to the final _ck_
and _our_, he also _intentionally departs from_ THE STANDARD _which he thus
commends_; preferring, in that, the authority of _Walker's Rhyming
Dictionary_, from which he borrowed his rules for spelling. For, against
the use of _k_ at the end of words from the learned languages, and against
the _u_ in many words in which Johnson used it, we have the authority, not
only of general usage now, but of many grammarians who were contemporary
with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient or modern,
among whom is Walker himself. In this, therefore, Murray's practice is
right, and his commended standard dictionary, wrong.
OBS. 4.--Of words ending in _or_ or _our_, we have about three hundred and
twenty; of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written
with the latter termination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of
the present day, I insert the _u_ in so many of these words as now seem
most familiar to the eye when so written; but I have no partiality for any
letters that can well be spared; and if this book should ever, by any good
fortune, happen to be reprinted, after _honour, labour, favour, behaviour_,
and _endeavour_, shall have become as unfashionable as _authour, errour,
terrour_, and _emperour_, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the
useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall
bear an equally antiquated appearance.
OBS. 5.--I have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in _Dr.
Johnson's_ orthography, merely to justify the liberty which I take of
spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of
_Dr. Webster_, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a
more correct _standard_. For the latter author, though right in some things
in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erroneous and
inconsistent. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he
has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways, that he knows
not at last which of them is right, and which are wrong. But in respect to
_definitions_, he has done good service to our literature; nor have his
critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his "innovations."
See Cobb's Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster. To omit the _k_
from such words as _publick_, or the _u_ from such as _superiour_, is
certainly _no innovation_; it is but ignorance that censures the general
practice, under that name. The advocates for Johnson and opponents of
Webster, who are now so zealously stickling for the _k_ and the _u_ in
these cases, ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete,
or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson was a boy.
OBS. 6.--I have before observed that some of the grammarians who were
contemporary with Johnson, did not adopt his practice respecting the _k_ or
the _u_, in _publick, critick, errour, superiour_, &c. And indeed I am not
sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was born in 1709, and he died in
1784. But Brightland's Grammar, which was written during the reign of Queen
Anne, who died in 1714, in treating of the letter C, says, "If in any Word
the harder Sound precedes (_e_), (_i_), or (_y_), (_k_) is either added or
put in its Place; as, _Skill, Skin, Publick_: And tho' the additional (_k_)
in the foregoing Word be an _old Way_ of Spelling, yet it is now very
justly left off, as being a superfluous Letter; for (_c_) at the End is
always hard."--Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 37.
OBS. 7.--The three
grammars of Ash, Priestley, and Lowth, all appeared, in their first
editions, about one time; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1763; and none
of these learned doctors, it would seem, used the mode of spelling now in
question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this: "Italics,
public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick; error, superior, warrior,
authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772:
"Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapaestic, monosyllabic, electric, public,
critic; author, emperor's, superior; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured,
vigour, endeavour; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control,
travelling." In Lowth, of 1799: "Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic;
author, _favor, favored, endeavored, alledging_, foretells." Now all these
are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster contradict each
other; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole,
be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these
authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of
grammar.
OBS. 8.--The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution,
and even before "_the learned Mr. Samuel Johnson_" was doctorated, though
it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the
spelling of which I am treating. On the contrary, it abounds with examples
of words ending in _ic_ and _or_, and not in _ick_ and _our_, as he wrote
them; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former
orthography has continued to be _more common than his_. Walker, the
orthoepist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the _k_, and
ended about four hundred and fifty words with _c_ in his Rhyming
Dictionary; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In
his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, "It has been a custom, _within these
twenty years_, to omit the _k_ at the end of words, when preceded by _c_.
This has introduced a _novelty_ into the language, which is that of ending
a word with an unusual letter," &c. "This omission of _k_ is, however, too
general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson; but it is to
be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages."--
_Walker's Principles of Pronunciation_, No. 400. The tenth edition of
Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit _k_
after _c_ at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables, &c. as _music,
arithmetic, logic_; but the _k_ is retained in monosyllables; as, _back,
deck, rick_, &c."--P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had
been five American editions in 1792, added no _k_ to such words as
_didactic, critic, classic_, of which he made frequent use; and though he
wrote _honour, labour_, and the like, with _u_, as they are perhaps most
generally written now, he inserted no _u_ in _error, author_, or any of
those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste.
OBS. 9.--Bicknell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter _k_, says,
"And for the same reason we have _dropt_ it at the end of words after _c_,
which is there always hard; as in _publick, logick_, &c. which are more
elegantly written _public, logic_."--Part ii, p. 13. Again: "It has
heretofore joined with _c_ at the end of words; as _publick, logick_; but,
as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left
out"--_Ib._, p. 16. Horne Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the
rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth:
"Formerly a _k_ was added, as, _rustick, politick, Arithmetick_, &c. but
this is now in disuse."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, Lond., 1814, p. 80.
OBS. 10.--As the authors of many recent spelling-books--Cobb, Emerson,
Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others--are now contending for
this "_superfluous letter_," in spite of all the authority against it, it
seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled
by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words: "In regard to
_k_ after _c_ at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its
omission has never been attempted, except in a _small portion_ of the cases
_where_ it occurs; and that _it_ tends to an erroneous pronunciation of
derivatives, as in _mimick, mimicking_, where, if the _k_ were omitted,
_it_ would read mimicing; and as _c_ before _i_ is always sounded like _s,
it_ must be pronounced _mimising_. Now, since _it_ is never omitted in
monosyllables, _where it_ most frequently occurs, as in _block, clock_,
&c., and _can be in a part only_ of polysyllables, it is thought better to
preserve it in all cases, by _which_ we have one general rule, in place of
several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial
omission."--_Bolles's Spelling-Book_, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that
these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of
grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language
eighty-six monosyllables which end with _ck_, and from them about fifty
compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To
these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation,
such as _huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack,
knapsack, hollyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hammock, bullock,
roebuck_. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six;
_attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick_, and _physick_; and these,
unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in
their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and
properly written with final _c_, are about _four hundred and fifty_ in
number, and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular
derivation from the learned languages, being words of more than one
syllable, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the
doubling of _c_ by _k_, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives,
to do with all these words of foreign origin? For the reason of the matter,
we might as well double the _l_, as our ancestors did, in _naturall,
temporall, spirituall_, &c.
OBS. 11.--The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a
duplication, while gome others are doubled but seldom, and some, never.
Thus, among the vowels, _ee_ and _oo_ occur frequently; _aa_ is used
sometimes; _ii_, never--except in certain Latin words, (wherein the vowels
are separately uttered,) such as _Horatii, Veii, iidem, genii_. Again, the
doubling of _u_ is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter
called _Double-u_, which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the
form for _u_ was _v_. So, among the consonants, _f, l, and s_, incline more
to duplication, than any others. These letters are double, not only at the
end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, as _staff, mill,
pass_; but also under some other circumstances. According to general
usage, final _f_ is doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases; as
in _bailiff, caitiff, plaintiff, midriff, sheriff, tariff, mastiff_: yet
not in _calif_, which is perhaps better written _caliph_. Final _l_, as may
be seen by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this; but, by the
exceptions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant
would be; as in _travelling, grovelling_; unless, (contrary to the opinion
of Lowth, Walker, and Webster,) we will have _fillipping, gossipping_, and
_worshipping_, to be needful exceptions also.
OBS. 12.--Final _s_ sometimes occurs single, as in _alas, atlas, bias_; and
especially in Latin words, as _virus, impetus_; and when it is added to
form plurals, as _verse, verses_: but this letter, too, is generally
doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable; as in
_carcass, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, embarrass_. On the contrary,
the other consonants are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule
3d. The letter _p_, however, is commonly doubled, in some words, even when
it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th; as in the derivatives from
_fillip, gossip_, and perhaps also _worship_. This letter, too, was very
frequently doubled in Greek; whence we have, from the name of Philip of
Macedon, the words _Philippic_ and _Philippize_, which, if spelled
according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like _galloped_ and
_galloper, siruped_ and _sirupy_, have but one _p_. We find them so written
in some late dictionaries. But if _fillipped, gossipped_, and _worshipped_,
with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary
exceptions to Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a
much stronger reason, as the classical scholar will think. In our language,
or in words purely English, the letters _h, i, j, k, q, v, w, x_, and _y_,
are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the forming of _compounds_,
it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two Double-ues
or Wies, shall come together; as in _withhold, brickkiln, slowwoorm,
bayyarn_.
OBS. 13.--There are some words--as those which come from _metal, medal,
coral, crystal, argil, axil, cavil, tranquil, pupil, papil_--in which the
classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by
doubling the letter _l_, because he remembers the _ll_ of their foreign
roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if
a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic, metalliferous,
metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion,
crystallize, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary,
cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and
pupillary, with double _l_, ignorance of it must needs be implied in
spelling metaline, metalist, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous,
coraline, coralite, coralinite, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilite,
argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well
double the _l_ in the former, and not in the latter words. Here is a choice
of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthography. But what etymology? our
own, or that which is foreign? If we say, both, they disagree; and the mere
English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by the latter.
If a Latin diminutive, as _papilla_ from _papula_ or _papa, pupillus_ from
_pupus_, or _tranquillus_ from _trans_ and _quietus_, happen to double an
_l_, must we forever cling to the reduplication, and that, in spite of our
own rules to the contrary? Why is it more objectionable to change
_pupillaris_ to _pupilary_, than _pupillus_ to _pupil_? or, to change
_tranquillitas_ to _tranquility_, than _tranquillus_ to _tranquil_? And
since _papilous, pupilage_, and _tranquilize_ are formed from the English
words, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write
them with double _l_, as to write _perilous, vassalage_, and _civilize_, in
the same manner?
OBS. 14.--If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the
English rule here, I should incline to the opinion, that all the words
which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single _l_.
Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for _coral_ in four forms, and the Greek
word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the _l_ single;
the others double it. He also spells "_coraliticus_" with one _l_, and
defines it "A sort of white marble, called _coraline_." [120] The
Spaniards, from whose _medalla_, we have _medal_; whose _argil_[121] is
_arcilla_, from the Latin _argilla_; and to whose _cavilar_, Webster traces
_cavil_; in all their derivatives from these Latin roots, _metallum_,
metal--_coralium, corallium, curalium_, or _corallum_, coral--_crystallus_
or _crystallum_, crystal--_pupillus_, pupil--and _tranquillus_,
tranquil--follow their own rules, and write mostly with single _l_: as,
_pupilero_, a teacher; _metalico_, metalic; _corolina_ (_fem_.) coraline;
_cristalino_, crystaline; _crystalizar_, crystalize; _traquilizar_,
tranquilize; and _tranquilidad_, tranquility. And if we follow not ours,
when or how shall the English scholar ever know why we spell as we do? For
example, what can he make of the orthography of the following words, which
I copy from our best dictionaries: equip', eq'uipage; wor'ship,
wor'shipper;--peril, perilous; cavil, cavillous;[122]--libel, libellous;
quarrel, quarrelous;--opal, opaline; metal, metalline;[123]--coral,
coralliform; crystal, crystalform;--dial, dialist; medal,
medallist;--rascal, rascalion; medal, medallion;--moral, moralist,
morality; metal, metallist, metallurgy;--civil, civilize, civility;
tranquil, tranquillize, tranquillity;--novel, novelism, novelist, novelize;
grovel, grovelling, grovelled, groveller?
OBS. 15.--The second clause of Murray's or Walker's 5th Rule for spelling,
gives only a single _l_ to each of the derivatives above named.[124] But it
also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the _l_ must
certainly be doubled. And, as neither "the Compiler," nor any of his
copiers, have paid any regard to their own principle, neither their
doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way. Yet it is
important to know to what words the rule is, or is not, applicable. In
considering this vexatious question about the duplication of _l_, I was at
first inclined to admit that, whenever final _l_ has become single in
English by dropping the second _l_ of a foreign root, the word shall
resume the _ll_ in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination
beginning with a vowel; as, _beryllus, beryl, berylline_. This would, of
course, double the _l_ in nearly all the derivatives from _metal, medal_,
&c. But what says Custom? She constantly doubles the _l_ in most of them;
but wavers in respect to some, and in a few will have it single. Hence the
difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure.
_Pu'pillage_ and _pu'pillary_, with _ll_, are according to _Walker's
Rhyming Dictionary_; but Johnson spells them _pu'pilage_ and _pu'pilary_,
with single _l_; and Walker, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, has _pupilage_
with one _l_, and _pupillary_ with two. Again: both Johnson's and the
Pronouncing Dictionary, give us _medallist_ and _metallist_ with _ll_, and
are sustained by Webster and others; but Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary,
writes them _medalist_ and _metalist_, with single _l_, like _dialist,
formalist, cabalist, herbalist_, and twenty other such words. Further:
Webster doubles the _l_ in all the derivatives of _metal, medal, coral,
axil, argil_, and _papil_; but writes it single in all those of _crystal,
cavil, pupil_, and _tranquil_--except _tranquillity_.
OBS. 16.--Dr. Webster also attempts, or pretends, to put in practice the
hasty proposition of Walker, to spell with single _l_ all derivatives from
words ending in _l_ not under the accent. "No letter," says Walker, "seems
to be more frequently doubled improperly than _l_. Why we should write
_libelling, levelling, revelling_, and yet _offering, suffering,
reasoning_, I am totally at a loss to determine; and, unless _l_ can give a
better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in
this situation, I must, in the style of Lucian, in his trial of the letter
_T_, declare for an expulsion."--_Rhyming Dict._, p. x. This rash
conception, being adopted by some men of still less caution, has wrought
great mischief in our orthography. With respect to words ending in _el_, it
is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the _l_, that the _e_ may
otherwise be supposed servile and silent. I have therefore made this
termination a general exception to the rule against doubling. Besides, a
large number of these words, being derived from foreign words in which the
_l_ was doubled, have a second reason for the duplication, as strong as
that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter, as
noticed above. Such are bordel, chapel, duel, fardel, gabel, gospel,
gravel, lamel, label, libel, marvel, model, novel, parcel, quarrel, and
spinel. Accordingly we find, that, in his work of expulsion, Dr. Webster
has not unfrequently contradicted himself, and conformed to usage, by
doubling the _l_ where he probably intended to write it single. Thus, in
the words bordeller, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller,
gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lamellarly, lamelliform, and spinellane, he
has written the _l_ double, while he has grossly corrupted many other
similar words by forbearing the reduplication; as, _traveler, groveling,
duelist, marvelous_, and the like. In cases of such difficulty, we can
never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to
_principles_, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the
_English_ scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions
which I have laid down, let him study the subject till he can furnish the
schools with better.
OBS. 17.--We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives
ending in _able_ or _ible_, as _affable, arable, tolerable, admissible,
credible, infallible_, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to
the proper form and signification of some of these, there occurs no small
difficulty. _Able_ is a common English word, the meaning of which is much
better understood than its origin. Horne Tooke supposes it to have come
from the Gothic noun _abal_, signifying _strength_; and consequently avers,
that it "has nothing to do with the Latin adjective _habilis, fit_, or
_able_, from which our etymologists erroneously derive it."--_Diversions of
Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dispute with
him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that
_able_, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to _verbs_;
for most of the words formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal
adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that
English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in _bilis_, have,
or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he
gives them, of "_potential passive adjectives_;" a signification in which
the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus
_dis'soluble_ or _dissolv'able_ does not mean _able to dissolve_, but
_capable of being dissolved_; and _divisible_ or _dividable_ does not mean
_able to divide_, but _capable of being divided_.
OBS. 18.--As to the application of this suffix to nouns, when we consider
the signification of the words thus formed, its propriety may well be
doubted. It is true, however, that nouns do sometimes assume something of
the nature of verbs, so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a
participial character; such, for instance, as _sainted, bigoted, conceited,
gifted, tufted_. Again, of such as _hard-hearted, good-natured,
cold-blooded_, we have an indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same
principle, the formation of such words as _actionable, companionable,
exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable_, and so
forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous
to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly
attached to the words _amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable,
peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable_, and some others,
would never be guessed from their formation. Thus, _suitable_ means
_fitting_ or _suiting_, and not _able to suit_, or _capable of being
suited_.
OBS. 19.--Though all words that terminate in _able_, used as a suffix, are
properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former
class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than
in the latter; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well
to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as
stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey
meanings so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some
general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful
character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into
disuse: as, _accustomable, chanceable, concordable, conusable, customable,
behoovable, leisurable, medicinable, personable, powerable, razorable,
shapable, semblable, vengeable, veritable_. Still, there are several
others, yet currently employed, which might better perhaps, for the same
reason, give place to more regular terms: as, _amicable_, for _friendly_ or
_kind_; _charitable_, for _benevolent_ or _liberal_; _colourable_, for
_apparent_ or _specious_; _peaceable_, for _peaceful_ or _unhostile_;
_pleasurable_, for _pleasing_ or _delightful_; _profitable_, for _gainful_
or _lucrative_; _sociable_, for _social_ or _affable_; _reasonable_, for
_rational_ or _just_.
OBS. 20.--In respect to the orthography of words ending in _able_ or
_ible_, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought
to be preferred; as whether we ought to write _tenable_ or _tenible,
reversable_ or _reversible, addable_ or _addible_. In Latin, the
termination is _bilis_, and the preceding vowel is determined by the
_conjugation_ to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first
conjugation, it is _a_; as, from _arare_, to plough, _arabilis, arable_,
tillable. For the second conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _doc=ere_, to
teach, _docibilis_, or _docilis, docible_ or _docile_, teachable. For the
third conjugation, it is _i_; as, from _vend=ere_, to sell, _vendibilis,
vendible_, salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is _i_; as, from
_sepelire_, to bury, _sepelib~ilis, sep'elible_,[125] buriable. But from
_solvo_ and _volvo_, of the third conjugation, we have _ubilis, uble_; as,
_solubilis, sol'uble_, solvible or solvable; _volubilis, vol'uble_,
rollable. Hence the English words, _rev'oluble, res'oluble, irres'oluble,
dis'soluble, indis'soluble_, and _insol'uble_. Thus the Latin verbals in
_bilis_, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are
traceable to them; but the mere English scholar cannot avail himself of
this aid; and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were
ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French: as, _tenable,
capable, preferable, convertible_; and these we write as they are written
in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English
growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin
verbals in _ibilis_; as _forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible_; and
others are made by simply adding the suffix _able_; as _traceable,
pronounceable, manageable, advisable, returnable_. The last are purely
English; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin
verbals in _abilis_.
OBS. 21.--From these different modes of formation, with the choice of
different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in
orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning; as,
_divis'ible_ and _divi'dable, des'picable_ and _despi'sable, ref'erable_
and _refer'rible, mis'cible_ and _mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible_, and
_dissol'vable_. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere
English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each,
perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation; as, _peaceable_ and
_forcible, impierceable_ and _coercible, marriageable_ and _corrigible,
damageable_ and _eligible, changeable_ and _tangible, chargeable_ and
_frangible, fencible_ and _defensible, pref'erable_ and _referrible,
conversable_ and _reversible, defendable_ and _descendible, amendable_ and
_extendible, bendable_ and _vendible, dividable_ and _corrodible,
returnable_ and _discernible, indispensable_ and _responsible, advisable_
and _fusible, respectable_ and _compatible, delectable_ and _collectible,
taxable_ and _flexible_.
OBS. 22.--The American editor of the _Red Book_, to whom all these apparent
inconsistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this
difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and Walker with having
written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner,
"_without any apparent reason_!" He boldly avers, that, "The perpetual
contradictions of the same or like words, _in all the books_, show that the
authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong;" and
ignorantly imagines, that, "The use of _ible_ rather than _able, in any
case_, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of _c_ and
_g_, in the derivatives; and if _ible was confined_ to that use, it would
be an easy and simple rule."--_Red Book_, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to
write _peacible_ for _peaceable, tracible_ for _traceable, changible_ for
_changeable, managible_ for _manageable_; and so for all the rest that come
from words ending in _ce_ or _ge_. But, whatever advantage there might be
in this, his "easy and simple rule" would work a revolution for which the
world is not yet prepared. It would make _audible audable, fallible
fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable_, &c. No
tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all.
And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have
said in the preceding observation, may console themselves with the
reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they
will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics.
The rule given by John Burn, for _able_ and _ible_, is less objectionable;
but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions.
OBS. 23.--As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of
our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember,
that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and
that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others. Thus,
in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter _a_ ends about 220 words; _b_,
160; _c_, 450; _d_, 1550; _e_, 7000; _f_, 140; _g_, 280; _h_, 400; _i_, 29;
_j_, none; _k_, 550; _l_, 1900; _m_, 550; _n_, 3300; _o_, 200; _p_, 450;
_q_, none; _r_, 2750; _s_, 3250; _t_, 3100; _u_, 14; _v_, none; _w_, 200;
_x_, 100; _y_, 5000; _z_, 5. We have, then, three consonants, _j, q_, and
_v_, which never end a word. And why not? With respect to _j_ and _v_, the
reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified
with _i_ and _u_, which are not terminational letters. The vowel _i_ ends
no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital _I_;
and the few words which end with _u_ are all foreign, except _thou_ and
_you_. And not only so, the letter _j_ is what was formerly called _i
consonant_; and _v_ is what was called _u consonant_. But it was the
initial _i_ and _u_, or the _i_ and _u_ which preceded an other vowel, and
not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants _j_
and _v_. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is
ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a
vowel: except that _v_ is joined with _r_ in a few words of French origin,
as _livre, manoeuvre_; or with _l_ in some Dutch names, as _Watervleit. Q_
ends no English word, because it is always followed by _u_. The French
termination _que_, which is commonly retained in _pique, antique, critique,
opaque, oblique, burlesque_, and _grotesque_, is equivalent to _k_; hence
we write _packet, lackey, checker, risk, mask_, and _mosk_, rather than
_paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque_, and _mosque_. And some authors
write _burlesk_ and _grotesk_, preferring _k_ to _que_.
OBS. 24.--Thus we see that _j, q_, and _v_, are, for the most part, initial
consonants only. Hence there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that
syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to
the ear the division of such words as _maj-es-ty, proj-ect,
traj-ect,--eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-cheq-uer_. But _v_, in a similar
situation, has now become familiar; as in _ev-er-y, ev-i-dence_: and it may
also stand with _l_ or _r_, in the division of such words as _solv-ing_ and
_serv-ing_. Of words ending in _ive_, Walker exhibits four hundred and
fifty--exactly the same number that he spells with _ic_. And Horne Tooke,
who derives _ive_ from the Latin _ivus_, (q. d. _vis_,) and _ic_ from the
Greek [Greek: _ikos_], (q. d. [Greek: _ischus_]) both implying _power_, has
well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between
these two classes of adjectives--both being of "a potential active
signification; as _purgative, vomitive, operative_, &c.; _cathartic,
emetic, energetic_, &c."--_Diversions of Purley_, Vol. ii, p. 445. I have
before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without
the final _k_; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of
striking the final _e_ from the former.
OBS. 25.--In Dr. Webster's "Collection of Essays and _Fugitiv Peeces_,"
published in 1790, we find, among other equally ingenious improvements of
our orthography, a general omission of the final _e_ in all words ending in
_ive_, or rather of all words ending in _ve_, preceded by a short vowel;
as, "_primitiv, derivativ, extensiv, positiv, deserv, twelv, proov, luv,
hav, giv, liv_." This mode of spelling, had it been adopted by other
learned men, would not only have made _v_ a very frequent final consonant,
but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament, as being
subject to reduplication. For he that will write _hav, giv_, and _liv_,
must also, by a general rule of grammar, write _havving, givving_, and
_livving_. And not only so, there will follow also, in the solemn style of
the Bible, a change of _givest, livest, giveth_, and _liveth_, into
_givvest, livvest, givveth_, and _livveth_. From all this it may appear,
that a silent final _e_ is not always quite so useless a thing as some may
imagine. With a levity no less remarkable, does the author of the _Red
Book_ propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of
such words as _pierceable, manageable_, and so forth; in one of which, the
letter _j_ would be brought into a new position, and subjected sometimes to
reduplication. "It would be a useful improvement to change this _c_ into
_s_, and _g_ into _j_;" as, _piersable, manajable_, &c. "Or they might
assume _i_;" as, _piercibe, managible_, &c.--_Red Book_, p. 170. Now would
not this "useful improvement" give us such a word as _allejjable_? and
would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present
exceptions to Rule 9th? Out upon all such tampering with orthography!
OBS. 26.--If any thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling
reformers, it would be the history of former attempts to effect
improvements similar to theirs. With this sort of history every one would
do well to acquaint himself, before he proceeds to disfigure words by
placing their written elements in any new predicament. If the orthography
of the English language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now
exhibits, the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition
either to exaggerate its present defects, or to undertake too much. Regard
must be had to the origin, as well as to the sounds, of words. To many
people, all silent letters seem superfluous; and all indirect modes of
spelling, absurd. Hence, as the learner may perceive, a very large
proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling, are such as
refer to the silent letters, which are retained by some writers and omitted
by others. It is desirable that such as are useless and irregular should be
always omitted; and such as are useful and regular always retained. The
rules which I have laid down as principles of discrimination, are such as
almost every reader will know to be generally true, and agreeable to
present usage, though several of them have never before been printed in any
grammar. Their application will strike out some letters which are often
written, and retain some which are often omitted; but, if they err on
either hand, I am confident they err less than any other set of rules ever
yet formed for the same purpose. Walker, from whom Murray borrowed his
rules for spelling, declares for an expulsion of the second _l_ from
_traveller, gambolled, grovelling, equalling, cavilling_, and all similar
words; seems more willing to drop an _l_ from _illness, stillness,
shrillness, fellness_, and _drollness_, than to retain both in _smallness,
tallness, chillness, dullness_, and _fullness_; makes it one of his
orthographical aphorisms, that, "Words taken into composition often drop
those letters which were superfluous in their simples; as, _Christmas,
dunghil, handful_;" and, at the same time, chooses rather to restore the
silent _e_ to the ten derivatives from _move_ and _prove_, from which
Johnson dropped it, than to drop it from the ten similar words in which
that author retained it! And not only so, he argues against the principle
of his own aphorism; and says, "It is certainly to be feared that, if this
pruning of our words of all the superfluous letters, as they are called,
should be much farther indulged, we shall quickly antiquate our most
respectable authors, and irreparably maim our language."--_Walker's Rhyming
Dict._, p. xvii.
OBS. 27.--No attempt to subject our orthography to a system of phonetics,
seems likely to meet with general favour, or to be free from objection, if
it should. For words are not mere sounds, and in their _orthography_ more
is implied than in _phonetics_, or _phonography_. Ideographic forms have,
in general, the advantage of preserving the identity, history, and lineage
of words; and these are important matters in respect to which phonetic
writing is very liable to be deficient. Dr. Johnson, about a century ago,
observed, "There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and
settlement of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being
formed by chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude
ages, was at first very various and uncertain, and [is] as yet sufficiently
irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate
orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is
to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is
changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with equal
unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number of
letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own character, and
every character a single sound. Such would be the orthography of a new
language to be formed by a synod of grammarians upon principles of science.
But who can hope to prevail on nations to change their practice, and make
all their old books useless? or what advantage would a new orthography
procure equivalent to the confusion and perplexity of such an
alteration?"--_Johnson's Grammar before Quarto Dict._, p. 4.
OBS. 28.--Among these reformers of our alphabet and orthography, of whose
schemes he gives examples, the Doctor mentions, first, "_Sir Thomas Smith_,
secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, a man of real learning, and much
practised in grammatical disquisitions;" who died in 1597;--next, "_Dr.
Gill_, the celebrated master of St. Paul's School in London;" who died in
1635;--then, "_Charles Butler_, a man who did not want an understanding
which might have qualified him for better employment;" who died in
1647;--and, lastly, "_Bishop Wilkins_, of Chester, a learned and ingenious
critic, who is said to have proposed his scheme, without expecting to be
followed;" he died in 1672.
OBS. 29.--From this time, there was, so far as I know, no noticeable
renewal of such efforts, till about the year 1790, when, as it is shown
above on page 134 of my Introduction, _Dr. Webster_, (who was then only
"_Noah Webster, Jun._, attorney at law,") attempted to spell all words as
they are spoken, without revising the alphabet--a scheme which his
subsequent experience before many years led him to abandon. Such a
reformation was again attempted, about forty years after, by an other young
lawyer, the late lamented _Thomas S. Grimke_, of South Carolina, but with
no more success. More recently, phonography, or phonetic writing, has been
revived, and to some extent spread, by the publications of _Isaac Pitman_,
of Bath, England, and of _Dr. Andrew Comstock_, of Philadelphia. The system
of the former has been made known in America chiefly by the lectures and
other efforts of _Andrews and Boyle_, of _Dr. Stone_, a citizen of Boston,
and of _E. Webster_, a publisher in Philadelphia.
OBS. 30.--The
pronunciation of words being evidently as deficient in regularity, in
uniformity, and in stability, as is their orthography, if not more so,
cannot be conveniently made the measure of their written expression.
Concerning the principle of writing and printing by sounds alone, a recent
writer delivers his opinion thus: "Let me here observe, as something not
remote from our subject, but, on the contrary, directly bearing upon it,
that I can conceive no [other] method of so effectually defacing and
barbarizing our English tongue, no [other] scheme that would go so far to
empty it, practically at least and for us, of all the hoarded wit, wisdom,
imagination, and history which it contains, to cut the vital nerve which
connects its present with the past, as the introduction of the scheme of
'phonetic spelling,' which some have lately been zealously advocating among
us; the principle of which is, that all words should be spelt according as
they are sounded, that the writing should be, in every case, subordinated
to the speaking. The tacit assumption that it ought so to be, is the
pervading error running through the whole system."--_R. C. Trench, on the
Study of Words_, p. 177.
OBS. 31.--The phonographic system of stenography, tachygraphy, or
short-hand writing, is, I incline to believe, a very great improvement upon
the earlier methods. It is perhaps the most reliable mode of taking down
speeches, sermons, or arguments, during their delivery, and reporting them
for the press; though I cannot pronounce upon this from any experience of
my own in the _practice_ of the art. And it seems highly probable, if it
has not been fully proved, that children may at first be taught to read
more readily, and with better articulation, from phonetic print, or
_phonotypy_, as it has been called, than from books that exhibit words in
their current or established orthography. But still it is questionable
whether it is not best for them to learn each word at first by its peculiar
or ideographic form--the form in which they must ultimately learn to read
it, and which indeed constitutes its only _orthography_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SPELLING.
UNDER RULE I.--OF FINAL F, L, OR S.
"He wil observe the moral law, in hiz conduct."--_Webster's Essays_, p.
320.
[FORMULES--1. Not proper, because the word "_wil_" is here spelled with one
_l_. But, according to Rule 1st, "Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_,
preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant." Therefore, this
_l_ should be doubled; thus, _will_.
2. Not proper again, because the word "_hiz_" is here spelled with _z_.
But, according to the exceptions to Rule 1st, "The words _as, gas, has,
was, yes, his_, &c., are written with single _s_." Therefore, this _z_
should be _s_; thus, _his_.]
"A clif is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."--See _Rhyming Dict._ "A
needy man's budget is ful of schemes."--_Old Adage_. "Few large
publications in this country wil pay a printer."--_Noah Webster's Essays_,
p. x. "I shal, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to
oblivion."--_Ib._, p. x. "The proposition waz suspended til the next
session of the legislature."--_Ib._, p. 362. "Tenants for life wil make the
most of lands for themselves."--_Ib._, p. 366. "While every thing iz left
to lazy negroes, a state wil never be wel cultivated."--_Ib._, p. 367. "The
heirs of the original proprietors stil hold the soil."--_Ib._, p. 349. "Say
my annual profit on money loaned shal be six per cent."--_Ib._, p. 308. "No
man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money az
fast by lying stil."--_Ib._, p. 310. "A man may az wel feed himself with a
bodkin, az with a knife of the present fashion."--_Ib._, p. 400. "The
clothes wil be ill washed, the food wil be badly cooked; and you wil be
ashamed of your wife, if she iz not ashamed of herself."--_Ib._, p. 404.
"He wil submit to the laws of the state, while he iz a member of
it."--_Ib._, p. 320. "But wil our sage writers on law forever think by
tradition?"--_Ib._, p. 318. "Some stil retain a sovereign power in their
territories."--_Ib._, p. 298. "They sel images, prayers, the sound of bels,
remission of sins, &c."--_Perkins's Theology_, p. 401. "And the law had
sacrifices offered every day for the sins of al the people."--_Ib._, p.
406. "Then it may please the Lord, they shal find it to be a
restorative."--_Ib._, p. 420. "Perdition is repentance put of til a future
day."--_Old Maxim_. "The angels of God, which wil good and cannot wil evil,
have nevertheless perfect liberty of wil."--_Perkins's Theology_, p. 716.
"Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of al sin."--_Ib._, p. 717.
"Knel, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."--_Johnson_ and _Walker_.
"If gold with dros or grain with chaf you find,
Select--and leave the chaf and dros behind."--_Author_.
UNDER RULE II.--OF OTHER FINALS.
"The mobb hath many heads, but no brains."--_Old Maxim_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_mobb_" is here spelled with
double _b_. But, according to Rule 2d, "Words ending in any other consonant
than _f, l_, or _s_, do not double the final letter." Therefore, this _b_
should be single: thus, _mob_.]
"Clamm, to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."--_Johnson's Dict._
"Whurr, to pronounce the letter _r_ with too much force."--_Ib._ "Flipp, a
mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirits sweetened."--_Ib._ "Glynn, a
hollow between two mountains, a glen."--_Churchill's Grammar_, p. 22.
"Lamm, to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."--_Walker's Dict._ "Bunn,
a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."--See _ib._ "Brunett, a
woman with a brown complexion."--_Ib._ and _Johnson's Dict._ "Wad'sett, an
ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."--_Webster's
Dict._ "To _dodd_ sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."--_Ib._
"_In aliquem arietare_, CIC. To run full but at one."--_Walker's
Particles_, p. 95. "Neither your policy nor your temper would permitt you
to kill me."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 427. "And admitt none but
his own offspring to fulfill them."--_Ib._, i, 437. "The summ of all this
Dispute is, that some make them Participles," &c.--_Johnson's Gram._
_Com._, p. 352. "As, the _whistling_ of winds, the _buz_ and _hum_ of
insects, the _hiss_ of serpents, the _crash_ of falling timber."--_Blair's
Rhet._, p. 129; _Adam's Lat. Gram._, p. 247; _Gould's_, 238. "Vann, to
winnow, or a fan for winnowing."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "Creatures that
buz, are very commonly such as will sting."--_Author_ "Begg, buy, or
borrow; butt beware how you find."--_Id._ "It is better to have a house to
lett, than a house to gett."--_Id._ "Let not your tongue cutt your
throat."--_Old Precept_. "A little witt will save a fortunate man."--_Old
Adage_. "There is many a slipp 'twixt the cup and the lipp."--_Id._
"Mothers' darlings make but milksopp heroes."--_Id._ "One eye-witness is
worth tenn hearsays."--_Id._
"The judge shall jobb, the bishop bite the town,
And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown."--POPE:
_in Joh. Dict., w. Pack._
UNDER RULE III.--OF DOUBLING.
"Friz, to curl; frized, curled; frizing, curling."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo.
Ed. of 1829.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the words "_frized_" and "_frizing_" are here
spelled with the single _z_, of their primitive _friz_. But, according to
Rule 3d, "Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they
end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final
consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel."
Therefore, this _z_ should be doubled; thus, _frizzed, frizzing_.]
"The commercial interests served to foster the principles of
Whigism."--_Payne's Geog._, Vol. ii, p. 511. "Their extreme indolence
shuned every species of labour."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 341. "In
poverty and stripedness they attend their little meetings."--_The Friend_,
Vol. vii, p. 256. "In guiding and controling[126] the power you have thus
obtained."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 15. "I began, Thou beganest, He began;
We began, You began, They began."--_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 92. "Why does
_began_ change its ending; as, I began, Thou beganest?"--_Ib._, p. 93.
"Truth and conscience cannot be controled by any methods of
coercion."--_Hints on Toleration_, p. xvi. "Dr. Webster noded, when he
wrote 'knit, kniter, and knitingneedle' without doubling the _t_."--See
_El. Spelling-Book_, 1st Ed., p. 136. "A wag should have wit enough to know
when other wags are quizing him."--_G. Brown_. "Bon'y, handsome, beautiful,
merry."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "Coquetish, practicing coquetry; after
the manner of a jilt."--_Webster's Dict._ "Potage, a species of food, made
of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."--See _ib._ "Potager,
from potage, a porringer, a small vessel for children's food."--See _ib._,
and _Worcester's_. "Compromit, compromited, compromiting; manumit,
manumitted, manumitting."--_Webster_. "Inferible; that may be inferred or
deduced from premises."--_Red Book_, p. 228. "Acids are either solid,
liquid, or gaseous."--_Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry_. "The spark will
pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the
gases."--_Ib._ "Do we sound _gases_ and _gaseous_ like _cases_ and
_caseous?_ No: they are more like _glasses_ and _osseous_."--_G. Brown_. "I
shall not need here to mention _Swiming_, when he is of an age able to
learn."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 12. "Why do lexicographers spell _thinnish_
and _mannish_ with two Ens, and _dimish_ and _ramish_ with one Em,
each?"--See _Johnson_ and _Webster_. "_Gas_ forms the plural regularly,
_gases_."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 38. "Singular, Gas; Plural,
Gases."--_S. W. Clark's Gram._, p. 47. "These are contractions from
_sheded, bursted_."--_Hiley's Grammar_, p. 45. "The Present Tense denotes
what is occuring at the present time."--_Day's Gram._, p. 36, and p. 61.
"The verb ending in _eth_ is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, he
loveth, he walketh, he runeth."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 34.
"Thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings,
Degrading nobles and controling kings."--_Murray's Sequel_, p. 292.
UNDER RULE IV.--NO DOUBLING.
"A bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared."--_Brown's Estimate_,
Vol. ii, p. 78.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the final _t_ of _bigot_ is here doubled in
"_bigotted_." But, according to Rule 4th, "A final consonant, when it is
not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last
syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable." Therefore,
this _t_ should be single; thus, _bigoted_.]
"Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."--_Key in
Merchant's Gram._, p. 185. "For it is all marvelously destitute of
interest."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "As, box, boxes; church, churches;
lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses."--_Murray's Gram._, 12mo, p.
42. "Gossipping and lying go hand in hand."--_Old Maxim_. "The substance of
the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry,
gossipped by the present precious secretary of war, in Payne the
bookseller's shop."--See _Key_. "Worship makes worshipped, worshipper,
worshipping; gossip, gossipped, gossipper, gossipping; fillip, fillipped,
fillipper, fillipping."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 72. "I became as fidgetty as
a fly in a milk-jug."--_Blackwood's Mag._, Vol. xl, p. 674. "That enormous
error seems to be rivetted in popular opinion."--_Webster's Essays_, p.
364. "Whose mind iz not biassed by personal attachments to a
sovereign."--_Ib._, p. 318. "Laws against usury originated in a bigotted
prejudice against the Jews."--_Ib._, p. 315. "The most criticcal period of
life iz usually between thirteen and seventeen."--_Ib._, p. 388.
"Generallissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force."--See
_El. Spelling-Book_, p. 93. "Tranquillize, to quiet, to make calm and
peaceful."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Pommeled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a
sword or dagger."--_Webster_ and _Chalmers_. "From what a height does the
jeweler look down upon his shoemaker!"--_Red Book_, p. 108. "You will have
a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveler."--_Ib._, p. 155. "I
observe that you have written the word _counseled_ with one _l_
only."--_Ib._, p. 173. "They were offended at such as combatted these
notions."--_Robertson's America_, Vol. ii, p. 437. "From libel, come
libeled, libeler, libeling, libelous; from grovel, groveled, groveler,
groveling; from gravel, graveled and graveling."--See _Webster's Dict._
"Wooliness, the state of being woolly."--_Ib._ "Yet he has spelled
chappelling, bordeller, medallist, metalline, metallist, metallize,
clavellated, &c. with _ll_, contrary to his rule."--_Cobb's Review of
Webster_, p. 11. "Again, he has spelled cancelation and snively with single
_l_, and cupellation, pannellation, wittolly, with _ll_."--_Ib._ "Oilly,
fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."--_Rhyming Dict._ "Medallist, one
curious in medals; Metallist, one skilled in metals."--_Johnson, Webster,
Worcester, Cobb, et al._ "He is benefitted."--_Town's Spelling-Book_, p. 5.
"They traveled for pleasure."--_S. W. Clark's Gram._, p. 101.
"Without you, what were man? A groveling herd,
In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd."
--_Beattie's Minstrel_, p. 40.
UNDER RULE V.--OF FINAL CK.
"He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critick."--_Kirkham's Gram._,
p. 10.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_critick_" is here spelled with a
final _k_. But, according to Rule 5th, "Monosyllables and English verbs end
not with _c_, but take _ck_ for double _c_; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack:
but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the _k_,
and common use discards it." Therefore, this _k_ should be omitted; thus,
_critic_.]
"The leading object of every publick speaker should be to
persuade."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 153. "May not four feet be as poetick
as five; or fifteen feet, as poetick as fifty?"--_Ib._, p. 146. "Avoid all
theatrical trick and mimickry, and especially all scholastick
stiffness."--_Ib._, p. 154. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing,
or in musick, or in mathematicks, or logick, without long and close
application to the subject."--_Ib._, p. 152. "Caspar's sense of feeling,
and susceptibility of metallick and magnetick excitement were also very
extraordinary."--_Ib._, p. 238. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps
I should say, an epidemick."--_Ib._, p. 6. "What can prevent this republick
from soon raising a literary standard?"--_Ib._, p. 10. "Courteous reader,
you may think me garrulous upon topicks quite foreign to the subject before
me."--_Ib._, p. 11. "Of the Tonick, Subtonick, and Atoniek
elements."--_Ib._, p. 15. "The subtonick elements are inferiour to the
tonicks in all the emphatick and elegant purposes of speech."--_Ib._, p.
32. "The nine atonicks, and the three abrupt subtonicks cause an
interruption to the continuity of the syllabick impulse."--_Ib._, p. 37.
"On scientifick principles, conjunctions and prepositions are but one part
of speech."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 120. "That some inferior animals should
be able to mimic human articulation, will not seem wonderful."--_Murray's
Gram._, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 2.
"When young, you led a life monastick,
And wore a vest ecelesiastick;
Now, in your age, you grow fantastick."--_Johnson's Dict._
UNDER RULE VI.--OF RETAINING.
"Fearlesness, exemption from fear, intrepidity."--_Johnson's Dict._
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_fearlesness_" is here allowed to
drop one _s_ of _fearless_. But, according to Rule 6th, "Words ending with
any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination not
beginning with the same letter." Therefore, the other _s_ should be
inserted; thus, _fearlessness_.]
"Dreadlesness; fearlesness, intrepidity, undauntedness."--_Johnson's Dict._
"Regardlesly, without heed; Regardlesness, heedlessness,
inattention."--_Ib._ "Blamelesly, innocently; Blamlesness,
innocence."--_Ib._ "That is better than to be flattered into pride and
carelesness."--TAYLOR: _Joh. Dict._ "Good fortunes began to breed a proud
recklesness in them."--SIDNEY: _ib._ "See whether he lazily and listlesly
dreams away his time."--LOCKE: _ib._ "It may be, the palate of the soul is
indisposed by listlesness or sorrow."--TAYLOR: _ib._ "Pitilesly, without
mercy; Pitilesness, unmercifulness."--_Johnson_. "What say you to such as
these? abominable, accordable, agreable, &c."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol.
ii, p. 432. "Artlesly; naturally, sincerely, without craft."--_Johnson_. "A
chilness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."--_Murray's
Key_, p. 167. "Smalness; littleness, minuteness, weakness."--_Rhyming
Dict._ "Gall-less, a. free from gall or bitterness."--_Webster's Dict._
"Talness; height of stature, upright length with comparative
slenderness."--See _Johnson et al_. "Wilful; stubborn, contumacious,
perverse, inflexible."--_Id._ "He guided them by the skilfulness of his
hands."--_Psal._ lxxviii, 72. "The earth is the Lord's and the fulness
thereof."--_Murray's Key_, p. 172. "What is now, is but an amasment of
imaginary conceptions."--GLANVILLE: _Joh. Dict._ "Embarrasment; perplexity,
entanglement."--See _Littleton's Dict._ "The second is slothfulness,
whereby they are performed slackly and carelesly."--_Perkins's Theology_,
p. 729. "Instalment; induction into office; part of a large sum of money,
to be paid at a particular time."--See _Johnson's Dict._ "Inthralment;
servitude, slavery."--_Ib._
"I, who at some times spend, at others spare,
Divided between carelesness and care."--_Pope_.
UNDER RULE VII.--OF RETAINING.
"Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 88; _Ingersoll's_, 136; _Fisk's_, 78; _Jaudon's_, 59; _A.
Flint's_, 42; _Wright's_, 90; _Bullions's_, 32.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_foretels_" does not here retain
the double _l_ of _tell_. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words ending with
any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them
by means of prefixes." Therefore, the other _l_ should be inserted; thus,
_foretells_.]
"There are a few compound irregular verbs, as _befal, bespeak_,
&c."--_Ash's Gram._, p. 46. "That we might frequently recal it to our
memory."--_Calvin's Institutes_, p. 112. "The angels exercise a constant
solicitude that no evil befal us."--_Ib._, p. 107. "Inthral; to enslave, to
shackle, to reduce to servitude."--_Walker's Dict._ "He makes resolutions,
and fulfils them by new ones."--_Red Book_, p. 138. "To enrol my humble
name upon the list of authors on Elocution."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 12.
"Forestal; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."--_Walker's Rhym. Dict._
"Miscal; to call wrong, to name improperly."--_Johnson_. "Bethral; to
enslave, to reduce to bondage."--See _id._ "Befal; to happen to, to come to
pass."--_Rhym. Dict._ "Unrol; to open what is rolled or
convolved."--_Johnson_. "Counterrol; to keep copies of accounts to prevent
frauds."--See _id._ "As Sisyphus uprols a rock, which constantly overpowers
him at the summit."--_Author_. "Unwel; not well, indisposed, not in good
health."--See _Red Book_, p. 336. "Undersel; to defeat by selling for less,
to sell cheaper than an other."--See _id._, p. 332. "Inwal; to enclose or
fortify with a wall."--See _id._, p. 295. "Twibil; an instrument with two
bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a
battle-axe."--See _Dict._ "What you miscal their folly, is their
care."--_Dryden_. "My heart will sigh when I miscal it so."--_Shakspeare_.
"But if the arrangement recal one set of ideas more readily than
another."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 130.
"'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past recal;
And since 'tis past recal, must be forgotten."--_Dryden_.
UNDER RULE VIII.--OF FINAL LL.
"The righteous is taken away from the evill to come."--_Perkins's Works_,
p. 417.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_evill_" is here written with
final _ll_. But, according to Rule 8th, "Final _ll_ is peculiar to
monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from
such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in _l_, must
be terminated with a single _l_." Therefore, one _l_ should be here
omitted; thus, _evil_.]
"Patroll; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and
observe what passes."--_Webster's Amer. Dict._, 8vo. "Marshall; the chief
officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."--See _Bailey's Dict._
"Weevill; a destructive grub that gets among corn."--See _Rhym. Dict._ "It
much excells all other studies and arts."--_Walker's Particles_, p. 217.
"It is essentiall to all magnitudes, to be in one place."--_Perkins's
Works_, p. 403. "By nature I was thy vassall, but Christ hath redeemed
me."--_Ib._, p. 404. "Some, being in want, pray for temporall
blessings."--_Ib._, p. 412. "And this the Lord doth, either in temporall or
spirituall benefits."--_Ib._, p. 415. "He makes an idoll of them, by
setting his heart on them."--_Ib._, p. 416. "This triall by desertion
serveth for two purposes."--_Ib._, p. 420. "Moreover, this destruction is
both perpetuall and terrible."--_Ib._, p. 726. "Giving to severall men
several gifts, according to his good pleasure."--_Ib._, p. 731. "Untill; to
some time, place, or degree, mentioned."--See _Red Book_, p. 330. "Annull;
to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish." "Nitric acid combined
with argill, forms the nitrate of argill."--_Gregory's Dict., art.
Chemistry_.
"Let modest Foster, if he will, excell
Ten Metropolitans in preaching well."--_Pope_, p. 414.
UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINAL E.
"Adjectives ending in _able_ signify capacity; as, _comfortable, tenable,
improvable_."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 33.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_improveable_" here retains the
final _e_ of _improve_. But, according to Rule 9th, "The final _e_ of a
primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination
beginning with a vowel." Therefore, this _e_ should be omitted; thus,
_improvable_.]
"Their mildness and hospitality are ascribeable to a general administration
of religious ordinances."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 336. "Retrench as much as
possible without obscureing the sense."--_James Brown's Amer. Gram._, 1821,
p. 11. "Changable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable."--_Walker's
Rhym. Dict._ "Tameable, susceptive of taming; Untameable, not to be
tamed."--_Ib._ "Reconcileable, Unreconcileable, Reconcileableness;
Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."--_Johnson's Dict._ "We
have thought it most adviseable to pay him some little attention."--
_Merchants Criticisms_. "Proveable, that may be proved; Reprovable.
blameable, worthy of reprehension."--_Walker's Dict._ "Moveable and
Immovable, Moveably and Immovably, Moveables and Removal, Moveableness and
Improvableness, Unremoveable and Unimprovable, Unremoveably and Removable,
Proveable and Approvable, Irreproveable and Reprovable, Unreproveable and
Improvable, Unimproveableness and Improvably."--_Johnson's Dict._ "And with
this cruelty you are chargable in some measure yourself."--_Collier's
Antoninus_, p. 94. "Mothers would certainly resent it, as judgeing it
proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."--_British Gram.,
Pref._, p. xxv. "Titheable, subject to the payment of tithes; Saleable,
vendible, fit for sale; Loseable, possible to be lost; Sizeable, of
reasonable bulk or size."--_Walker's Rhyming Dict._ "When he began this
custom, he was puleing and very tender."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 8.
"The plate, coin, revenues, and moveables,
Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."--_Shak._
UNDER RULE X.--OF FINAL E.
"Diversly; in different ways, differently, variously."--_Rhym. Dict._, and
_Webster's_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_Diversly_" here omits the final
_e_ of its primitive word, _diverse_. But, according to Rule 10th, "The
final _e_ of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional
termination beginning with a consonant." Therefore, this _e_ should be
retained; thus, _Diversely_.]
"The event thereof contains a wholsome instruction."--_Bacon's Wisdom of
the Ancients_, p. 17. "Whence Scaliger falsly concluded that articles were
useless."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 94. "The child that we have just seen
is wholesomly fed."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 187. "Indeed, falshood and
legerdemain sink the character of a prince."--_Collier's Antoninus_, p. 5.
"In earnest, at this rate of managment, thou usest thyself very
coarsly."--_Ib._, p. 19. "To give them an arrangment and diversity, as
agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit"--_Murray's Pref. to
Ex._, p. vi. "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling enlargment of Murray's
little Abridgment."--_Author_. "You ask whether you are to retain or omit
the mute _e_ in the word judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, lodgment,
adjudgment, and prejudgment."--_Red Book_, p. 172. "Fertileness,
fruitfulness; Fertily, fruitfully, abundantly."--_Johnson's Dict._
"Chastly, purely, without contamination; Chastness, chastity,
purity."--_Ib._, and _Walker's_. "Rhymster, _n._ One who makes rhymes; a
versifier; a mean poet."--_Johnson_ and _Webster_. "It is therefore an
heroical achievment to dispossess this imaginary monarch."--_Berkley's
Minute Philos._, p. 151. "Whereby, is not meant the Present Time, as he
imagins, but the Time Past."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 344 "So far is
this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its definitness, that its
own character of definitness or indefinitness, depends upon the name to
which it is prefixed."--_Webster's Philosophical Gram._, p. 20.
"Satire, by wholsome Lessons, wou'd reclaim,
And heal their Vices to secure their Fame."
--_Brightland's Gr._, p. 171.
UNDER RULE XI.--OF FINAL Y.
"Solon's the veryest fool in all the play."--_Dryden, from Persius_, p.
475.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_veryest_" here retains the final
_y_ of its primitive _very_. But, according to Rule 13th, "The final _y_ of
a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into
_i_ before an additional termination." Therefore, this _y_ should be
changed to _i_; thus, _veriest_.]
"Our author prides himself upon his great slyness and
shrewdness."--_Merchant's Criticisms_. "This tense, then, implys also the
signification of _Debeo_."--_B. Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 300. "That may be
apply'd to a Subject, with respect to something accidental."--_Ib._, p.
133. "This latter accompanys his Note with a distinction."--_Ib._, p. 196.
"This Rule is defective, and none of the Annotators have sufficiently
supply'd it."--_Ib._, p. 204. "Though the fancy'd Supplement of Sanctius,
Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."--_Ib._, p. 276. "Yet
as to the commutableness of these two Tenses, which is deny'd likewise,
they are all one."--_Ib._, p. 311. "Both these Tenses may represent a
Futurity implyed by the dependence of the Clause."--_Ib._, p. 332. "Cry,
cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, shyer, shyest, shyly, shyness;
Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness;
Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, dryly,
dryness."--_Cobb's Dict._ "Cry, cried, crying, crier, cryer, decried,
decrier, decrial; Shy, shyly, shily, shyness, shiness; Fly, flier, flyer,
high-flyer; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, plyer, plying,
pliers, complied, compiler; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."--_Webster's
Dict._, 8vo. "Cry, crier, decrier, decrial; Shy, shily, shyly, shiness,
shyness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flier; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness,
slyness; Ply, pliers, plyers, plying, complier; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly,
dryness."--_Chalmers's Abridgement of Todd's Johnson_. "I would sooner
listen to the thrumming of a dandyzette at her piano."--_Kirkham's
Elocution_, p. 24. "Send her away; for she cryeth after us."--_Felton's
Gram._, p. 140. "IVYED, _a._ Overgrown with ivy."--_Todd's Dict._, and
_Webster's_.
"Some dryly plain, without invention's aid,
Write dull receipts how poems may be made."--_Pope_.
UNDER RULE XII.--OF FINAL Y.
"The gaiety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."--_Mur.
Key_, p. 175.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_gaiety_" does not here retain the
final _y_ of the primitive word _gay_. But, according to Rule 12th, "The
final _y_ of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be
changed into _i_ before an additional termination." Therefore, this _y_
should be retained; thus, _gayety_.]
"In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of chimnies were blown down, in
and about London."--See _Red Book_, p. 112. "And the vexation was not
abated by the hacknied plea of haste."--_Ib._, p. 142. "The fourth sin of
our daies is lukewarmness."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 725. "God hates the
workers of iniquity, and destroies them that speak lies."--_Ib._, p. 723.
"For, when he laies his hand upon us, we may not fret."--_Ib._, p. 726.
"Care not for it; but if thou maiest be free, choose it rather."--_Ib._, p.
736. "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that buieth, must sell: I will not
suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"--_Ib._, p. 737. "With these
measures fell in all monied men."--SWIFT: _Johnson's Dict._ "But rattling
nonsense in full vollies breaks."--POPE: _ib., w. Volley_. "Vallies are the
intervals betwixt mountains."--WOODWARD: _ib._ "The Hebrews had fifty-two
journies or marches."--_Wood's Dict._ "It was not possible to manage or
steer the gallies thus fastened together."--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii,
p. 106. "Turkies were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of
America."--_See Gregory's Dict._ "I would not have given it for a
wilderness of monkies."--See _Key_. "Men worked at embroidery, especially
in abbies."--_Constable's Miscellany_, Vol. xxi, p. 101. "By which all
purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all monies they lay
out."--TEMPLE: _Johnson's Dict._ "He would fly to the mines and the gallies
for his recreation."--SOUTH: _Ib._
"Here pullies make the pond'rous oak ascend."--GAY: _ib._
------------"You need my help, and you say,
Shylock, we would have monies."--SHAKSPEARE: _ib._
UNDER RULE XIII.--OF IZE AND ISE.
"Will any able writer authorise other men to revise his works?"--_Author._
[FORMULES.--1. Not proper, because the word "_authorise_" is here written
with _s_ in the last syllable, in stead of _z_. But, according to Rule
13th, "Words ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and
_size_, generally take the _z_ in all such as are essentially formed by
means of the termination." Therefore, this _s_ should be _z_; thus,
_authorize_.
2. Not proper again, because the word "_revize_" is here written with _z_
in the last syllable, in lieu of _s_. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words
ending in _ize_ or _ise_ sounded alike, as in _wise_ and _size_, generally
take the _s_, in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by
means of prefixes." Therefore, this _z_ should be _s_; thus, _revise_.]
"It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised
English."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 295. "Governed by the success or the
failure of an enterprize."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, pp. 128 and 259. "Who have
patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."--_Ib._, pp.
94 and 228; _Merchant_, p. 199. "Yet custom authorises this use of
it."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 148. "They surprize myself, * * * and I even
think the writers themselves will be surprized."--_Ib._, Pref., p. xi. "Let
the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained."--_Webster's Essays_,
p. 310. "To determin what interest shall arize on the use of
money."--_Ib._, p. 313. "To direct the popular councils and check a rizing
opposition."--_Ib._, p. 335. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercize
of the office."--_Ib._, p. 340. "No man ever offers himself [as] a
candidate by advertizing."--_Ib._, p. 344. "They are honest and economical,
but indolent, and destitute of enterprize."--_Ib._, p. 347. "I would
however advize you to be cautious."--_Ib._, p. 404. "We are accountable for
whatever we patronise in others."--_Murray's Key_, p. 175. "After he was
baptised, and was solemnly admitted into the office."--_Perkins's Works_,
p. 732. "He will find all, or most of them, comprized in the
Exercises."--_British Gram._, Pref., p. v. "A quick and ready habit of
methodising and regulating their thoughts."--_Ib._, p. xviii. "To tyrannise
over the time and patience of his reader."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. iii.
"Writers of dull books, however, if patronised at all, are rewarded beyond
their deserts."--_Ib._, p. v. "A little reflection, will show the reader
the propriety and the _reason_ for emphasising the words marked."--_Ib._,
p. 163. "The English Chronicle contains an account of a surprizing
cure."--_Red Book_, p. 61. "Dogmatise, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an
asserter, a magisterial teacher."--_Chalmers's Dict._ "And their
inflections might now have been easily analysed."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo,
Vol. i, p. 113. "Authorize, disauthorise, and unauthorized; Temporize,
contemporise, and extemporize."--_Walkers Dict._ "Legalize, equalise,
methodise, sluggardize, womanise, humanize, patronise, cantonize,
gluttonise, epitomise, anatomize, phlebotomise, sanctuarise, characterize,
synonymise, recognise, detonize, colonise."--_Ibid._
"This BEAUTY Sweetness always must comprize,
Which from the Subject, well express'd will rise."
--_Brightland's Gr._, p. 164.
UNDER RULE XIV.--OF COMPOUNDS.
"The glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward."--COMMON BIBLES: _Isa._,
lviii, 8.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the compound word "_rereward_" has not here
the orthography of the two simple words _rear_ and _ward_, which compose
it. But, according to Rule 14th, "Compounds generally retain the
orthography of the simple words which compose them." And, the accent being
here unfixed, a hyphen is proper. Therefore, this word should be spelled
thus, _rear-ward_.]
"A mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master."--_Tooke's
Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 49. "The parti-coloured shutter appeared to come
close up before him."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 233. "When the day broke
upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits."--_Ib._, p. 245. "If,
upon a plumbtree, peaches and apricots are ingrafted, no body will say they
are the natural growth of the plumbtree."--_Berkley's Minute Philos._, p.
45. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of
Bellisle."--_Worcester's Gaz._ "There being nothing that more exposes to
Headach." [127]--_Locke, on Education_, p. 6. "And, by a sleep, to say we
end the heartach."--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "He that sleeps, feels not the
toothach."--ID., _ibid._ "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his
father and granfather."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 431. "A single
word, mispelt, in a letter, is sufficient to show, that you have received a
defective education."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 3. "Which mistatement the
committee attributed to a failure of memory."--_Professors' Reasons_, p.
14. "Then he went through the Banquetting-House to the scaffold."--
_Smollett's England_, Vol. iii, p. 345. "For the purpose of maintaining a
clergyman and skoolmaster."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 355. "They however knew
that the lands were claimed by Pensylvania."--_Ib._, p. 357. "But if you
ask a reason, they immediately bid farewel to argument."--_Red Book_, p.
80. "Whom resist stedfast in the faith."--SCOTT: 1 _Peter_, v, 9. "And they
continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine."--_Acts_, ii, 42. "Beware
lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness."--_2 Peter_, iii, 17.
"_Galiot_, or _galliott_, a Dutch vessel, carrying a main-mast and a
mizen-mast."--_Web. Dict._ "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed;
Participle, overflown."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, (1818,) p. 61. "After they
have mispent so much precious Time."--_British Gram._, p. xv. "Some say,
two _handsfull_; some, two _handfulls_; and others, two _handfull_."--
_Alex. Murray's Gram._, p. 106. "Lapfull, as much as the lap can
contain."--_Webster's Octavo Dict._ "Darefull, full of defiance."--
_Walker's Rhym. Dict._ "The road to the blissfull regions, is as open to
the peasant as to the king."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 167. "Mis-spel is
_mis-spell_ in every Dictionary which I have seen."--_Barnes's Red Book_.
p. 303. "Downfal; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."--_Johnson's
Dict._ "The whole legislature likewize acts az a court."--_Webster's
Essays_, p. 340. "It were better a milstone were hanged about his
neck."--_Perkins's Works_, p. 731. "Plum-tree, a tree that produces plums;
Hog-plumbtree, a tree."--_Webster's Dict._ "Trisyllables ending in _re_ or
_le_, accent the first syllable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 238.
"It happen'd on a summer's holiday,
That to the greenwood shade he took his way."
--_Churchill's Gr._, p. 135.
UNDER RULE XV.--OF USAGE.
"Nor are the modes of the Greek tongue more uniform."--_Murray's Gram._, p.
112.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the word "_modes_" is here written for
_moods_, which is more common among the learned, and usually preferred by
Murray himself. But, according to Rule 15th, "Any word for the spelling of
which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according
to the usage which is most common among the learned." Therefore, the latter
form should be preferred; thus, _moods_, and not _modes_.]
"If we analize a conjunctive preterite, the rule will not appear to
hold."--_Priestley's Gram._, p. 118. "No landholder would have been at that
expence."--_Ib._, p. 116. "I went to see the child whilst they were putting
on its cloaths."--_Ib._, p. 125. "This stile is ostentatious, and doth not
suit grave writing."--_Ib._, p. 82. "The king of Israel, and Jehosophat the
king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--_Mur. Gram._, p. 165, _twice_;
_Merchant's_, 89; _Churchill's_, 300. "The king of Israel, and Jehosaphat
the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 90;
_Harrison's_, 99; _Churchill's_, 138; _Wright's_, 148. "Lisias, speaking of
his friends, promised to his father, never to abandon them."--_Murray's
Gram._, Vol. ii, pp. 121 and 253. "Some, to avoid this errour, run into
it's opposite."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 199. "Hope, the balm of life,
sooths us under every misfortune."--_Merchants Key_, p. 204. "Any judgement
or decree might be heerd and reversed by the legislature."--_Webster's
Essays_, p. 340. "A pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any
knave."--_Ib._, p. 341. "For the same reezon, the wimen would be improper
judges."--_Ibid._ "Every person iz indulged in worshiping az he
pleezes."--_Ib._, p. 345. "Most or all teechers are excluded from genteel
company."--_Ib._, p. 362. "The Kristian religion, in its purity, iz the
best institution on erth."--_Ib._, p. 364. "Neether clergymen nor human
laws hav the leest authority over the conscience."--_Ib._, p. 363. "A gild
is a society, fraternity, or corporation."--_Red Book_, p. 83. "Phillis was
not able to unty the knot, and so she cut it."--_Ib._, p. 46. "An aker of
land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."--_Ib._, p. 93.
"Oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal."--_Ib._, p.
96. "_Genii_, when denoting aerial spirits: _Geniuses_, when signifying
persons of genius."--_Mur.'s Gram._, i, p. 42. "_Genii_, when denoting
aeriel spirits; _Geniuses_, when signifying persons of genius."--_Frost's
Gram._, p. 9. "_Genius_, Plu. _geniuses_, men of wit; but _genii_, aerial
beings."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 18. "Aerisius, king of Argos, had a
beautiful daughter, whose name was Danae."--_Classic Tales_, p. 109. "Phaeton
was the son of Apollo and Clymene."--_Ib._, p. 152. "But, after all, I may
not have reached the intended Gaol."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, Pref., p. xxvii.
"'Pitticus was offered a large sum.' Better: 'A large sum was offered to
Pitticus.'"--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 187. "King Missipsi charged his sons to
respect the senate and people of Rome."--See _ib._, p. 161. "For example:
Gallileo invented the telescope."--_Ib._, pp. 54 and 67. "Cathmor's
warriours sleep in death."--_Ib._, p. 54. "For parsing will enable you to
detect and correct errours in composition."--_Ib._, p. 50.
"O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain,
Extends thy uncontroul'd and boundless reign."--_Dryden_.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN SPELLING.
LESSON I.--MIXED.
"A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick."--POPE: _Johnson's
Dict., w. Former_. "Produce a single passage superiour to the speech of
Logan, a Mingo chief, delivered to Lord Dunmore, when governour of
Virginia."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 247. "We have none synonimous to
supply its place."--_Jamieson's Rhetoric_, p. 48. "There is a probability
that the effect will be accellerated."--_Ib._, p. 48. "Nay, a regard to
sound hath controuled the public choice."--_Ib._, p. 46. "Though learnt
from the uninterrupted use of gutterel sounds."--_Ib._, p. 5. "It is by
carefully filing off all roughness and inequaleties, that languages, like
metals, must be polished."--_Ib._, p. 48. "That I have not mispent my time
in the service of the community."--_Buchanan's Syntax_, Pref., p. xxviii.
"The leaves of maiz are also called blades."--_Webster's El.
Spelling-Book_, p. 43. "Who boast that they know what is past, and can
foretel what is to come."--_Robertson's Amer._, Vol. i, p. 360. "Its
tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."--
_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 18. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian
fullness and swell."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 130. "The privilege of
escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity."--_Kirkham's
Elocution_, p. iv. "But in poetry this characteristick of dulness attains
its full growth."--_Ib._, p. 72. "The leading characteristick consists in
an increase of the force and fullness."--_Ib._, p. 71. "The character of
this opening fulness and feebler vanish."--_Ib._, p. 31. "Who, in the
fullness of unequalled power, would not believe himself the favourite of
heaven?"--_Ib._, p. 181. "They marr one another, and distract
him."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 433. "Let a deaf worshipper of
antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p.
140. "This phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."--
_Merchant's Criticisms_. "We here saw no inuendoes, no new sophistry, no
falsehoods."--_Ib._ "A witty and humourous vein has often produced
enemies."--_Murray's Key_, p. 173. "Cry holla! to thy tongue, I pr'ythee:
it curvetts unseasonably."--_Shak._ "I said, in my slyest manner, 'Your
health, sir.'"--_Blackwood's Mag._, Vol. xl, p. 679. "And attornies also
travel the circuit in pursute of business."--_Red Book_, p. 83. "Some whole
counties in Virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du from the
inhabitants."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 301. "They were called the court of
assistants, and exercized all powers legislativ and judicial."--_Ib._, p.
340. "Arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors."--_Murray's
Gram._, 8vo, p. 288. "Most of the inflections may be analysed in a way
somewhat similar."--_Ib._, p. 112.
"To epithets allots emphatic state,
Whilst principals, ungrac'd, like lacquies wait."
--_C. Churchill's Ros._, p. 8.
LESSON II.--MIXED.
"Hence it [less] is a privative word, denoting destitution; as, fatherless,
faithless, pennyless."--_Webster's Dict., w. Less._ "_Bay_; red, or
reddish, inclining to a chesnut color."--_Same._ "_To mimick_, to imitate
or ape for sport; _a mimic_, one who imitates or mimics."--_Ib._
"Counterroil, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; Counterrolment, a counter
account."--_Ib._ "Millenium, the thousand years during which Satan shall be
bound."--_Ib._ "Millenial, pertaining to the millenium, or to a thousand
years."--_Ib._ "Thraldom; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."--See
_Johnson's Dict._ "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of
briers; Sweetbriar, a fragrant shrub."--See _Johnson, Walker, Chalmers,
Webster, and others_. "_Will_, in the second and third Persons, barely
foretels."--_British Gram._, p. 132. "And therefor there is no Word false,
but what is distinguished by Italics."--_Ib._, Pref., p. v. "What should be
repeted is left to their Discretion."--_Ib._, p. iv. "Because they are
abstracted or seperated from material Substances."--_Ib._, p. ix. "All
Motion is in Time, and therefor, where-ever it exists, implies Time as its
Concommitant."--_Ib._, p. 140. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of
blameable spelling."--_Ib._, Pref., p. xiv. "They wil always be ignorant,
and of ruf uncivil manners."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 346. "This fact wil
hardly be beleeved in the northern states."--_Ib._, p. 367. "The province
however waz harrassed with disputes."--_Ib._, p. 352. "So little concern
haz the legislature for the interest of lerning."--_Ib._, p. 349. "The
gentlemen wil not admit that a skoolmaster can be a gentleman."--_Ib._, p.
362. "Such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously
avoided."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 205. "When we say, 'a man looks
_slyly_;' we signify, that he assumes a _sly look_."--_Ib._, p. 339.
"_Peep_; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or
slyly."--_Webster's Dict._ "Hence the confession has become a hacknied
proverb."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 110. "Not to mention the more
ornamental parts of guilding, varnish, &c."--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i,
p. 20. "After this system of self-interest had been rivetted."--_Brown's
Estimate_, Vol. ii, p. 136. "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial
approbation of a bigotted Jew."--SCOTT: _on Luke_, x.
"All twinkling with the dew-drop sheen,
The briar-rose fell in streamers green."--_Lady of the Lake_, p. 16.
LESSON III.--MIXED.
"The infinitive mode has commonly the sign _to_ before it."--_Harrison's
Gram._, p. 25. "Thus, it is adviseable to write _singeing_, from the verb
to _singe_, by way of distinction from _singing_, the participle of the
verb to _sing_."--_Ib._, p. 27. "Many verbs form both the preterite tense
and the preterite participle irregularly."--_Ib._, p. 28. "Much must be
left to every one's taste and judgment."--_Ib._, p. 67. "Verses of
different lengths intermixed form a Pindarick poem."--_Priestley's Gram._,
p. 44. "He'll surprize you."--_Frost's El. of Gram._, p. 88. "Unequalled
archer! why was this concealed?"--KNOWLES: _ib._, p. 102. "So gaily curl
the waves before each dashing prow."--BYRON: _ib._, p. 104. "When is a
dipthong called a proper dipthong?"--_Infant School Gram._, p. 11. "How
many _ss_ would goodness then end with? Three."--_Ib._, p. 33. "_Q._ What
is a tripthong? _A._ A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced
in like manner."--_Bacon's Gram._, p. 7. "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is
referred to the preceding terms taken seperately."--_Ib._, p. 47. "The
cubic foot of matter which occupies the center of the globe."--_Cardell's
Gram._, 18mo, p. 47. "The wine imbibes oxigen, or the acidifying principle,
from the air."--_Ib._, p. 62. "Charcoal, sulphur, and niter, make gun
powder."--_Ib._, p. 90. "It would be readily understood, that the thing so
labeled, was a bottle of Madeira wine."--_Ib._, p. 99. "They went their
ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchandize."--_Ib._, p. 130. "A
dipthong is the union of two vowels, sounded by a single impulse of the
voice."--_Russell's Gram._, p. 7. "The professors of the Mahommedan
religion are called Mussulmans."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 73. "This shews that
_let_ is not a sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."--_Ib._, p.
51. "Those preterites and participles, which are first mentioned in the
list, seem to be the most eligible."--_Ib._, p. 47. "Monosyllables, for the
most part, are compared by _er_ and _est_; and dyssyllables by _more_ and
_most_."--_Ib._, p. 19. "This termination, added to a noun, or adjective,
changes it into a verb: as _modern_, to _modernise_; a _symbol_, to
_symbolize_."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 24. "An Abridgment of Murray's
Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."--_Maltby's
title-page_. "For the sake of occupying the room more advantagously, the
subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 5. "So
contended the accusers of Gallileo."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 12mo, 1839,
p. 380. "Murray says, 'They were _traveling past_ when _we_ met
them.'"--_Peirce, ib._, p. 361. "They fulfil the only purposes for which
they are designed."--_Ib._, p. 359. "On the fulfillment of the
event."--_Ib._, p. 175. "Fullness consists in expressing every
idea."--_Ib._, p. 291. "Consistently with fulness and perspicuity."--_Ib._,
p. 337. "The word _verriest_ is a gross corruption; as, 'He is the
_verriest_ fool on earth.'"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 202. "The sound will
recal the idea of the object."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 142. "Formed for great
enterprizes."--_Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 153. "The most important
rules and definitions are printed in large type, _italicised_."--_Hart's
Gram._, p. 3. "HAMLETTED, _a._ Accustomed to a hamlet; countrified."--
_Bolles's Dict._, and _Chalmers's_. "Singular, _spoonful, cup-full,
coach-full, handful_; plural, _spoonfuls, cup-fulls, coach-fulls,
handfuls_."--_Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, p. 27.
"Between Superlatives and following Names,
OF, by Grammatick Right, a Station claims."
--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 146.
CHAPTER V.--QUESTIONS.
ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.
[Fist][The student ought to be able to answer with readiness, and in the
words of the book, all the following questions on grammar. And if he has
but lately commenced the study, it may be well to require of him a general
rehearsal of this kind, before he proceeds to the correction of any part of
the false grammar quoted in the foregoing chapters. At any rate, he should
be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which
he attempts to correct; because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable
performance of the exercise. But those who are very quick at reading, may
perform it _tolerably_, by consulting the book at the time, for what they
do not remember. The answers to these questions will embrace all the main
text of the work; and, if any further examination be thought necessary,
extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose.]
LESSON I.--GRAMMAR.
1. What is the name, or title, of this book? 2. What is Grammar? 3. What is
an English Grammar? 4. What is English Grammar, in itself? and what
knowledge does it imply? 5. If grammar is the art of reading, writing, and
speaking, define these actions. What is it, _to read_? 6. What is it, _to
write_? 7. What is it, _to speak_? 8. How is grammar to be taught, and by
what means are its principles to be made known? 9. What is a perfect
definition? 10. What is an example, as used in teaching? 11. What is a rule
of grammar? 12. What is an exercise? 13. What was language at first, and
what is it now? 14. Of what two kinds does the composition of language
consist? and how do they differ? 15. What are the least parts of language?
16. What has discourse to do with sentences? or sentences, with points? 17.
In extended compositions, what is the order of the parts, upwards from a
sentence? 18. What, then, is the common order of literary division,
downwards, throughout? 19. Are all literary works divided exactly in this
way? 20. How is Grammar divided? 21. Of what does Orthography treat? 22. Of
what does Etymology treat? 23. Of what does Syntax treat? 24. Of what does
Prosody treat?
PART FIRST, ORTHOGRAPHY.
LESSON II.--LETTERS.
1. Of what does Orthography treat? 2. What is a letter? 3. What is an
elementary sound of human voice, or speech? 4. What name is given to the
sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded? 5. How many
letters are there in English? and how many sounds do they represent? 6. In
what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 7. What variety is there in
the letters? and how are they always the same? 8. What different sorts of
types, or styles of letters, are used in English? 9. What are the names of
the letters in English? 10. What are their names in both numbers, singular
and plural? 11. Into what general classes are the letters divided? 12. What
is a vowel? 13. What is a consonant? 14. What letters are vowels? and what,
consonants? 15. When are _w_ and _y_ consonants? and when, vowels? 16. How
are the consonants divided? 17. What is a semivowel? 18. What is a mute?
19. What letters are reckoned semivowels? and how many of these are
aspirates? 20. What letters are called liquids? and why? 21. What letters
are reckoned mutes? and which of them are imperfect mutes?
LESSON III.--SOUNDS.
1. What is meant, when we speak of the powers of the letters? 2. Are the
sounds of a language fewer than its words? 3. How are different vowel
sounds produced? 4. What are the vowel sounds in English? 5. How may these
sounds be modified in the formation of syllables? 6. Can you form a word
upon each by means of an _f_? 7. Will you try the series again with a _p_?
8. How may the vowel sounds be written? and how uttered when they are not
words? 9. Which of the vowel sounds form words? and what of the rest? 10.
How many and what are the consonant sounds in English? 11. In what series
of words may all these sounds be heard? 12. In what series of words may
each of them be heard two or three times? 13. What is said of the sounds of
_j_ and _x_? 14. What is said of the sounds of _c_ and _g_? 15. What is
said of _sc_, or _s_ before _c_? 16. What, of _ce, ci_, and _ch_? 17. What
sounds has the consonant _g_? 18. In how many different ways can the
letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these
combinations of sounds and characters?
LESSON IV.--CAPITALS.
1. What characters are employed in English? 2. Why should the different
sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes
in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are _Italics_ chiefly used? 5. In
preparing a manuscript, how do we mark these things for the printer? 6.
What distinction of form belongs to each of the letters? 7. What is said of
small letters? and why are capitals used? 8. What things are commonly
exhibited wholly in capitals? 9. How many rules for capitals are given in
this book? and what are their titles? 10. What says Rule 1st of _books_?
11. What says Rule 2d of _first words_? 12. What says Rule 3d of _names of
Deity_? 13. What says Rule 4th of _proper names_? 14. What says Rule 5th of
_titles_? 15. What says Rule 6th of _one capital_? 16. What says Rule 7th
of _two capitals_? 17. What says Rule 8th of _compounds_? 18. What says
Rule 9th of _apposition_? 19. What says Rule 10th of _personifications_?
20. What says Rule 11th of _derivatives_? 21. What says Rule 12th of _I and
O_? 22. What says Rule 13th of _poetry_? 23. What says Rule 14th of
_examples_? 24. What says Rule 15th of _chief words_? 25. What says Rule
16th of _needless capitals_?
[Now turn to the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the
improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON V.--SYLLABLES.
1. What is a syllable? 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the
ear? 3. Under what names are words classed according to the number of their
syllables? 4. Which of the letters can form syllables of themselves? and
which cannot? 5. What is a diphthong? 6. What is a proper diphthong? 7.
What is an improper diphthong? 8. What is a triphthong? 9. What is a proper
triphthong? 10. What is an improper triphthong? 11. How many and what are
the diphthongs in English? 12. How many and which of these are so variable
in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How
many and what are the proper diphthongs? 14. How many and what are the
improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language?
16. How many and what are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we
for dividing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of
syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or
subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of _consonants_? 20. What says Rule 2d of
_vowels_? 21. What says Rule 3d of _terminations_? 22. What says Rule 4th
of _prefixes_? 23. What says Rule 5th of _compounds_? 24. What says Rule
6th of _lines full_?
[Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the
improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VI.--WORDS.
1. What is a word? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to _species_
and _figure_? 3. What is a primitive word? 4. What is a derivative word? 5.
What is a simple word? 6. What is a compound word? 7. How do permanent
compounds differ from others? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are
given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 9. What says
Rule 1st of _compounds_? 10. What says Rule 2d of _simples_? 11. What says
Rule 3d of _the sense_? 12. What says Rule 4th of _ellipses_? 13. What says
Rule 5th of _the hyphen_? 14. What says Rule 6th of _no hyphen_?
[Now turn to the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the
improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]
LESSON VII.--SPELLING.
1. What is spelling? 2. How is this art to be acquired? and why so? 3. Why
is it difficult to learn to spell accurately? 4. Is it then any disgrace to
spell words erroneously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for
spelling? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book? and what
are their titles, or subjects? 7. What says Rule 1st of _final f, l_, or
_s_? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule? 9. What says
Rule 2d of _other finals_? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule? 11.
What says Rule 3d of the _doubling_ of consonants? 12. Under what three
heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th
_against the doubling_ of consonants? 14. Under what four heads are the
apparent exceptions to this Rule noticed? 15. What says Rule 5th of _final
ck_? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with _c_ only? 17.
What says Rule 6th of the _retaining_ of double letters before affixes? 18.
Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 19. What
says Rule 7th of the _retaining_ of double letters after prefixes? 20. What
observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule?
LESSON VIII.--SPELLING.
21. What says Rule 8th of _final ll_, and of _final l single_? 22. What
words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th? and
why? 23. What says Rule 9th of _final e omitted_? 24. Under what three
heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed? 25. What says
Rule 10th of _final e retained?_ 26. Under what three heads are the
exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule 11th of _final y
changed?_ 28. Under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this
rule noticed? 29. What says Rule 12th of _final y unchanged?_ 30. Under
what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 31. What says
Rule 13th of the terminations _ize_ and _ise?_ 32. Under what three heads
are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed? 33. What says Rule 14th
of _compounds?_ 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule
noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of _usage_, as a law of spelling?
[Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the
improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and
their exceptions.]
CHAPTER VI.--FOR WRITING.
EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY.
[Fist] [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and
not explained in the general Key, that they may he corrected by the pupil
_in writing_. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than
others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some
respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can
answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily
discern wherein the errors lie, and be able to make the necessary
corrections.]
EXERCISE I.--CAPITALS.
"Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus."--_Harrison's Gram._, p. 68.
"The words in italics are parsed in the same manner."--_Maltby's Gram._, p.
69. "It may be read by those who do not understand latin."--_Barclay's
Works_, Vol. iii, p. 262. "A roman _s_ being added to a word in italics or
small capitals."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 215. "This is not simply a
gallicism, but a corruption of the French _on_; itself a corruption."--
_Ib._, p. 228. "The Gallicism, '_it is me_,' is perpetually striking the
ear in London."--_Ib._, p. 316. "'Almost nothing,' is a common Scotticism,
equally improper: it should be, 'scarcely any thing.'"--_Ib._, p. 333. "To
use _learn_ for _teach_, is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully
avoided."--See _ib._, p. 261. "A few observations on the subjunctive mood
as it appears in our English bible."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 40. "The
translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original
are uniformly kept distinct."--_Ib._, p. 40. "More like heaven on earth,
than the holy land would have been."--_Anti-Slavery Mag._, Vol. i, p. 72.
"There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of
Pythagoras."-- _Lempriere's Dict._ "Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of
Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth
and strengthen Nature's original Vigour."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 295. "O
that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence
of brotherly love, all the distinctions of methodists, independents,
baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, unitarians, in the glorious
name of christians."--KNOX: _Churchill's Gram._, p. 173. "Pythagoras long
ago remarked, 'that ability and necessity dwell near each
other.'"--_Student's Manual_, p. 285.
"The Latin Writers Decency neglect,
But modern Readers challenge more Respect."
--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 172.
EXERCISE II.--SYLLABLES.
1. Correct _Bolles_, in the division of the following words: "Del-ia,
Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, heigh-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly,
mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous,
tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar."--_Revised Spelling-Book_: New
London, 1831.
2. Correct _Sears_, in the division of the following words: "A-quil-a,
hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry, thor-ny, phil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry,
re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti-on, au-spici-ous, fac-titi-ous,
fla-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on."--_Standard
Spelling-Book_: "New Haven," 1826.
3. Correct _Bradley_, in the division of the following words: "Jes-ter,
rai-ny, forg-e-ry, fin-e-ry, spic-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-e-ry,
fer-riage, line-age, cri-ed, tri-ed, su-ed, slic-ed, forc-ed, pledg-ed,
sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed."--_Improved Spelling-Book_:
Windsor, 1815.
4. Correct _Burhans_, in the division of the following words: "Boar-der,
brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ten, glea-ner, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy,
fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-er-all-y,
lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti-call-y,
sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y,
nesc-i-ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on,
suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned."--_Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book_:[128]
Philadelphia, 1823.
5. Correct _Marshall_, in the division of the following words: "Trench-er,
trunch-eon, dros-sy, glos-sy, glas-sy, gras-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses,
cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-ver-sing, mois-ture, join-ture,
qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem."--_New Spelling-Book_:
New York, 1836.
6. Correct _Emerson_, in the division of the following words: "Dus-ty
mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy, spee-dy, drea-ry,
fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, bland-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning,
a-noth-er."--_National Spelling-Book_: Boston, 1828.
"Two Vowels meeting, each with its full Sound,
Always to make Two Syllables are bound."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 64.
EXERCISE III.--FIGURE OF WORDS.
"I was surprised by the return of my long lost brother."--_Parker's
Exercises in English Composition_, p. 5. "Such singular and unheard of
clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence."--_Ib._, p. 10. "I
perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of
sun-shine."--_Ib._, p. 11. "To preserve the unity of a sentence, it is
sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute, instead of the verb and
conjunction."--_Ib._, p. 17. "Severity and hard hearted opinions accord
with the temper of the times."--_Ib._, p. 18. "That poor man was put into
the mad house."--_Ib._, p. 22. "This fellow must be put into the poor
house."--_Ib._ p. 22. "I have seen the breast works and other defences of
earth, that were thrown up."--_Ib._, p. 24. "Cloven footed animals are
enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground."--_Ib._, p. 25. "Self conceit
blasts the prospects of many a youth."--_Ib._, p. 26. "Not a moment should
elapse without bringing some thing to pass."--_Ib._, p. 36. "A school
master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the Roman
camp."--_Ib._, p. 39. "The pupil may now write a description of the
following objects. A school room. A steam boat. A writing desk. A dwelling
house. A meeting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill."--_Ib._,
p. 45. "Every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear
and striking; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered."--_Ib._, p.
49. "I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine
of the most exquisite fragrance."--_Ib._, p. 51. "The author of the
following extract is speaking of the slave trade."--_Ib._, p. 60. "The all
wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he
cannot but approve of virtue."--_Ib._, p. 74. "There is something of self
denial in the very idea of it."--_Ib._, p. 75. "Age therefore requires a
well spent youth to render it happy."--_Ib._, p. 76. "Pearl-ash requires
much labour in its extraction from ashes."--_Ib._, p. 91. "_Club_, or
_crump, footed_, Loripes; _Rough_, or _leather, footed_,
Plumipes."--_Ainsworth's Dict._
"The honey-bags steal from the humble bees,
And for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs."
--SHAK.: _Joh.'s Dict., w. Glowworm._
"The honeybags steal from the bumblebees,
And for night tapers crop their waxen thighs."
--SHAK.: _Joh.'s Dict., w. Humblebee._
"The honey bags steal from the humble-bees,
And, for night tapers crop their waxen thighs."
--_Dodd's Beauties of Shak._, p. 51.
EXERCISE IV.--SPELLING.
"His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers
wainscoted."--ADDISON: _Johnson's Dict., w. Antechamber_. "Nobody will deem
the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of
ethicks."--LOCKE: _Ib., w. Quicksighted_. "At the rate of this
thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read
upon divinity."--L'ESTRANGE: _Ib., m. Blunderhead_. "On the topmast, the
yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly."--SHAK.: _Ib., w. Bowsprit_.
"This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody."--ID.: _Ib.,
w. Nobody_. "Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught
man."--ID.: _Ib., w. Fulfraught_. "Till blinded by some Jack o'Lanthorn
sprite."--_Snelling's Gift_, p. 62. "The beauties you would have me
eulogise."--_Ib._, p. 14. "They rail at me--I gaily laugh at them."--_Ib._,
p. 13. "Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him
withall."--_Josephus_, Vol. v, p. 143. "The terms of these emotions are by
no means synonimous."--_Rush, on the Voice_, p. 336. "Lillied, _adj._
Embellished with lilies."--_Chalmers's Dict._ "They seize the compendious
blessing without exertion and without reflexion."--_Philological Museum_,
Vol. i, p. 428. "The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the
cry that demands their blood."--_Ib._, p. 433. "It meets the wants of
elementary schools and deserves to be patronised."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p.
5. "Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound."--_Music of
Nature_, p. 270. "It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their
language."--_Ib._, p. 200. "It is my father's will that I should take on me
the hostess-ship of the day."--SHAK.: _in Johnson's Dict._ "To retain the
full apprehension of them undiminisht."--_Phil. Museum._, Vol. i, p. 458.
"The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons."--_Anti-Slavery
Mag._, Vol. i, p. 11. "Derivative words are formed by adding letters or
syllables to primatives."--_Davenport's Gram._, p. 7. "The minister never
was thus harrassed himself."--_Nelson, on Infidelity_, p. 6. "The most
vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment."--_Ib._, p.
17. "Mistress-ship, _n._ Female rule or dominion."--_Webster's Dict._
"Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embrace,
The scourge and ruin of my realm and race."
--POPE: _Ash's Gram._, p. 83.
EXERCISE V.--MIXED ERRORS.
"The quince tree is of a low stature; the branches are diffused and
crooked."--MILLER: _Johnson's Dict._ "The greater slow worm, called also
the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness
of his eyes."--GREW: _ib._ "Oh Hocus! where art thou? It used to go in
another guess manner in thy time."--ARBUTHNOT: _ib._ "One would not make a
hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation."--ID.:
_ib._ "As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate
who's the greatest plotter."--DRYDEN: _ib., w. Huff._ "In like manner,
Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their
Patients."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 263. "These Sentiments are not unusual
even with the Philosopher now a days."--_Ib._, p. 350. "As if the Marble
were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble."--_Ib._, p.
353. "I would not be understood, in what I have said, to undervalue
Experiment."--_Ib._, p. 352. "How therefore is it that they approach nearly
to Non-Entity's?"--_Ib._, p. 431. "Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise,
barbarise, tyranise."--_Churchill's Gram._, pp. 31 and 42. "Now fair befal
thee and thy noble house!"--SHAK.: _ib._, p. 241. "Nor do I think the error
above-mentioned would have been so long indulged," &c.--_Ash's Gram._, p.
4. "The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this
little manuel to the public," &c.--_Ib._, p. 7. "A Note of Admiration
denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression."--_Ib._, p. 16.
"It always has some respect to the power of the agent; and is therefore
properly stiled the potential mode."--_Ib._, p. 29. "Both these are
supposed to be synonomous expressions."--_Ib._, p. 105. "An expence beyond
what my circumstances admit."--DODDRIDGE: _ib._, p. 138. "There are four of
them: the _Full-Point_, or _Period_; the _Colon_; the _Semi-Colon_; the
_Comma_."--_Cobbett's E. Gram._, N. Y., 1818, p. 77. "There are many men,
who have been at Latin-Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write
six sentences in English correctly."--_Ib._, p. 39. "But, figures of
rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too."--_Ib._, p. 182. "The
horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard."--MORTIMER: _Johnson's Dict._
"Whereever _if_ is to be used."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 175.
"Peel'd, patch'd, and pyebald, linsey-woolsey brothers."
--POPE: _Joh. Dict., w., Mummer_.
"Peel'd, patch'd, and piebald, linsey-woolsey brothers."
--_ID.: ib., w. Piebald_.
EXERCISE VI.--MIXED ERRORS.
"Pied, _adj._ [from _pie._] Variegated; partycoloured."--_Johnson's Dict._
"Pie, [_pica_, Lat.] A magpie; a party-coloured bird."--_Ib._ "Gluy, _adj._
[from _glue._] Viscous; tenacious; glutinous."--_Ib._ "Gluey, _a._ Viscous,
glutinous. Glueyness. _n._ The quality of being gluey."--_Webster's Dict._
"Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat[129] upon the muck-hill, returned in all
haste, taking it for an ill sign."--BURTON: _Johnson's Dict._ "Wars are
begun by hairbrained[130] dissolute captains."--ID.: _ib._ "A carot is a
well known garden root."--_Red Book_, p. 60. "Natural philosophy,
metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theology, and politicks, were familiar to
him."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 209. "The words in Italicks and capitals,
are emphatick."--_Ib._, p. 210. "It is still more exceptionable; Candles,
Cherrys, Figs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by Weight, and being
Plurals."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 135. "If the End of Grammar be not to
save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good
for."--_Ib._, p. 161. "_Caulce_, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular,
according to Charisius."--_Ib._, p. 194. "These busibodies are like to such
as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults
thereof"--_Perkins's Works_, p. 741. "I think it every man's indispensible
duty, to do all the service he can to his country."--_Locke, on Ed._, p. 4.
"Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or flaging into a
downright want of Appetite."--_Ib._, p. 23. "And nobody would have a child
cramed at breakfast."--_Ib._, p. 23. "Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and
alledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement,
enlargement and acknowledgment."--_Webster's Dict._, 8vo. "Huckster, _n.
s._ One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities; a
pedler."--_Johnson's Dict._
"He seeks bye-streets, and saves th' expensive coach."
--GAY: _ib., w. Mortgage._
"He seeks by-streets, and saves th' expensive coach."
--GAY: _ib., w. By-street._
EXERCISE VII.--MIXED ERRORS.
"Boys like a warm fire in a wintry day."--_Webster's El. Spelling-Book_, p.
62. "The lilly is a very pretty flower."--_Ib._, p. 62. "The potatoe is a
native plant of America."--_Ib._, p. 60. "An anglicism is a peculiar mode
of speech among the English."--_Ib._, p. 136. "Black berries and
raspberries grow on briars."--_Ib._, p. 150. "You can broil a beef steak
over the coals of fire."--_Ib._, p. 38. "Beef'-steak, _n._ A steak or slice
of beef for broiling."--_Webster's Dict._ "Beef'steak, _s._ a slice of beef
for broiling."--_Treasury of Knowledge._ "As he must suffer in case of the
fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding gain if
merchandize rises."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 258. "He is the
worshipper of an hour, but the worldling for life."--_Maturin's Sermons_,
p. 424. "Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest
men."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 329. "'Tis by this therefore that I Define
the Verb; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is
apply'd to another, as to its Subject."--_Johnson's Gram. Com._, p. 255.
"It may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of
gaiety."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 178. "To criticize, is to discover
errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele."--_Red Book_, p.
68. "The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is
peculiarly aukward; as, he has came."--_Priestley's Grammar_, p. 125. "They
are moraly responsible for their individual conduct."--_Cardell's El.
Gram._, p. 21. "An engine of sixty horse power, is deemed of equal force
with a team of sixty horses."--_Red Book_, p. 113. "This, at fourpence per
ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a week, or six pounds, one shining
and four pence a year."--_Ib._, p. 122. "The tru meening of _parliament_ iz
a meeting of barons or peers."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 276. "Several
authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion."--_Ib._, p. 277. "That iz,
az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word."--_Ib._, p. 276.
"The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges
or barons."--_Ib._, p. 274.
"Falshood is folly, and 'tis just to own
The fault committed; this was mine alone."
--_Pope, Odys._, B. xxii, l. 168.
EXERCISE VIII--MIXED ERRORS.
"A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best
superfluous."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 332. "Indicate it, by some mark
opposite [to] the word misspelt."--_Abbott's Teacher_, p. 74. "And
succesfully controling the tendencies of mind."--_Ib._, p. 24. "It [the
Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens-Play."--[LESLIE'S]
_Right of Tythes_, p. 236. "It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please
those Fools and Knaves."--_Ib._, Pref., p. vi. "And first I Name Milton,
only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Cousider'd his
Performance against Tythes."--_Ib._, p. iv. "His Fancy was too Predominant
for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated
Reasoning."--_Ib._, p. iv. "He has thrown away some of his Railery against
Tythes, and the Church then underfoot."--_Ib._, p. v. "They Vey'd with one
another in these things."--_Ib._, p. 220. "Epamanondas was far the most
accomplished of the Thebans."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 27. "_Whoever_ and
_Whichever_, are thus declined. Sing. and Plur. _nom._ whoever, _poss._
whoseever, _obj._ whomever. Sing. and Plu. _nom._ whichever, _poss._
whoseever, _obj._ whichever."--_Ib._, p. 38. "WHEREEVER, _adv._ [_where_
and _ever_.] At whatever place."--_Webster's Dict._ "They at length took
possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains."--_Dobson's
Comp. Gram._, p. 7. "Those Britains, who refused to submit to the foreign
yoke, retired into Wales."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Religion is the most chearful
thing in the world."--_Ib._, p. 43. "_Two_ means the number two compleatly,
whereas _second_ means only the last of two, and so of all the
rest."--_Ib._, p. 44. "Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose
sirname is Peter."--_Ib._, p. 96. (See _Acts_, x, 5.) "In French words, we
use _enter_ instead of _inter_; as, entertain, enterlace,
enterprize."--_Ib._, p. 101. "Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or
doubtful meaning."--_Ib._, p. 103. "Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what!
strange!"--_Ib._, p. 109. "Names of the letters: ai bee see dee ee ef jee
aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi
zed."--_Rev. W. Allen's Gram._, p. 3.
"I, O, and U, at th' End of Words require,
The silent (e), the same do's (va) desire."
--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 15.
EXERCISE IX.--MIXED ERRORS.
"_And_ is written for _eacend_, adding, ekeing."--_Dr. Murray's Hist. of
Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 222. "The Hindus have changed _ai_ into _e_,
sounded like _e_ in _where_."--_Ib._, Vol. ii, p. 121. "And therefor I
would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot."--
_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 430. "Sufficiently distinct to prevent
our marveling."--_Ib._, i, 477. "Possessed of this preheminence he
disregarded the clamours of the people."--_Smollett's England_, Vol. iii,
p. 222. "He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to
some of the bye-standers."--_Ib._, p. 222. "The high fed astrology which it
nurtured, is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac."--_Cardell's
Gram._, p. 6. "Fulton was an eminent engineer: he invented steam
boats."--_Ib._, p. 30. "Then, in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine
of goodwill."--SOUTH: _in Johnson's Dict._ "Being very lucky in a pair of
long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace."--SPECTATOR:
_ib._ "Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king
as his father."--BACON: _ib., w. Lowness_. "The children will answer;
John's, or William's, or whose ever it may be."--_Infant School Gram._, p.
32. "It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess
work."--_Cardell's Gram._, p. 91. "For between which two links could speech
makers draw the division line?"--_Ib._, p. 50. "The wonderful activity of
the rope dancer who stands on his head."--_Ib._, p. 56. "The brilliancy
which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine."--_Ib._, p. 63. "A
word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 23;
_Coar's_, 17; _Jaudon's_, 13; _Comly's_, 8; _Cooper's, New Gr._, 8;
_Kirkham's_, 20; _Picket's_, 10; _Alger's_, 12; _Blair's_, 1; _Guy's_, 2;
_Bolles's Spelling-Book_, 161. See _Johnson's Dict._ "A word of three
syllables is termed a trissyllable."--_British Gram._, p. 33;
_Comprehensive Gram._, 23; _Bicknell's_, 17; _Allen's_, 31; _John
Peirce's_, 149; _Lennie's_, 5; _Maltby's_, 8; _Ingersoll's_, 7;
_Bradley's_, 66; _Davenport's_, 7; _Bucke's_, 16; _Bolles's Spelling-Book_,
91. See _Littleton's Lat. Dict._ (1.) "_Will_, in the first Persons,
promises or threatens: But in the second and third Persons, it barely
foretells."--_British Gram._, p. 132. (2.) "_Will_, in the first Persons,
promises or threatens; but in the second and third Persons, it barely
foretells."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 41. (3.) "_Will_, in the first person,
promises, engages, or threatens. In the second and third persons, it merely
foretels."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 59. (4.) "_Will_, in the first person
singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third
persons, only foretells."--_Lowth's Gram._, p. 41. (5.) "_Will_, in the
first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in
the second and third person, only foretels."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 88;
_Ingersoll's_, 136; _Fisk's_, 78; _A. Flint's_, 42; _Bullions's_, 32;
_Hamlin's_, 41; _Cooper's Murray_, 50. [Fist] _Murray's Second Edition_ has
it "_foretells_." (6.) "_Will_, in the first person singular and plural,
expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only
foretells."--_Comly's Gram._, p. 38; _E. Devis's_, 51; _Lennie's_, 22. (7.)
"_Will_, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it
simply foretels."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 24. (8.) "_Will_, in the first
person implies resolution and promising; in the second and third, it
foretells."--_Cooper's New Gram._, p. 51. (9.) "_Will_, in the first person
singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third
persons, only foretels: _shall_, on the contrary, in the first person,
simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or
threatens."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p. 83. (10.) "In the first
person shall _foretels_, and will _promises_ or _threatens_; but in the
second and third persons _will_ foretels, and _shall_ promises or
threatens."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 65.
"If Maevius scribble in Apollo's spight,
There are who judge still worse than he can write."--_Pope_.
EXERCISE X.--MIXED ERRORS.
"I am liable to be charged that I latinize too much."--DRYDEN: in
_Johnson's Dict._ "To mould him platonically to his own idea."--WOTTON:
_ib._ "I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as
Zobeide."--_Murray's E. Reader_, p. 148. "I will marry a wife, beautiful as
the Houries."--_Wilcox's Gram._, p. 65. "The words in italics are all in
the imperative mood."--_Maltby's Gram._, p. 71. "Words Italicised, are
emphatick, in various degrees."--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 173. "Wherever
two gg's come together, they are both hard."--_Buchanan's Gram._, p. 5.
"But these are rather silent (_o_)'s than obscure (_u_)'s."--_Brightland's
Gram._, p. 19. "That can be Guest at by us, only from the
Consequences."--_Right of Tythes_, p. viii. "He says he was glad that he
had Baptized so few; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of
Paul?"--_Ib._, p. ix. "Therefor he Charg'd the Clergy with the Name of
Hirelings."--_Ib._, p. viii. "On the fourth day before the first second day
in each month."--_The Friend_, Vol. vii, p. 230. "We are not bound to
adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which were
established by our ancestors."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 140. "O! learn from
him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."--_Frosts El. of Gram._, p.
104. "It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village."--_Music of
Nature_, p. 421. "By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary
manner."--_Booth's Introd. to Dict._, p. 33. "Time as an abstract being is
a non-entity."--_Ib._, p. 29. "From the difficulty of analysing the
multiplied combinations of words."--_Ib._, p. 19. "Drop those letters that
are superfluous, as: handful, foretel."--_Cooper's Plain & Pract. Gram._,
p. 10. "_Shall_, in the first person, simply foretells."--_Ib._, p. 51.
"And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with
the act."--_Ib._, p. 60. "The man has been traveling for five
years."--_Ib._, p. 77. "I shall not take up time in combatting their
scruples."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 320. "In several of the chorusses of
Euripides and Sophocles, we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in
Pindar."--_Ib._, p. 398. "Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their
efforts in _forming_ the human mind, rather than in loping its
excressences, after it has been neglected."--_Webster's Essays_, p. 26.
"Where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in
error."--_Ib._, p. 78. "All the barons were entitled to a seet in the
national council, in right of their baronys."--_Ib._, p. 260. "Some
knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady."--_Ib._, p. 29. "Upon
this, [the system of chivalry,] were founded those romances of
night-errantry."--_Blair's Rhet._, p. 374. "The subject is, the
atchievements of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins."--_Ib._, p. 374.
"Aye, aye; this slice to be sure outweighs the other."--_Blair's Reader_,
p. 31. "In the common phrase, _good-bye, bye_ signifies _passing, going_.
The phrase signifies, a good going, a prosperous passage, and is equivalent
to _farewell_."--_Webster's Dict._ "Good-by, _adv_.--a contraction of _good
be with you_--a familiar way of bidding farewell."--See _Chalmers's Dict._
"Off he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to
you."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 16. "It no longer recals the notion of the
action."--_Barnard's Gram._, p. 69.
"Good-nature and good-sense must ever join;
To err, is human; to forgive, divine."--_Pope, Ess. on Crit._
EXERCISE XI.--MIXED ERRORS.
"The practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing, sawing,
mortising, scribing, moulding, &c."--_Blair's Reader_, p. 118. "With her
left hand, she guides the thread round the spindle, or rather round a spole
which goes on the spindle."--_Ib._, p. 134. "Much suff'ring heroes next
their honours claim."--POPE: _Johnson's Dict., w. Much_. "Vein healing
verven, and head purging dill."--SPENSER: _ib., w. Head_. "An, in old
English, signifies _if_; as, '_an_ it please your honor.'"--_Webster's
Dict._ "What, then, was the moral worth of these renouned
leaders?"--_M'Ilvaine's Lect._, p. 460. "Behold how every form of human
misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent."--_Ib._, p.
411. "Reptiles, bats, and doleful creatures--jackalls, hyenas, and
lions--inhabit the holes, and caverns, and marshes of the desolate
city."--_Ib._, p. 270. "ADAYS, _adv_. On or in days; as, in the phrase, now
_adays_."--_Webster's Dict._ "REFEREE, one to whom a thing is referred;
TRANSFERREE, the person to whom a transfer is made."--_Ib._ "The
Hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for
pilgrims."--_Ib._ "GERARD, Tom, or Tung, was the institutor and first grand
master of the knights hospitalers: he died in 1120."--_Biog. Dict._ "I had
a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land."--SHAK.: _in Johnson's
Dict._ "He turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his
servants."--_Psalms_, cv, 25. "In Dryden's ode of Alexander's Feast, the
line, '_Faln, faln, faln, faln_,' represents a gradual sinking of the
mind."--_Kames, El. of Crit._, Vol. ii, p. 71. "The first of these lines is
marvelously nonsensical."--_Jamieson's Rhet._, p. 117. "We have the nicely
chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble
still."--_Christian Spect._, Vol. viii, p. 201. "Death waves his mighty
wand and paralyses all."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 35. "Fear God. Honor the
patriot. Respect virtue."--_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 216. "Pontius Pilate being
Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee."--_Ib._, p. 189.
See _Luke_, iii, 1. "AUCTIONEER, _n. s_. The person that manages an
auction."--_Johnson's Dict._ "The earth put forth her primroses and
days-eyes, to behold him."--HOWEL: _ib._ "_Musselman_, not being a compound
of _man_, is _musselmans_ in the plural."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 9. "The
absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar
rules."--_Burgh's Dignity_, Vol. i, p. 147. "John was forced to sit with
his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder."--ARBUTHNOT: _Joh. Dict._ "To set
the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows
projecting outward."--_Webster's Dict._ "We almost uniformly confine the
inflexion to the last or the latter noun."--_Maunder's Gram._, p. 2. "This
is all souls day, fellows! Is it not?"--SHAK.: _in Joh. Dict._ "The english
physicians make use of troy-weight."--_Johnson's Dict._ "There is a certain
number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls."--PEACHAM: _ib.,
w. Marquis_.
"How could you chide the young good natur'd prince,
And drive him from you with so stern an air."
--ADDISON: _ib., w. Good_, 25.
EXERCISE XII.--MIXED ERRORS.
"In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided."--_Sanborn's
Gram._, p. 75. "If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the
verb."--_Ib._, p. 53. "The preterite of _read_ is pronounced
_red_."--_Ib._, p. 48. "Humility opens a high way to dignity."--_Ib._, p.
15. "What is intricate must be unraveled."--_Ib._, p. 275. "Roger Bacon
invented gun powder, A. D. 1280."--_Ib._, p. 277. "On which ever word we
lay the emphasis."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. "Each of
the leaders was apprized of the Roman invasion."--_Nixon's Parser_, p. 123.
"If I say, 'I _gallopped_ from Islington to Holloway;' the verb is
intransitive: if, 'I _gallopped_ my _horse_ from Islington to Holloway;' it
is transitive."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 238. "The reasonableness of
setting a part one day in seven."--_The Friend_, Vol. iv, p. 240. "The
promoters of paper money making reprobated this act."--_Webster's Essays_,
p. 196. "There are five compound personal pronouns, which are derived from
the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the
syllable _self_; as, my-self, thy-self, him-self, her-self,
it-self."--_Perley's Gram._, p. 16. "Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own,
her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own."--_Ib., Declensions_. "Thy
man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou."--_Sanborn's
Gram._, p. 160. "How many right angles has an acute angled
triangle?"--_Ib._, p. 220. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel,
flourished the prophet Elisha."--_Ib._, p. 148. "In the days of Jorum, king
of Israel, Elisha, the prophet flourished."--_Ib._, p. 133. "Lodgable, _a_.
Capable of affording a temporary abode."--_Webster's Octavo Dict._--"Win me
into the easy hearted man."--_Johnson's Quarto Dict._ "And then to end
life, is the same as to dye."--_Milnes's Greek Gram._, p. 176. "Those
usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge
of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood."--SOUTH: _Joh. Dict._
"His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate."--_Nixon's Parser_,
p. 91. "This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our
assent."--_Campbell's Rhet._, p. 117. "When he comes to the Italicised
word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the
sentence may require."--_Claggett's Expositor_, p. vii. "Learn to distil
from your lips all the honies of persuasion."--_Adams's Rhetoric_, Vol. i,
p. 31. "To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the
Americans."--_Ib._, ii, 300. "Where prejudice has not acquired an
uncontroled ascendency."--_Ib._, i, 31. "The uncontrolable propensity of
his mind was undoubtedly to oratory."--_Ib._, i, 100. "The Brutus is a
practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator."--_Ib._, i, 120.
"The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium."--_Ib._, i,
130. "You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good
ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best
advantage."--_Ib._, i, 169. "In this lecture, you have the outline of all
that the whole course will comprize."--_Ib._, i, 182. "He would have been
stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was traveling out of the
record."--_Ib._, i, 289. "To tell them that which should befal them in the
last days."--_Ib._, ii, 308. "Where all is present, there is nothing past
to recal."--_Ib._, ii, 358. "Whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of
God's eternal vengeance."--_Law and Grace_, p. 36.
"There, from the dead, centurions see him rise,
See, but struck down with horrible surprize!"--_Savage_.
"With seed of woes my heart brimful is charged."--SIDNEY: _Joh. Dict._
"Our legions are brimful, our cause is ripe."--SHAKSPEARE: _ib._
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY.
ETYMOLOGY treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and
modifications.
The _Parts of Speech_ are the several kinds, or principal classes, into
which words are divided by grammarians.
_Classes_, under the parts of speech, are the particular sorts into which
the several kinds of words are subdivided.
_Modifications_ are inflections, or changes, in the terminations, forms, or
senses, of some kinds of words.
CHAPTER I.--PARTS OF SPEECH.
The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten; namely, the
Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle,
the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection.
1. THE ARTICLE.
An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to
limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_
ship.
2. THE NOUN.
A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or
mentioned: as, _George, York, man, apple, truth_.
3. THE ADJECTIVE.
An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses
quality: as, A _wise_ man; a _new_ book. You _two_ are _diligent_.
4. THE PRONOUN.
A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves _his_ book;
_he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_ well.
5. THE VERB.
A Verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or _to be acted upon_: as,
I _am_, I _rule_, I _am ruled_; I _love_, thou _lovest_, he _loves_.
6. THE PARTICIPLE.
A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of
a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding
_ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb: thus, from the verb _rule_, are formed
three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. _ruling_, 2.
_ruled_, 3. _having ruled_.
7. THE ADVERB.
An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an
other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as,
They are _now here_, studying _very diligently_.
8. THE CONJUNCTION.
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction,
and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou _and_ he
are happy, _because_ you are good."--_L. Murray_.
9. THE PREPOSITION.
A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things
or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a
pronoun; as, The paper lies _before_ me _on_ the desk.
10. THE INTERJECTION.
An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or
sudden emotion of the mind: as, _Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha!
hurrah!_
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part
of grammar, is the distribution of the words of the language into those
principal sorts, or classes, which are denominated _the Parts of Speech_.
This is a matter of some difficulty. And as no scheme which can be adopted,
will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally
falter in its application, the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to
refer his pupils to the following simple explanations, which are designed
to aid their first and most difficult steps.
How can we know to what class, or part of speech, any word belongs? By
learning the definitions of the ten parts of speech, and then observing how
the word is written, and in what sense it is used. It is necessary also to
observe, so far as we can, with what other words each particular one is
capable of making sense.
1. Is it easy to distinguish an ARTICLE? If not always easy, it is
generally so: _the, an_, and _a_, are the only English words called
articles, and these are rarely any thing else. Because _an_ and _a_ have
the same import, and are supposed to have the same origin, the articles are
commonly reckoned two, but some count them as three.
2. How can we distinguish a NOUN? By means of the article before it, if
there is one; as, _the house, an apple, a book_; or, by adding it to the
phrase, "_I mentioned_;" as, "I mentioned _peace_;"--"I mentioned
_war_;"--"I mentioned _slumber_." Any word which thus makes complete sense,
is, in that sense, a noun; because a noun is the _name_ of any thing which
can thus be mentioned _by a name_. Of English nouns, there are said to be
as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand.
3. How can we distinguish an ADJECTIVE? By putting a noun after it, to see
if the phrase will be sense. The noun _thing_, or its plural _things_, will
suit almost any adjective; as, A _good_ thing--A _bad_ thing--A _little_
thing--A _great_ thing--_Few_ things--_Many_ things--_Some_ things--_Fifty_
things. Of adjectives, there are perhaps nine or ten thousand.
4. How can we distinguish a PRONOUN? By observing that its noun repeated
makes the same sense. Thus, the example of the pronoun above, "The boy
loves _his_ book; _he_ has long lessons, and _he_ learns _them_
well,"--very clearly means, "The boy loves _the boy's_ book; _the boy_ has
long lessons, and _the boy_ learns _those lessons_ well." Here then, by a
disagreeable repetition of two nouns, we have the same sense without any
pronoun; but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of
expression, because they prevent this awkward repetition. The different
pronouns in English are twenty-four; and their variations in declension are
thirty-two: so that the number of _words_ of this class, is fifty-six.
5. How can we distinguish a VERB? By observing that it is usually the
principal word in the sentence, and that without it there would be no
assertion. It is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the
person or thing mentioned; as, "Jesus _wept_."--"Felix _trembled_."--"The
just _shall live_ by faith." It will make sense when inflected with the
pronouns; as, I _write_, thou _writ'st_, he _writes_; we _write_, you
_write_, they _write_.--I _walk_, thou _walkst_, he _walks_; we _walk_, you
_walk_, they _walk_. Of English verbs, some recent grammarians compute the
number at eight thousand; others formerly reckoned them to be no more than
four thousand three hundred.[131]
6. How can we distinguish a PARTICIPLE? By observing its derivation from
the verb, and then placing it after _to be_ or _having_; as, To be
_writing_, Having _written_--To be _walking_, Having _walked_--To be
_weeping_, Having _wept_--To be _studying_, Having _studied_. Of simple
participles, there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical
verbs; and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples,
but they are much less frequently used.
7. How can we distinguish an ADVERB? By observing that it answers to the
question, _When? Where? How much?_ or _How_?--or serves to ask it; as, "He
spoke fluently." _How_ did he speak? _Fluently_. This word _fluently_ is
therefore an adverb: it tells _how_ he spoke. Of adverbs, there are about
two thousand six hundred; and four fifths of them end in _ly_.
8. How can we distinguish a CONJUNCTION? By observing what words or terms
it joins together, or to what other conjunction it corresponds; as,
"_Neither_ wealth _nor_ honor can heal a wounded conscience."--_Dillwyn's
Ref._, p. 16. Or, it may be well to learn the whole list at once: _And, as,
both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so: Or, nor,
either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest,
unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas._ Of conjunctions, there
are these twenty-nine in common use, and a few others now obsolete.
9. How can we distinguish a PREPOSITION? By observing that it will govern
the pronoun _them_, and is not a verb or a participle; as, _About_
them--_above_ them--_across_ them--_after_ them--_against_ them--_amidst_
them--_among_ them--_around_ them--_at_ them--_Before_ them--_behind_
them--_below_ them--_beneath_ them--_beside_ them--_between_ them--_beyond_
them--_by_ them--_For_ them--_from_ them--_In_ them--_into_ them, &c. Of
the prepositions, there are about sixty now in common use.
10. How can we distinguish an INTERJECTION? By observing that it is an
independent word or sound, uttered earnestly, and very often written with
the note of exclamation; as _Lo! behold! look! see! hark! hush! hist! mum!_
Of interjections, there are sixty or seventy in common use, some of which
are seldom found in books.
OBS. 2.--An accurate knowledge of words, and of their changes, is
indispensable to a clear discernment of their proper combinations in
sentences, according to the usage of the learned. Etymology, therefore,
should be taught before syntax; but it should be chiefly taught by a direct
analysis of entire sentences, and those so plainly written that the
particular effect of every word may be clearly distinguished, and the
meaning, whether intrinsic or relative, be discovered with precision. The
parts of speech are usually named and defined with reference to the use of
words _in sentences_; and, as the same word not unfrequently stands for
several different parts of speech, the learner should be early taught to
make for himself the proper application of the foregoing distribution,
without recurrence to a dictionary, and without aid from his teacher. He
who is endeavouring to acquaint himself with the grammar of a language
which he can already read and understand, is placed in circumstances very
different from those which attend the school-boy who is just beginning to
construe some sentences of a foreign tongue. A frequent use of the
dictionary may facilitate the progress of the one, while it delays that of
the other. English grammar, it is hoped, may be learned directly from this
book alone, with better success than can be expected when the attention of
the learner is divided among several or many different works.
OBS. 3.--Dr. James P. Wilson, in speaking of the classification of words,
observes, "The _names_ of the distributive parts should either express,
distinctly, the influence, which each class produces on sentences; or some
other characteristic trait, by which the respective species of words may be
distinguished, without danger of confusion. It is at least probable, that
no distribution, sufficiently minute, can ever be made, of the parts of
speech, which shall be wholly free from all objection. Hasty innovations,
therefore, and crude conjectures, should not be permitted to disturb that
course of grammatical instruction, which has been advancing in melioration,
by the unremitting labours of thousands, through a series of
ages."--_Wilson's Essay on Gram._, p. 66. Again: "The _number_ of the parts
of speech may be reduced, or enlarged, at pleasure; and the rules of
syntax may be accommodated to such new arrangement. The best grammarians
find it difficult, in practice, to distinguish, in some instances, adverbs,
prepositions, and conjunctions; yet their effects are generally distinct.
This inconvenience should be submitted to, since a less comprehensive
distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the
meaning of English sentences."--_Ib._, p. 68. Again: "_As_ and _so_ have
been also deemed substitutes, and resolved into other words. But if all
abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech, there
will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar; and the
various improvements, which have sprung from convenience, or necessity, and
been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times, must be retrenched, and
anarchy in letters universally prevail."--_Ib._, p. 114.
OBS. 4.--I have elsewhere sufficiently shown why _ten_ parts of speech are
to be preferred to any other number, in English; and whatever diversity of
opinion there may be, respecting the class to which some particular words
ought to be referred, I trust to make it obvious to good sense, that I have
seldom erred from the course which is most expedient. 1. _Articles_ are
used with appellative nouns, sometimes to denote emphatically the species,
but generally to designate individuals. 2. _Nouns_ stand in discourse for
persons, things, or abstract qualities. 3. _Adjectives_ commonly express
the concrete qualities of persons or things; but sometimes, their situation
or number. 4. _Pronouns_ are substitutes for names, or nouns; but they
sometimes represent sentences. 5. _Verbs_ assert, ask, or say something;
and, for the most part, express action or motion. 6. _Participles_ contain
the essential meaning of their verbs, and commonly denote action, and imply
time; but, apart from auxiliaries, they express that meaning either
adjectively or substantively, and not with assertion. 7. _Adverbs_ express
the circumstances of time, of place, of degree, and of manner; the _when_,
the _where_, the _how much_, and the _how_. 8. _Conjunctions_ connect,
sometimes words, and sometimes sentences, rarely phrases; and always show,
either the manner in which one sentence or one phrase depends upon an
other, or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third.
9. _Prepositions_ express the correspondent relations of things to things,
of thoughts to thoughts, or of words to words; for these, if we speak
truly, must be all the same in expression. 10. _Interjections_ are either
natural sounds or exclamatory words, used independently, and serving
briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker.
OBS. 5.--In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified,
and each is pointed out by the figure placed over the word:--
1 2 9 2 5 1 2 3 9 2 1 2 6
"The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; a faculty bestowed
9 4 9 4 3 2 9 1 3 8 7 3
on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excellent
2 8 10 7 7 5 4 5 4 9 1 3 9
uses; but, alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst of
2
purposes!"--See _Lowth's Gram._, p. 1.
In this sentence, which has been adopted by Murray, Churchill, and others,
we have the following parts of speech: 1. The words _the, a_, and _an_, are
articles. 2. The words _power, speech, faculty, man, faculty, Creator,
uses_, and _purposes_, are nouns. 3. The words _peculiar, beneficent,
greatest, excellent_, and _worst_, are adjectives. 4. The words _him, his,
we_, and _it_, are pronouns. 5. The words _is, do_, and _pervert_, are
verbs. 6. The word _bestowed_ is a participle. 7. The words _most, how_,
and _often_, are adverbs. 8. The words _and_ and _but_ are conjunctions. 9.
The words _of, on, to, by, for, to_, and _of_, are prepositions. 10. The
word _alas!_ is an interjection.
OBS. 6.--In speaking or writing, we of course bring together the different
parts of speech just as they happen to be needed. Though a sentence of
ordinary length usually embraces more than one half of them, it is not
often that we find them _all_ in so small a compass. Sentences sometimes
abound in words of a particular kind, and are quite destitute of those of
some other sort. The following examples will illustrate these remarks. (1)
ARTICLES: "_A_ square is less beautiful than _a_ circle; and _the_ reason
seems to be, that _the_ attention is divided among _the_ sides and angles
of _a_ square, whereas _the_ circumference of _a_ circle, being _a_ single
object, makes one entire impression."--_Kames, Elements of Criticism_, Vol.
i, p. 175. (2.) NOUNS: "A _number_ of _things_ destined for the same _use_,
such as _windows, chairs, spoons, buttons_, cannot be too uniform; for,
supposing their _figure_ to be good, _utility_ requires
_uniformity_."--_Ib._, i, 176. (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Hence nothing _just,
proper, decent, beautiful, proportioned_, or _grand_, is
_risible_."--_Ib._, i, 229. (4.) PRONOUNS: "_I_ must entreat the courteous
reader to suspend _his_ curiosity, and rather to consider _what_ is written
than _who they_ are _that_ write it."--_Addison, Spect._, No. 556. (5.)
VERBS: "The least consideration _will inform_ us how easy it _is_ to _put_
an ill-natured construction upon a word; and what perverse turns and
expressions _spring_ from an evil temper. Nothing _can be explained_ to him
who _will_ not _understand_, nor _will_ any thing _appear_ right to the
unreasonable."--_Cecil_. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "The Scriptures are an
authoritative voice, _reproving, instructing_, and _warning_ the world; and
_declaring_ the only means _ordained_ and _provided for escaping_ the awful
penalties of sin."--_G. B._ (7.) ADVERBS: "The light of Scripture shines
_steadily, purely, benignly, certainly, superlatively_."--_Dr. S. H. Cox._
(8.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Quietness and silence _both_ become _and_ befriend
religious exercises. Clamour _and_ violence often hinder, _but_ never
further, the work of God."--_Henry's Exposition._ (9.) PREPOSITIONS: "He
has kept _among us_, in times of peace, standing armies, _without_ the
consent of our legislatures."--_Dec. of Indep._ (10.) INTERJECTIONS: "_Oh_,
my dear strong-box! _Oh_, my lost guineas! _Oh_, poor, ruined, beggared old
man! _Boo! hoo! hoo!_"--MOLIERE: _Burgh's Art of Speaking_, p. 266.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
_Parsing_ is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related
word or words, according to the definitions and rules of grammar. Parsing
is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic.
A _Praxis_ is a method of exercise, or a form of grammatical resolution,
showing the learner how to proceed. The word is Greek, and literally
signifies action, doing, practice, or formal use.
PRAXIS I--ETYMOLOGICAL.
_In the first Praxis, it is required of the pupil--merely to distinguish
and define the different parts of speech.
The definitions to be given in the First Praxis, are one, and only one, for
each word, or part of speech. Thus_:--
EXAMPLE PARSED.
"The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour
required of him."
_The_ is an article. 1.[132] An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_,
which we put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Patient_ is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or
pronoun, and generally expresses quality.
_Ox_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that
can be known or mentioned.
_Submits_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_, or
_to be acted upon._
_To_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some
relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally
placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we
put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Yoke_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing,
that can be known or mentioned.
_And_ is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so
connected.
_Meekly_ is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a
participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time,
place, degree, or manner.
_Performs_ is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies _to be, to act_,
or _to be acted upon._
_The_ is an article. 1. An article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we
put before nouns to limit their signification.
_Labour_ is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing,
that can be known or mentioned.
_Required_ is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb,
participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and
is generally formed by adding _ing, d_, or _ed_, to the verb.
_Of_ is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some
relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally
placed before a noun or a pronoun.
_Him_ is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
LESSON I.--PARSING.
"A nimble tongue often trips. The rule of the tongue is a great attainment.
The language of truth is direct and plain. Truth is never evasive. Flattery
is the food of vanity. A virtuous mind loathes flattery. Vain persons are
an easy prey to parasites. Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. The
smiles of the world are deceitful. True friendship hath eternal views. A
faithful friend is invaluable. Constancy in friendship denotes a generous
mind. Adversity is the criterion of friendship. Love and fidelity are
inseparable. Few know the value of a friend till they lose him. Justice is
the first of all moral virtues. Let justice hold, and mercy turn, the
scale. A judge is guilty who connives at guilt. Justice delayed is little
better than justice denied. Vice is the deformity of man. Virtue is a
source of constant cheerfulness. One vice is more expensive than many
virtues. Wisdom, though serious, is never sullen. Youth is the season of
improvement."--_Dillwyn's Reflections_, pp. 4-27.
"Oh! my ill-chang'd condition! oh, my fate!
Did I lose heaven for this?"--_Cowley's Davideis._
LESSON II.--PARSING.
"So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual
solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature
is more timid than man; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders
lessens the disgrace of the crime; for a common reproach is no reproach. A
man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being
reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to
bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is
a blessing from heaven: the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first
step towards vice, is to make a mystery of what is innocent: whoever loves
to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his
children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them
a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared
terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato."--Home's
Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53.
"O thou most high transcendent gift of age!
Youth from its folly thus to disengage."--_Denham's Age_.
LESSON III.--PARSING.
"Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a
storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it."--_Murray's Ex._, p.
5. "Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A
little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little
for the future."--See _ib._ "Still waters are commonly deepest. He laboured
to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still
afraid."--_Ib._ "Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our
sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard
ones."--_Ib._ "The hail was very destructive. Hail, virtue! source of every
good. We hail you as friends."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Much money makes no man
happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world."--See
_ib._ "Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the
lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company."--_Ib._
"Give me more love, or more disdain."--_Carew_. "He loved Rachel more than
Leah."--_Genesis_. "But how much that more is; he hath no distinct
notion."--_Locke_.
"And my more having would be as a sauce
To make me hunger more."--_Shakspeare_.
CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES.
An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to
limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_
ship.
_An_ and _a_, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned _one and
the same_ article. _An_ is used in preference to _a_, whenever the
following word begins with a vowel sound; as, _An_ art, _an_ end, _an_
heir, _an_ inch, _an_ ounce, _an_ hour, _an_ urn. _A_ is used in preference
to _an_, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, _A_
man, _a_ house, _a_ wonder, _a_ one, _a_ yew, _a_ use, _a_ ewer. Thus the
consonant sounds of _w_ and _y_, even when expressed by other letters,
require _a_ and not _an_ before them.
A common noun, when taken in its _widest sense_, usually admits no article:
as, "A candid temper is proper for _man_; that is, for _all
mankind_."--_Murray_.
In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used
in a sense _indefinitely partitive_: as, "He took _bread_, and gave
thanks."--_Acts_. That is, "_some bread_." "To buy _food_ are thy servants
come."--_Genesis_. That is, "_some food_." "There are _fishes_ that have
wings, and are not strangers to the airy region."--_Locke's Essay_, p.
322. That is, "_some fishes_."
"Words in which nothing but the _mere being_ of any thing is implied, are
used without articles: as, 'This is not _beer_, but _water_;' 'This is not
_brass_, but _steel_.'"--See _Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 5.
_An_ or _a_ before the genus, may refer to _a whole species_; and _the_
before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as, "_A
certain bird_ is termed _the cuckoo_, from _the sound_ which it
emits."--_Blair_.
But _an_ or _a_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _unknown_, or as
not specially distinguished from others: as, "I see _an object_ pass by,
which I never saw till now; and I say, 'There goes _a beggar_ with _a long
beard_.'"--_Harris_.
And _the_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _known_, or as
specially distinguished from others: as, "_The man_ departs, and returns a
week after; and I say, 'There goes _the beggar_ with _the long
beard_.'"--_Id._
The article _the_ is applied to nouns of cither number: as, "_The_ man,
_the_ men;" "_The_ good boy, _the_ good boys."
_The_ is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as
nouns: as, "_The young_ are slaves to novelty; _the old_, to custom."--_Ld.
Kames._
The article _an_ or _a_ implies _unity_, or _one_, and of course belongs to
nouns of the singular number only; as, _A_ man,--_An_ old man,--_A_ good
boy.
_An_ or _a_, like _one_, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an
adjective of number, when the noun following is plural; as, _A few days,--A
hundred men,--One hundred pounds sterling_.
Articles should be _inserted_ as often as the sense requires them; as,
"Repeat the preterit and [_the_] perfect participle of the verb _to
abide_."--Error in _Merchant's American School Grammar_, p. 66.
_Needless articles_ should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the
sense: as, "_The_ Rhine, _the_ Danube, _the_ Tanais, _the_ Po, _the_ Wolga,
_the_ Ganges, like many hundreds of similar _names_, rose not from any
obscure jargon or irrational dialect."--Error in _Dr. Murray's Hist. of
Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 327.
The articles can seldom be put _one for the other_, without gross
impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it
better suits the sense: as, "_The_ violation of this rule never fails to
hurt and displease _a_ reader."--Error in _Blair's Lectures_, p. 107. Say,
"_A_ violation of this rule never fails to displease _the_ reader."
CLASSES.
The articles are distinguished as the _definite_ and the _indefinite_.
I. The _definite article_ is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or
things; as, _The_ boy, _the_ oranges.
II. The _indefinite article_ is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a
kind, but not any particular one; as, _A_ boy, _an_ orange.
MODIFICATIONS.[133]
The English articles have no modifications, except that _an_ is shortened
into _a_ before the sound of a consonant; as, "In _an_ epic poem, or _a_
poem upon _an_ elevated subject, _a_ writer ought to avoid raising _a_
simile on _a_ low image."--_Ld. Kames._
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by
reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these
definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied; none, oftener
omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate
both their _uses_ and their _abuses_; with the hope that every reader of
this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is
requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of
the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax.
OBS. 2.--With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle,
Wells,[134] Weld, Butler Frazee, Perley, Mulligan, Pinneo, S. S. Greene,
and other writers, to _degrade_ the article from its ancient rank among the
parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject,
can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an "_adjective_,"
as they would have it to be; but it is a word of a peculiar sort--a
_customary index_ to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the
extent of signification, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the
principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have
the sense and construction of a noun. There is just as much reason to deny
and degrade the Greek or French article, (or that of any other language,)
as the English; and, if those who are so zealous to reform our _the, an_,
and _a_ into _adjectives_, cared at all to appear consistent in the view of
Comparative or General Grammar, they would either set about a wider
reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this.
OBS. 3.--First let it be understood, that _an_ or _a_ is nearly equivalent
in meaning to the numeral adjective _one_, but less emphatic; and that
_the_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective _that_ or
_those_, but less emphatic. On _some_ occasions, these adjectives may well
be substituted for the articles; but _not generally_. If the articles were
generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally _like_
them, they would _be_ adjectives; but, that adjectives may occasionally
supply their places, is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of
speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that _a,
an_, and _the_, do differ considerably from the other words which they most
resemble, is shown even by some who judge "the distinctive name of
_article_ to be useless." See _Crombie's Treatise_, Chap. 2. The articles
therefore must be distinguished, not only from adjectives, but from each
other. For, though both are _articles_, each is an index _sui generis_; the
one definite, the other indefinite. And as the words _that_ and _one_
cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the
definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable.
To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one _meaning_
for an other: "_A_ daughter of _a_ poor man"--"_The_ daughter of _the_ poor
man"--"_A_ daughter of _the_ poor man"--and, "_The_ daughter of _a_ poor
man," are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct
significations. This difference between the two articles may be further
illustrated by the following example: "That Jesus was _a_ prophet sent from
God, is one proposition; that Jesus was _the_ prophet, _the_ Messiah, is an
other; and, though he certainly was both _a_ prophet and _the_ prophet, yet
_the_ foundations of _the_ proof of these propositions are separate and
distinct."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 105.
OBS. 4.--Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of
objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be
found entire in every individual, the several objects thus arranged under
one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a
numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun,
expressive of plurality; as, _horse, horses_. Proper nouns in their
ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular
individuals; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an
individual person or thing as distinguished from all others, so there is in
general none to this class of nouns; and no room for _further restriction
by articles_. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual
signification, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural
form; as, "I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding
whether I had it from _an Aristotle_ or _a Zoilus, a Newton_ or _a
Descartes_."--_Churchill's Gram._, Pref., p. 8. "It is not enough to have
_Vitruviuses_, we must also have _Augustuses_ to employ them."--_Bicknell's
Gram._, Part ii, p. 61.
"_A Daniel_ come to judgment! yea, _a Daniel_!"
--SHAK. _Shylock_.
"Great Homer, in _th' Achilles_, whom he drew,
Sets not that one sole Person in our View."
--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 183.
OBS. 5.--The article _an_ or _a_ usually denotes one out of several or
many; one of a sort of which there are more; any one of that name, no
matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is
_directly the reverse_ of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies
and fixes the meaning of both; but while it restricts that of the latter,
it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common
noun to any one individual of the class: as, "_A man_;" that is, "_One
man_, or _any man_." On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the
proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others
to whom it will apply: as, "_A Nero_;" that is, "_Any Nero_, or _any cruel
tyrant_." Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to
leave the idea still particular; but, if it really does so, the propriety
of using it may be doubted: as, "No, not by _a John the Baptist_ risen from
the dead."--_Henry's Expos., Mark_, vi. "It was not solely owing to the
madness and depravity of _a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero_, or _a
Caracalla_, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so
universal."--_M'Ilvaine's Evid._, p. 398.
OBS. 6.--With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes
specifically, sometimes individually, but always _definitely_, always
distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the
particular individual, or the particular species,--or, (if the noun be
plural,) some particular individuals of the species,--as being
distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having
been previously mentioned; sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity
with the thing; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by
subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this
article, that with it the singular number of the noun is often more
comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus,
if I say, "_The horse_ is a noble animal," without otherwise intimating
that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to
embrace collectively _that species_ of animal; and I shall be thought to
mean, "Horses are noble animals." But if I say, "_The horses_ are noble
animals," I use an expression so much more limited, as to include only a
few; it must mean some particular horses, which I distinguish from all the
rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is
occasion for them; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and
ought to be avoided; because the mind naturally delights in terms as
comprehensive as they may be, if also specific. Lindley Murray, though not
uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it necessary
to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the
singular; as, "That _the learners_ may have no doubts."--_Murray's Octavo
Gram._, Vol. i, p. 81. "The business will not be tedious to _the
scholars_."--_Ib._, 81. "For the information of _the learners_."--_Ib._,
81. "It may afford instruction to _the learners_."--_Ib._, 110. "That this
is the case, _the learners_ will perceive by the following
examples."--_Ib._, 326. "Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable
to _the scholars_."--_Ib._, 335.
OBS. 7.--Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always
preceded by the definite article; as, "_The Wesleys_,"--"_The twelve
Caesars_,"--"_All the Howards_." So the names of particular nations, tribes,
and sects; as, _The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics_. Likewise
the plural names of mountains; as, _The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees,
the Andes_. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate
tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names,
they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and
accordingly they are always written with capitals; but they partake so
largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which
class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the
article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that
the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper.
"_Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson_, in council great,
And _Jay_, and _Laurens_ oped the rolls of fate;
_The Livingstons_, fair freedoms generous band,
_The Lees, the Houstons_, fathers of the land."--_Barlow_.
OBS. 8.--In prose, the definite article is always used before names of
rivers, unless the word _river_, be added; as, _The Delaware, the Hudson,
the Connecticut_. But if the word _river_ be added, the article becomes
needless; as, _Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river_. Yet there
seems to be no impropriety in using both; as, _The Delaware river, the
Hudson river, the Connecticut river_. And if the common noun be placed
before the proper name, the article is again necessary; as, _The river
Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut_. In the first form of
expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by
grammarians as relating to the proper name; but these examples, and others
of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, "_The_ [river]
_Potomac_"--"_The_ [ship] _Constitution_,"--"_The_ [steamboat] _Fulton_."
Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be
parsed alike; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or
understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative.
But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the
proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some
names of rivers could not be understood; as,
"No more _the Varus_ and _the Atax_ feel
The lordly burden of the Latian keel."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i. l. 722.
OBS. 9.--The definite article is often used by way of eminence, to
distinguish some particular individual emphatically, or to apply to him
some characteristic name or quality: as, "_The Stagirite_,"--that is,
Aristotle; "_The Psalmist_," that is, David; "_Alexander the Great_,"--that
is, (perhaps,) Alexander the Great _Monarch_, or Great _Hero_. So,
sometimes, when the phrase relates to a collective body of men: as, "_The
Honourable, the Legislature_,"--"_The Honourable, the Senate_;"--that is,
"The Honourable _Body_, the Legislature," &c. A similar application of the
article in the following sentences, makes a most beautiful and expressive
form of compliment: "These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O
Lyttleton, _the friend_."--_Thomson_. "The pride of swains Palemon was,
_the generous_ and _the rich_."--_Id._ In this last example, the noun _man_
is understood after "_generous_," and again after "_rich_;" for, the
article being an index to the noun, I conceive it to be improper ever to
construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word. Dr.
Priestley says, "We sometimes _repeat the article_, when the epithet
precedes the substantive; as He was met by _the_ worshipful _the_
magistrates."--_Gram._, p. 148. It is true, we occasionally meet with such
fulsome phraseology as this; but the question is, how is it to be
explained? I imagine that the word _personages_, or something equivalent,
must be understood after _worshipful_, and that the Doctor ought to have
inserted a comma there.
OBS. 10.--In Greek, there is no article corresponding to our _an_ or _a_,
consequently _man_ and _a man_ are rendered alike; the word, [Greek:
anthropos] may mean either. See, in the original, these texts: "There was
_a man_ sent from God," (_John_, i, 6,) and, "What is _man_, that thou art
mindful of him?"--_Heb._, ii, 6. So of other nouns. But the _definite_
article of that language, which is exactly equivalent to our _the_, is a
declinable word, making no small figure in grammar. It is varied by
numbers, genders, and cases; so that it assumes more than twenty different
forms, and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of
_agreement_. But this article in English is perfectly simple, being
entirely destitute of grammatical modifications, and consequently incapable
of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement--a circumstance of
which many of our grammarians seem to be ignorant; since they prescribe a
rule, wherein they say, it "_agrees_," "_may agree_," or "_must agree_,"
with its noun. Nor has the indefinite article any variation of form, except
the change from _an_ to _a_, which has been made for the sake of brevity or
euphony.
OBS. 11.--As _an_ or _a_ conveys the idea of unity, of course it applies to
no other than nouns of the singular number. _An eagle_ is one eagle, and
the plural word _eagles_ denotes more than one; but what could possibly be
meant by "_ans eagles_," if such a phrase were invented? Harris very
strangely says, "The Greeks have no article correspondent to _an_ or _a_,
but _supply its place by a NEGATION of their article_. And even in English,
_where_ the article _a_ cannot be used, as _in_ plurals, _its force is
exprest by the same_ NEGATION."--_Harris's Hermes_, p. 218. What a sample
of grammar is this! Besides several minor faults, we have here a
_nonentity_, a NEGATION _of the Greek article_, made to occupy a place in
language, and to express _force!_ The force of what? Of a plural _an_ or
_a,!_ of such a word as _ans_ or _aes!_ The error of the first of these
sentences, Dr. Blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture.
OBS. 12.--The following rules of agreement, though found in many English
grammars, are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended,
but so badly written as to be scarcely intelligible in any sense: 1. "The
article _a_ or _an agrees_ with nouns _in_ the singular number _only,
individually, or collectively_: as, A Christian, an infidel, a score, a
thousand." 2. "The definite article _the_ may _agree_ with nouns _in the
singular_ AND[135] _plural number_: as, The garden, the houses, the
stars."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 170; 12mo, 139; _Fish's Murray_, 98; _a
Teacher's_, 45. For the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of
the articles, these rules are utterly useless; and for the purpose of
syntactical parsing, or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech,
they are awkward and inconvenient. The syntax of the articles may be much
better expressed in this manner: "_Articles relate to the nouns which they
limit_," for, in English, the bearing of the articles upon other words is
properly that of simple _relation_, or dependence, according to the sense,
and not that of _agreement_, not a similarity of distinctive modifications.
OBS. 13.--Among all the works of earlier grammarians, I have never yet
found a book which taught correctly the _application_ of the two forms of
the indefinite article _an_ or _a_. Murray, contrary to Johnson and
Webster, considers _a_ to be the original word, and _an_ the euphonic
derivative. He says: "_A_ becomes _an_ before a vowel, and before a silent
_h_. But if _the h be_ sounded, _the a only_ is to be used."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 31. To this he adds, in a marginal note, "_A instead of an_ is
_now_ used before words beginning with _u_ long. It is used before _one.
An_ must be used before _words_ WHERE _the h_ is not silent, if the accent
is on the second syllable; as, _an heroic action, an historical
account_."--_Ib._ This explanation, clumsy as it is, in the whole
conception; broken, prolix, deficient, and inaccurate as it is, both in
style and doctrine; has been copied and copied from grammar to grammar, as
if no one could possibly better it. Besides several other faults, it
contains a palpable misuse of the article itself: "_the h_" which is
specified in the second and fifth sentences, is the "_silent h_" of the
first sentence; and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious
solecisms of supposing, "_if the [silent] h be sounded_," and of _locating
"words WHERE the [silent] h is not silent!_" In the word _humour_, and its
derivatives, the _h_ is silent, by all authority except Webster's; and yet
these words require _a_ and not _an_ before them.
OBS. 14.--It is the _sound_ only, that governs the form of the article, and
not the _letter_ itself; as, "Those which admit of the regular form, are
marked with _an_ R."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 101. "_A_ heroic poem, written
by Virgil."--_Webster's Dict._ "Every poem of the kind has no doubt _a_
historical groundwork."--_Philological Museum_, Vol. i, p. 457. "A poet
must be _a_ naturalist and _a_ historian."--_Coleridge's Introduction_, p.
111. Before _h_ in an unaccented syllable, either form of the article may
be used without offence to the ear; and either may be made to appear
preferable to the other, by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or
less degree. But as the _h_, though ever so feebly aspirated has
_something_ of a consonant sound, I incline to think the article in this
case ought to conform to the general principle: as, "_A historical_
introduction has, generally, _a happy_ effect to rouse attention."--
_Blair's Rhet._, p. 311. "He who would write heroic poems, should make his
whole life _a heroic_ poem."--See _Life of Schiller_, p. 56. Within two
lines of this quotation, the biographer speaks of "_an_ heroic multitude!"
The suppression of the sound of _h_ being with Englishmen a very common
fault in pronunciation, it is not desirable to increase the error, by using
a form of the article which naturally leads to it. "How often do we hear
_an air_ metamorphosed into _a hair_, a _hat_ into a _gnat_, and a _hero_
into _a Nero!_"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 205. Thus: "Neither of them had
that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror _an
hero._"--_Bolingbroke, on History_, p. 174.
OBS. 15.--Some later grammarians are still more faulty than Murray, in
their rules for the application of _an_ or _a_. Thus Sanborn: "The vowels
are _a, e, i, o_, and _u_. _An_ should be used before words beginning with
_any of these letters_, or with a silent _h._"--_Analytical Gram._, p. 11.
"_An_ is used before words beginning with _u_ long or with _h not silent_,
when the accent is on the second syllable; as, _an united_ people, _an
historical_ account, _an heroic_ action."--_Ib._, p. 85. "_A_ is used when
the next word begins with a _consonant; an_, when it begins with a _vowel_
or silent _h_."--_lb._, p. 129. If these rules were believed and followed,
they would greatly multiply errors.
OBS. 16.--Whether the word _a_ has been formed from _an_, or _an_ from _a_,
is a disputed point--or rather, a point on which our grammarians dogmatize
differently. This, if it be worth the search, must be settled by consulting
some genuine writings of the twelfth century. In the pure Saxon of an
earlier date, the words _seldom occur_; and in that ancient dialect _an_, I
believe, is used only as a declinable numerical adjective, and _a_ only as
a preposition. In the thirteenth century, both forms were in common use, in
the sense now given them, as may be seen in the writings of Robert of
Gloucester; though some writers of a much later date--or, at any rate,
_one_, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, a Scottish bishop, who died of the
plague in London, in 1522--constantly wrote _ane_ for both _an_ and _a_:
as,
"Be not ouer studyous to spy _ane_ mote in myn E,
That in gour awin _ane_ ferrye bot can not se."
--_Tooke's Diversions_, Vol. i, p. 124.
"_Ane_ uthir mache to him was socht and sperit;
Bot thare was _nane_ of all the rout that sterit."
--_Ib._, Vol. i, p. 160.
OBS. 17.--This, however, was a _Scotticism_; as is also the use of _ae_ for
_a_: Gower and Chaucer used _an_ and _a_ as we now use them. The Rev. J. M.
M'Culloch, in an English grammar published lately in Edinburgh, says, "_A_
and _an_ were originally _ae_ and _ane_, and were probably used at first
simply to convey the idea of unity; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox."--_Manual of E.
Gram._, p. 30. For this idea, and indeed for a great part of his book, he
is indebted to Dr. Crombie; who says, "To signify unity, or one of a class,
our forefathers employed _ae_ or _ane_; as, _ae_ man, _ane_ ox."--_Treatise
on Etym. and Synt._, p. 53. These authors, like Webster, will have _a_